Read then write

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

What is Computer Ethics?

Alice E. Fischer

September 3, 2015

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 1/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society The Cyprus Problem Genocide and Murder

Ethics and the Law

Ethical Theories A Universal Ethic Short Essay 5: Messy Situations

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 2/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society

Society is Based on Trust The Cyprus Problem Genocide and Murder

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 3/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Society is Based on Trust

We live in a society; almost all people do.

I Within our society, the ideal is to have and to guarantee personal freedom.

I But freedom is always relative. In the words of a well known saying – Your freedom stops where my nose begins.

I Every society depends on its free citizens to follow common rules that govern the peace and security of people and property.

I When compliance stops, instability, unrest, anarchy, and civil war follow.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 4/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Ethical Codes Enable Trust

I Codes of acceptable behavior come in many forms: I professional codes of ethics, I religious law, I political law, I international law, I universal ethical standards that transcend all of those forms.

I All such codes are intended as a basis for a society in which people can carry on their daily lives without fear of being attacked or cheated or harmed by others.

I Civilized society needs this level of trust in order to function.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 5/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

The Cyprus Problem

When Trust Fails: The Island of Cyprus

I For as long as anyone can remember, Cyprus has been home to people of both Turkish and Greek descent, maintaining their own languages, religions, and cultures.

I Until 1960, the island was a colony of the United Kingdom, with the two factions coexisting peacefully, often sharing schools, playgrounds, and communities.

I A militant Greek minority waged guerilla warfare against Great Britain, leading to the establishment of an independent Cypriot government.

I In 1960, Britain gave Cyprus independence. A series of treaties established a government and a constitution for the island that gave the Greek majority many rights, but not the right to seek unification with Greece.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 6/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

The Cyprus Problem

The Nation of Cyprus

I After independence, the Greek militants did not disarm because they did not like the terms of the treaties: they wanted to become part of Greece.

I In 1962, the Greek majority of the government amended the constitution to remove all guarantees of freedom and safety for the Turkish minority.

I In December 1963, Greek Cypriots dressed as policemen stopped a party of Turkish Cypriots returning home and sprayed their vehicle with machine gun fire. One pregnant woman survived long enough to tell friends what had happened.

This broke the long-standing but fragile trust between the two ethnic groups.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 7/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

The Cyprus Problem

The Trust was Broken

I More Greek “policemen” started attempting to disarm the Turks, and battle commenced.

I On Christmas day, the Greek army joined the Greek Cypriot fighters. In the space of four days, 30,000 Cypriot Turks were forced to leave 103 villages.

I Turkish Cypriots demanded protection, fled communities that were mostly Greek, set up their own walled communities, and tried to defend them.

I Civil war ensued; Greece urged the United Nations to intercede, claiming that the Turks were the problem and the only ones who did not want peace. (This is true, if you define “peace” to mean total Greek control.)

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 8/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

The Cyprus Problem

No Man’s Land In 1964, the United Nations sent a peace force to the island.

I The island was partitioned. An unofficial line, the “green line”, was established between the Greeks on the south and the Turks on the north.

I That line became an official border in 1983 when Turkey unilaterally declared the independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,

I This freed Turkey of any responsibility for the education and social welfare of the impoverished Turkish Cypriots. However, the Turkish army still defends the island, and drafts Turkish Cypriots into the army.

Nobody benefited, and today, nearly fifty years later, there is still no sane peace on Cyprus.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 9/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Genocide and Murder

Genocide in Rwanda and Burundi

I Hutus (majority) and Tutsis (minority, in power) lived side-by-side for hundreds of years in central Africa. They spoke the same language, followed the same Tutsi king, and intermarried. The country became independent and split into two countries in 1962, Rwanda (Hutu) and Burundi (Tutsi).

I In 1994, hundreds of thousands of Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed. Then Tutsis won control, and a million Hutus fled into nearby countries. Burundi was also consumed by civil war. 150 thousand people were killed, mostly Tutsi civilians.

I The Tutsis gained power in 1996. Since then, 1100 civilians were killed, mostly Hutu refugees.

I Refugees returned home in 2007, but will there be peace? Will anybody trust anybody?

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 10/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Genocide and Murder

Northern Ireland

Catholics (minority, nationalist anti-monarchy) vs. Protestants (majority loyalist pro-monarchy).

I Ireland was partitioned in 1921, with loyalists in the north and nationalists in the south.

I However, a substantial part of Northern Ireland was dominated by nationalists, setting the scene for civil war. Weapons were supplied by Irish-Americans and smuggled into the civil war zone.

I Between 1969 and 1997, over 3,600 people were killed and over 40,000 people were injured in bombings and shootings, in Northern Ireland and Great Britain.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 11/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Genocide and Murder

A Slow End to the Irish Civil War

I In 1994, the first officially sanctioned public peace talks took place between Sinn Fein and British Officials.

I A peace agreement was signed in 1998, but disarmament did not happen until 2006.

I Local government was restored to Northern Ireland in May 2007.

I Commerce and some level of normalcy has returned to Northern Ireland.

I This month, the former leader of the IRA shook hands with Queen Elizabeth, a symbolic move.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 12/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Genocide and Murder

Iraq

I Iraq: Sunnis vs. Shiites. The Sunni minority was in control for 25 years.

I They slaughtered tens of thousands of Shiites and Kurds and dumped them in mass graves.

I Now the Shiites are slaughtering Sunnis and Iran is supporting them.

I Peace does not look near. Trust may never come.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 13/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Ethics and the Law

Ethics != Law Situational Ethics and Relativism

Utilitarianism A Universal Ethic

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 14/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Ethics != Law

Ethics is not the same as Law:

I Ethics goes further: Professional codes of ethics go far beyond laws in defining appropriate professional behavior.

I We try to find universal ethical principles. Laws are not universal. Hitler wanted to live in a society without Jews, and a lot of people were willing to go along with that. Gassing Jews was legal at that time. We would not agree, however, that it was right, moral, or ethical.

I Even after laws are enacted, people often argue militantly that they violate basic ethical principles.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 15/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Ethics != Law

Most of the things we do

Actions considered by the minority to

be wrong

Actions considered by the minority to

be right or good

Actions we agree are bad

Ethical Not Ethical Le

ga l

N ot

L eg

al

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 16/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Both Legal and Ethical

Most of the things we do are both legal and ethical. People don’t argue about these things:

I Buying a home or a car or a computer.

I Going to school to learn a profession.

I A man and a woman getting married when both are adult and sane.

I Breeding plants to produce disease-resistant strains (as long as we don’t introduce genes from other plants).

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 17/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Neither Legal nor Ethical

Most civilized people find these things repugnant. There is little debate:

I Leaving a new baby in a dumpster

I Using a child for sex

I Holding a suspected child molester in jail without charging that person with any crime.

I Keeping 40 pit bull terriers in stacks of small unheated cages for breeding. (East Haven, 2010.)

I Going to school to learn bomb-making and terrorism

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 18/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Today’s Ethical Issues

Many controversial things are legal, or legal in some places but not others. People argue about whether these things are ethical:

I Abortion on demand (and picketing Planned Parenthood offices).

I The death penalty

I The war against terrorism

I Genetically modifying plants that will enter our food chain

I Testing cosmetics for safety by rubbing them in the eyes of rabbits

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 19/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Today’s Legal Issues

Many things are clearly not legal, but large numbers of people think they should be.

I Smoking anywhere you feel like smoking

I Growing, selling, and smoking pot

I Music file-sharing

I Stem cell research (using fetal tissues procured by abortion)

I Universal, publicly subsidized, affordable, health care

These issues form the battleground of political activists.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 20/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Laws

I Civil authorities create laws when the heavy majority of their citizens believe that a new law is both needed and right.

I A government cannot enforce a law that is not supported by the people. All power derives from the consent of the governed. [John Locke]

I The tyranny of the majority then becomes a problem. It could happen that the majority of the citizens support a law or a governmental action (such as war against ISIS or same-sex marriage). If the minority is heavily convinced that the law is unfair or wrong, or the action is evil, what happens?

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 21/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Civil Disobedience

If a minority is convinced that a law is unfair or wrong, or evil –

I In a free society, they protest, write, talk and argue.

I They may or may not sway the majority.

I In frustration, some extremists may “take the law into their own hands” and protest in some illegal way, sometimes believing that it will get attention for their cause. [Think of the civil rights movement of the 1960’s.]

I Often, the majority opinion changes, but slowly. Sometimes an opposing force arises with its own screaming and shouting. [Think of the battles over abortion, with two sides equally militant.]

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 22/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Professional Ethics Many ethical issues go beyond the law – existing laws simply do not govern them. This is the territory of professional ethics.

I The proper relationship between employer and employee: duty and loyalty

I Use of professional knowledge and skills to benefit society, not harm others.

I Your responsibility to follow best practices in your profession.

I Your responsibility when you learn about illegal or unprofessional acts by others.

I Your responsibility with the information that you control.

I Your responsibility, as a world citizen, to others and to the environment.

These issues are the topics of this course.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 23/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Informal Ethical Theories

I Common sense and Mom.

I Situational Ethics: if it feels good, do it.

I Ethical Egoism: It is OK if it benefits me the most.

I Subjective Relativism: Morality is an individual’s own creation.

I Cultural Relativism: Each society determines its own morality.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 24/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Common sense doesn’t work

I “Everybody knows” what is right and what is wrong. We can all tell good from evil. [Uh... but that is simply not true! What about the woman who drowned her children?]

I The mom test: It’s OK if you would be willing to tell Mom about it. [My mom, maybe, but what about the mom who drove the getaway car when her under-16 son wanted to rob a store?]

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 25/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Situational ethics: it’s OK if it seems OK at the time

The problem is, times change, opinions change, and people change.

I A young person went to a clinic for an abortion. People were outside yelling and screaming “murderer”. At the time, though, she thought it was the right thing to do, and went into the clinic for the procedure.

I Later she told her friend that she now believes she is a murderer.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 26/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Ethical Egoism

I I seems OK to do this, I can’t think of a good reason not to . . .

I This act supports my larger political agenda. [Hackers who download and post personal data].

I What kind of society do I want to live in? An act is right if it is consistent with that kind of society. [The Cypriot Turks want to live in a society without Greeks. Does that make it ethical to drive out the Greeks?]

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 27/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Subjective Relativism

Morality is an individuals own creation.

I I think that waste is wrong. Does that mean you should not throw out food?

I My idea of morality changes slowly as times change.

I Can we ever really agree on a meaningful set of principles?

Relativism == moral anarchy

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 28/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Cultural Relativism

What kind of society do my neighbors and friends want to live in?

I This ethical theory makes law and ethics almost synonyms.

I We know that laws change constantly to reflect the way of life desired by the majority.

I But do we want our idea of ethics to be that wishy-washy?

I Does right and wrong depend on the time and place? [Is it ethical, now, to use contraceptives? was it not ethical 50 years ago when they were illegal in Massachusetts?] [Is it moral or immoral to work on Sunday? In 1960, it was illegal in Massachusetts.]

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 29/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

A Universal Ethic

Formal Ethical Theories

I Objectivism: Ayn Rand. Rational self-interest: the purpose of life is pursuit of one’s own happiness

I Divine command theory: God provided guidelines through holy books. Organized religions may disagree on right and wrong. [Is it right to suicide-bomb a synagogue?]

I Utilitarianism: OK if it increases the total happiness of the world.

I Kantianism: The effect of my acts on others is centrally important.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 30/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

A Universal Ethic

Objectivism: Ayn Rand and Rational Self-Interest

This is the favored philosophy of the libertarian movement.

I Human beings use senses to perceive reality, that exists independently of consciousness.

I One can gain knowledge from perception through concept formation and logic.

I The proper moral purpose of one’s life is the pursuit of one’s own happiness.

I The only social system consistent with this morality is laissez-faire capitalism.

I Altruism can and should be consistent with self interest.

Question: Is it ethical for a CEO’s salary to be 400 times that of his lowest-paid full time worker?

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 31/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

A Universal Ethic

Divine Command Theory

Our holy books tell us how to live, but there are problems:

I We need ethics for athiests, also.

I What if one holy book conflicts with another?

I What if it conflicts with parts of itself?

I These writings are heavily interpreted by our current “experts”. The resulting opinions vary over time.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 32/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

A Universal Ethic

Utilitarianism

The most good for the most people

I Problem: the prisoner’s life. According to this theory, a condemned prisoner should be killed and his organs harvested for transplant, as soon as enough recipients have been identified with the matching genotype. So is it right to kill because several others will benefit?

I Watch the movie “Breaker Morant” for a thorough consideration of executing one man to save many lives.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 33/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

A Universal Ethic

A Universal Good?

Can we find a universal definition of “good” and “right”?

I Is there even one thing that everyone on Earth can agree about?

I Possibly the worst human act is murder. However, Saddam Hussein, Stalin, and Hitler all believed that society would be better if certain groups of people were eliminated, and they acted aggressively on that belief.

I There are people today who believe that killing is wrong, in general, but it is right to kill group xxx or people who have done yyyy, or babies that are unwanted.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 34/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

A Universal Ethic

Kant Tried to Define Good without God

The golden rule was “improved” by Immanuel Kant

I Kant’s categorical imperative: “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.”

I “Other people” are ends in themselves. Is it because people are different from dogs? Is this based on the idea that people have a soul or self-consciousness?

I What about other living things?

I Where does this imperative end?

I Is it OK to eat a hamburger? a soybean? a carrot?

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 35/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Short Essay 5: Messy Situations

Short Essay 5

Choose one of the following “messy situations”. Use the internet to learn about the events and issues.

I Barbie with a brain records everything the child says.

I TV’s that spy on you and send the info “home”.

I The Internet of Things: developments and problems.

I VW diesel car emissions

I The cost of an old drug: Epipen

I Or propose your own “messy situation” and submit it to me for approval.

(continued on the next slide)

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 36/37

Outline Mutual Trust is the Basis of Society Ethics and the Law Ethical Theories

Short Essay 5: Messy Situations

Instructions

Write one or two paragraphs describing the issue in moderate detail, including names, companies, dates, etc. Then write four more paragraphs about:

I An action that was legal and ethical.

I An action that was legal but not ethical.

I An action that was ethical but not legal.

I An action that was not ethical and not legal.

Support all your statements with facts.

Law, Trust, and Ethics. . . 37/37