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Koryo: Military Rule, Social and Political Controversies
1. Lee, P H, 190
2. Lee, P H, 191
The military rule in Koryo was marred by many controversies surrounding the officers who were in power. It marked significant political and social changes in the country which remained until the emergence of General Ch’oe Ch’unghon (1149-1219).1 The military rule itself began after the 1170 military coup after which rebellious officers took power and destabilized the rule. During the reign of General Ch’oe Ch”unghon and his subsequent successors, there were efforts to regain political and social stability through a number of mechanisms. These included recruitment of personnel and involvement of civilians in the management of the government. During this period, the General’s house grew and gained considerable significance. This was mainly observed in its ability to crush other small internal rebellions such as the uprising of rebellious slaves, monks and peasants who wanted to take advantage of the political unrest to air their grievances and own gains.1
The invasion of Koryo by the Mongol in the 13th century was another big challenge to the military rulers. The military of Koryo suffered defeat by the Mongol and filed a suit for peace after the fall of General Ch’oe Ch’unghon’s house. The relation between Koryo and Mongol, however, still remained hostile. The strength of Mongol diminished and the Koryo adopted anti-Mongol policies which were backed up by the emergence of the Neo-Confucian reformers. These reforms became a threat to Buddhism which was the belief system of the old order. The reformers wanted to establish a new system of governance, based on Confucianism.
Prior the military coup of 1170, the Koryo kingdom was under civilian rule.2 However, after the coup, this form of governance was replaced by military rule characterized by the hunger for power by the military heads. The coup was led by Chong Chungbu, who was from an old family of military generals. Together with his subordinates, Yi Uibang and Yi Ko, he overthrew the king and attacked those who were antagonistic to the military. He constructed a new order using both military officials and civil officials who were high ranking and were in agreement to his leadership. The problem that came with this military rule was the hunger for power among the military generals. Another general Ch’oe Ch”unghon salvaged the situation by establishing a new order in 1196 which lasted until his death. His leadership was succeeded through his son Ui, grandson Hang and great grandson Ui.2
It is evident that the establishment of the military rule in the Koryo kingdom came with more negative impact than the positive impact on its stability. Ranging from bad relationship between the civilians and the military to power struggle in General Ch’oe Ch’unghon’s family, it can be observed that the civilian rule of the kingdom was more peaceful. There is an element of opportunism for the military. Upon overthrowing the king, the military were eager to take power, but were unclear about who should take power. The slaves and peasants wanted to take advantage of the political instability for their own gains. The Mongol invasion was not informed by a main goal since it did not last-it could not withstand the adversity of the Koryo’s quest for independent identity.
Upon establishing his rule, General Ch’oe Ch’unghon made steps towards rectifying the past damages. He presented a memorial-a Confucian document-which was a reprimand to the king for his leniency and allowing for rule without diligent officials.3 He worked towards building a lasting order in the dynasty which was centered at his family, Ch’oe. He had two organizations through which he managed the affairs of the government, the Directorate General of Policy Formation and the Personnel Authority. The work of the Directorate General of Policy
2. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 191
2. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 191
3. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 192
Formation was to coordinate the implementation of decrees for the house of Ch’oe while the Personnel Authority oversaw the personnel matters under Ch’oe. High-value men in the Personnel Authority enjoyed stipends and land grants because they formed the high caliber group and held offices in the government besides the Personnel Authority. A group of scholars also worked with the Personnel Authority.
In the military, Ch’oe’s private forces were gaining influence at the dawn of his rule. A unit called Personal Security Forces (Tobang), created by Kyong Taesung was strengthened by Ch’oe 20 years after its creation.3 This unit served as his bodyguard. His son, U, nurtured a private army that took the place of the regular troops.3 Financially, Ch’oe was growing strong. He used the traditional land as a means of paying the military and civilian personnel. He took advantage of this for his own gains and during all the time of military rule, his family owned the largest pieces of land and estates in the southern provinces.
Several observations can be made from Ch’oe Ch’unghon’s rule. At the beginning of his rule, he had very good intentions for growing a stable system of government. By establishing the Directorate General of Policy Formation and the Personnel Authority, he made running of the kingdom more efficient. Involvement of examined scholars ensured better decisions. However, as he grew more powerful militarily, he began to abuse his office by using the traditional land for personal gain in disguise of paying the military. This was a show of greed rather than leadership which he had succeeded at the beginning of his rule. There was also belief in taboos as shown by the letter submitted to the king by Ch’oe Ch’ungon and Ch’oe Ch’ungsu. King T’aejo believed in taboos and could not occupy the palace which was rebuilt after being burnt.4 Despite being under military rule, there were social developments in Koryo kingdom.
3. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 192
4. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 195
One of them was education. This came under King Ch’ungson (1308-1313).5 He observed that the scholars of his time were studying under Buddhists and Monks and considered their education not benefitting the kingdom. He said that they studied to “…become skilled in composition. Why is that?”5 He compared the former education level of Koryo kingdom to that of China, citing that they were equal. The reply of Yi Ch’ehyon was that King T’aejo had established a good education system that encouraged development of talents. Schools were in both countryside and the capital. The government provided food for the students. However, this system of education was shattered when military revolution destroyed everything forcing the survivors to dwell as Buddhists in the mountains. Even after restoration of civilian rule, those who wanted to study could not find where to go and remained, following Buddhists for education.
Slave rebellions hit Koryo beginning with the group led by Mangi which burnt the Honggyong Monastery and killed some of the resident monks. They then made the head monk deliver a letter to the capital. The contents of the letter were complaints of Mangi about his oppression in which the government arrested his wife and mother and failed to honor promoting of his locality into a county. He vowed neither to give up in his struggle nor accept to be a prisoner.6 The slave group of Mangi was not the only revolution by slaves. During the first year of King Sinjong, his private slave Manjok and six others plotted a revolt. He gathered both private and public slaves and organized how they were going to stage the revolt.7 He had observed that those who rose to powerful positions in the government had once been slaves. However, their plot was revealed by private slaves to Han Ch’ungyu to his master who reported to Ch’oe Ch’unghon. Manjok and other slaves were seized and drowned in a river.
5. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 198
6. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 199
7. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 200
Koryo kingdom suffered under Mongol invasion in 1231.8 It was brought under Mongol dynasty during which it underwent Mongolization. Its culture gradually changed as the royal house was forced to intermarry with the Yuan imperial household. Koryo offered a strong resistance to the Mongol with the help of slaves. However, the slaves used this as a chance to redress their grievances thereby increasing tension within the kingdom. The Mongol invasion came to an end when the court of Koryo was capitulated. Koryo’s recovery from the Mongol invasion and establishing new reforms tell a lot about the dynasty. First, it offered the longest and most powerful resistance than anyone could offer. Upon its recovery, its leaders launched reforms that completely removed the control of the Mongol.
Reforms under King Kongmin can be regarded as positive and development oriented. He chose a noble man, Sin Ton, who did not have greed for affluence to head the state affairs. The previous officials went after fame and even forgot about their humble past. The Confucianists, on the other hand, formed factions and engaged in favoritism.9
Koryo underwent several transformations throughout its military rule from the time of the coup in 1170, to invasion by the Mongol and its recovery and new reforms by King Kongmin. It was a resilient kingdom, being able to resist fiercely its enemies, establishing a system of education and restoration of the state property that had been seized by private individuals. Close examination of the events leading to its re-establishment can be used by any present state to ensure her perpetual continuity. The kingdom suffered both internal and external attacks but was able to recover from all.
8. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 201
9. Lee and Theodore De Bary, 206
