Zen Buddhism 8

8 Ikkyu and Koans A L E X A N D E R KABANOFF

An Eccentric Monk of the Muromachi Er a Ikkyu Sqju n (1394-1481 ) wa s on e o f th e mos t famou s Ze n monk s i n Muromachi-era Japan (1333-1573) because of his unconventional and eccen - tric behavio r (no t b y chanc e h e ofte n calle d himsel f Kyoun , th e "Craz y Cloud"), hi s unorthodox views , and hi s artistic abilities . His reputation a s a popular hero of amusing stories has long been preserved, and his life story has been enriched by legends and anecdotes that are well-known among Japanes e children today. We will examine Ikkyu's role as an original thinker and a versa- tile poe t wh o lef t a collectio n o f poem s i n Chines e writin g o r kanbun, th e Kyoun-shu (An Anthology of the Crazy Cloud), many of which deal with tradi- tional Zen koans in innovative and creative ways.

Writing poetr y i n Chines e wa s a commo n practic e fo r man y Japanes e monks, who lef t a n enormous legacy known as gozan bungaku or th e "litera - ture of the Five Mountains" o f medieval Zen monasticism. But Ikkyu's poetry contrasts strikingly with the typically formal works of gozan poets, who sought to pursue Chinese standards of secular poetry rather than to promote religious values. As a result, gozan poetry was often fossilized an d artificial . In Ikkyu' s poems, however , we find a somewhat clumsy and les s refined, but a t the same time a much more sincere an d individualisti c manner o f writing. Robust an d sometimes shocking revelations make Ikkyu's collection a t once mor e attrac - tive and more embarrassing than most of the works of his contemporaries. I n particular, th e treatment of traditional Buddhis t subjects in the poems is origi- nal, highly personal, and paradoxical.1

Hardly anyon e befor e or afte r Ikky u used poetry t o suc h a n exten t a s an expression of the most intimate feelings, spiritual turmoil, or reflections on the meaning of life. Hi s poems are not purely didactic considerations o r admoni - tions, though in part they were written exactly for that purpose, a s is apparent from som e o f th e titles . Rathe r the y ar e eloquen t disclosure s o f hi s never- ending search for the Absolute, without any hope o f finding a final solution,

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214 THE KOAN

and the y have no pee r amon g gozan poetry . The poem s ar e permeated wit h despair an d anger , accusation s agains t th e vice s o f fello w monk s an d othe r countrymen, and nostalgic praise for the blessed, golden age of former Chinese or Japanese Ze n masters. The Kyoun-shu a s a whole may be labeled a "poeti c confession o f faith" o r a "picaresque autobiography. " I t abound s i n deep re- flections on Zen philosophical principle s an d memorable events from th e his- tory of the sect , as well as self-criticism and even overtly erotic verses.

However, graspin g th e meanin g o f Ikkyu' s poetry , composed i n verse s of four line s wit h a tota l o f twenty-eigh t Sino-Japanes e characters , sometime s seems quite difficul t o r nearl y impossible becaus e o f the repeate d us e of th e same characters with various meanings, as well as hidden allusions or uncom- mon expressions which seem to reflect an absence of any direct, logical connec- tion between each o f the four lines . Scholars an d translator s frequentl y argue about th e intention an d exact meaning of his poems an d try to trace an d dis - mantle possibl e source s b y browsing throug h standar d Ze n writing s o r th e verses o f classica l Chines e poets . However , even if certain line s are convinc - ingly prove d a s intentional borrowings , the whol e meaning ma y stil l remai n elusive. Therefore onl y a n exhaustiv e reading o f famous Ch'an/Ze n writing s can provide a clue to the meaning o f Ikkyu's poetry. These works include the Lin-chi lu (J . Rinzai roku), Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu (J . Keitoku dentorokii), Wu-teng hui-yuan (J . Goto egeri), an d koa n collection s suc h a s th e Wu-men kuan (J . Mumonkan) an d Pi-yen lu (J. Hekiganroku), a s well as the "recorde d sayings" (C. yu-lu, J. goroku) of Hsu-t'ang (Ikky u proclaimed himself the incar - nation o f Hsu-t'ang i n Japan) or of Daio or Daito, the founders of the Daito- kuji branc h of the Rinzai sec t to which Ikkyu belonged.

It i s impossible in one short chapte r t o delineate even in a cursory manner all the possible ways that koans were used in Ikkyu's poetry. I will provide only a fe w examples that sho w Ikkyu's attitude towar d koa n practice , i n additio n to som e cases for which allusions to certai n traditional case s turn th e poem s themselves into koans. 2

Persistent Gratitude towar d Yun-men and Koan Collection s Ikkyu attaine d hi s first satori or Zen awakein g in 1418 . At thi s time, h e was reflecting on a koan dealing with the 60 blows that Tung-shan was said to have promised Yun-men . Nevertheless, Ikkyu' s satori apparentl y occurre d whe n he heard a blind musician chantin g a story from the Heike monogatari about Gio , a concubin e o f the powerfu l Taira Kiyomori ; sh e lost his love and i n distres s became a nun. The extant source s d o not revea l any connection betwee n the Gio story , th e aforementione d k5an , an d Ikkyu' s satori . Becaus e Yun-me n (864-949) wa s implicitl y responsible fo r hi s firs t satori , throughou t hi s lif e Ikkyu fel t much indebted to the Chinese master and ofte n include d overt an d

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covert allusion s t o hi m i n hi s poems . Fo r example , in th e poe m "Wave s o f Peach Blossoms" (no. 35 in the Kyoun-shu) Ikky u wrote:

Along the waves, together with the combers—a lot of red dust . I see again the peach blossoms—in spring of the third moon. Resentment flows by for three lives and sixt y kalpas. Annually, dry gills and scales lay under the sun by the Dragon Gates .

The main images in this poetic koan can be traced to popular Chinese concepts connected with seasonal changes. The phrase "waves of peach blossoms" indi- cates th e thir d month , whe n fallin g peac h petal s cove r th e rive r water . Ac- cording to Chinese beliefs, exactl y at that time carps gathe r before the rapids known as the Dragon Gates, trying to jump over in order to change into drag- ons. The overcoming of the Dragon Gat e i n the Zen tradition became associ- ated with "passing through a barrier," o r the attainment of satori. Ikkyu also includes in his poem a quotation from Yun-men's "turning phrase," "Along the waves, together with the combers. "

The poem pivot s on the koa n fro m th e Pi-yen lu (case 60) that deal s with Vim-men, who raised his staff and announced that i t was a dragon that would swallow heaven and earth. Later on Ytin-men added, "Where will you be able to find mountains, rivers, and the great earth?" The koan is followed by a verse:

This staff swallow s Heaven and Earth , Vain will be the chattering about "waves of peach blossoms." The parch-tailed ones will not grasp clouds and mists, For what purpose did those with dried gills lose their lif e

and soul? 3

A poem (no. 47) under the title "The Hundredth Anniversary of Daito Ko- kushi's Death" evidently hints at a verse in case 24 in the Pi-yen lu:

Many of Buddha's descendants passed through the Main Gates . I alone am wandering among rivers and seas. Where will the next Communal Feast Festival be held? White clouds cook rice on the top of Wu-t'ai-shan mountain.

The case story is about the nun Liu Te-mo, who visited Kuei-shan Lin-yu and was greeted with a belittling question, "Is i t you, old cow, who came to me?" (One has to keep in mind that Kuei-shan called himself "a water buffalo") Mo answered, "Tomorro w wil l b e th e Communa l Feas t Festiva l (C . ta-hui-chai, J. taiesaf) o n Moun t Wu-t'ai , and th e teache r ha s just lef t tha t place. " Kuei- shan la y down and fel l asleep . Mo immediatel y left.4 Sinc e the Si x Dynasties period Mount Wu-t'ai had bee n a popular pilgrimage site where official cere-

2l6 TH E KOAN

monies beseeching for prosperity for the country were held annually . The last line of the verse alludes to a poem by Tung-shan preserved in the Ku-ts'un-su yu-lu (J . Kosonshoku goroku):

Clouds cook rice on the top o f Mount Wu-t'ai-shan. A dog urinates before the steps of the Buddha Hall . A banner-pole is used for frying rice flat-cakes. Three monkeys bolter daybreak through a sieve.

The first two lines in Tung-shan's poem are borrowed, in turn, from case 96 of the Pi-yen lu;5 "Clouds on Mount Wu-t'ai-shan cook rice ; a dog pisses to the sky before the old Buddha hall."5

Another poem in the Kyoun-shu (no . 45) is an illustration o f case no. 8 3 in the Pi-yen lu:1 "While Yiin-men was addressing monks he asked, An ol d Bud- dha an d a nake d pol e ar e communicating . Wha t i s the meanin g o f it? ' H e himself gav e the answer , 'Clouds ris e on th e Souther n Peak ; i t rain s o n th e Northern Mountain. ' " The verse reads:

How can the "Small Bride" marry P'eng-lai? The "cloud-rain" this evening is like in a previous dream. In the morning he is on T'ien-t'ai, and in the evening on Nan-yueh. I wonder, where could I find Shao-yang?

The "Small Bride" i s a tiny island in the Yangtze River in Chiang-hsi prov- ince, and P'eng-la i (initially a mythic island where Taoist immortals abide) is also the name for a rock at the same place on the opposite bank. In the popular imagination th e island an d th e rock were believed to b e spouses . The secon d line contains complex allusive associations. The koan pivot s on the interrela - tion o f two incompatibl e phenomena . A s an answe r to a n illogica l questio n Yun-men use d a n equall y absurd phrase . Ikky u furthe r play s on image s im- plying a love affair an d shift s th e conten t o f the koan int o th e sexua l sphere . The word soko ("to communicate" ) in Yun-men's question also has the mean- ing "to copulate," while in the Chinese tradition the "cloud-rain" is a standar d metaphor fo r a love-union, a phrase often exploite d by Ikkyu in his poetry.

The third line contains the names of two sacred mountains in Chinese Bud- dhism, T'ien-t'ai and Nan-yueh. I t reverses the poetic flow from sexua l associ- ations back int o a religious context. The former mountai n was the abod e of Chih-yi, the patriarch o f the T'ien-t'a i school , whil e the latter wa s a dwelling place o f hi s teache r Hui-ssu . A s a result , th e mountain s ar e separate d b y a small geographica l distanc e ye t preserv e a spiritua l affinit y between maste r and disciple . Modern interprete r Hirano Sqjo suggest s that th e line alludes to a story in the Hsu-t'ang lu: "A monk was asked, 'What is your strategy, if you cannot say anything?' The monk responded, 'I f I am not o n T'ien-t'ai moun-

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tain, I am on Nan-yiieh mountain.' "8 Also, Shao-yang was another nam e of Yun-men, the main characte r o f the koan tha t Ikky u used a s the subjec t for this poem.

Another poem (no . 51 ) has as an introduction a koan stor y tha t was bor- rowed from case no. 82 in the Ts'ungjung lu (I Shoyorokii) collectio n and tha t deals wit h th e mercifu l bodhisattv a Kuan-yi n (J . Kannon) i n on e o f he r 3 3 manifestations: "Concerning the words, 'heard a sound and attained th e Way, saw forms an d purifie d the mind,' Yun-men said, 'Th e bodhisattva Kuan-yi n took th e mone y an d wen t t o bu y millet-cakes. ' The n h e los t hi s hear t an d said: 'However, from the very beginning they were just ordinary dumplings.' "9 Ikkyu interprets the story in the following way:

When Kannon was manifested in the shape of a servant-maid, She fed her spirit dumplings and millet-cakes. Unforgettable are things I "had see n and heard" in former days, Just before me is the person wh o played a flute in Shan-yang.

The poe t trie s t o stres s the lac k o f an y essentia l differenc e between millet- cakes and dumplings , because their only purpose i s "to fee d th e spirit" o f an enlightened person who is not suppose d to make a distinction betwee n these two material objects . The last line recalls words from th e poem "Listenin g t o a Flute in the Fei-ch'eng Garden " by Tou Mu (742-822 ) and als o alludes to an old story from th e Chi n dynasty days. Hsiang Hs u was one of the "Seve n Bamboo Grov e Wisemen. " Whe n he heard abou t th e execution o f his frien d Hsi K'ang in Shan-yang, he broke his lute into pieces. Later on, when passing by Hsi K'ang's former dwelling in Shan-yang, he suddenly heard sound s of a flute, recollected his late friend , and compose d th e "Od e o f Recollections on the Past" (Wen hsiian, vol. 16) .

Implicitly Yun-me n i s also present i n a poem (fro m a n eight-vers e cycle , nos. 432-439) about "Ch'en the Sandals-Maker" :

They babble about th e Way, debate about Zen, multiply profit s and glory.

During the uprising, by his own efforts h e created a fortress of lamentations.

In vain he slammed the door t o break Shao-yang' s leg, But also broke the feelings of itinerant Zen monks.

Ch'en (real name: Chao-chou Tao-tsung, 780-877) inherited the Dharma fro m Huang-po an d live d as a recluse at the Lung-hsing-ssu temple in Chao-chou . According t o a tradition , h e earned a livin g to suppor t hi s aged mothe r b y making straw sandals and selling them. The biography of Mu-chou Tao-tsun g (another nam e was Ch'en Tsun-su ) in th e Wu-teng hui-yuan (vol . 4) reports

2l8 THE KOAN

that whe n th e rebelliou s troop s o f Huang Ch'a o entere d th e city , Mu-cho u produced hug e straw sandals an d hung them o n the city-gate . Huang Ch'a o could not take the sandals off the gate, so he proclaimed Mu-chou a great sage and lef t the city. The Yiin-men (Shao-yang) biography in the Wu-teng hui-yiian, as well as the case in the Pi-yen lu (case no. 6) , contains a story about ho w he thrice cam e t o Mu-cho u askin g fo r a n instruction . Whe n Mu-cho u cried , "Speak, speak! " Yiin-me n go t embarrassed an d Mu-cho u trie d to pus h hi m out. Then th e master slamme d the door wit h such a force tha t i t broke Yiin- men's leg . At tha t moment , Yiin-me n made a loud cr y and attaine d a "grea t awakening."10

Ikkyu's poem starts with a condemnation of Zen discourses and traditiona l koan practice . I n th e nex t lin e h e make s a shif t t o prais e Mu-cho u fo r hi s courage at a critical moment. Perhaps Ikkyu evaluates his behavior during the time of rebellion as being more appropriate whe n considered fro m th e stand - point of Zen teaching. On the other hand, Mu-chou' s arrogan t attitude , glori - fied in many stories , i s treated b y Ikkyu wit h disgus t a s being unnecessaril y cruel. I n othe r poem s Ikkyu consistently condemns simila r rud e methods o f instruction. The last line ironically turns the statement upsid e down in calling the grea t spiritua l experienc e th e "breakin g o f th e feeling s o f itineran t Ze n monks." After many years of wandering and visiting a number of distinguished masters, Yiin-men attained sator i while staying with Mu-chou, bu t he still was rejected an d sen t t o Hsueh-feng , fro m who m h e inherited th e Dharm a seal . The last line may also be interpreted as a capping phrase for the koan .

Yun-men is mentioned again by Ikkyu in a reference to case 8 from th e Pi- yen lu, which introduces poem no. 55: "At the end of summer retreat Ts'ui-yen addressed the community, 'Since the very beginning of the summer I have been talking t o you . Look! Do I stil l have eyebrows left?' Pao-f u said , ' A perso n who become s a robbe r ha s a n uneas y heart. ' 'The y wil l gro w anew, ' sai d Ch'ang-ch'ing. Tak e care! A barrie r [kuan]!' replie d Yiin-men." 11 Ikkyu pro - vides a n elucidatio n o f th e koa n an d mention s Ts'ui-ye n Ling-ts'a n (d . ca . 950), Pao-fu Ts'ung-tie n (d . 928), Ch'ang-ch'ing Hui-ch i (854-932), an d Yun- men Wen-yen (d. 949) in metaphorical form :

"The k5a n o n eyebrows" is like a thorn insid e mud: Pao-fu an d Yiin-men chose the same road . Ch'ang-ch'ing conceale d hi s body, but manifested its reflection. To the south of the tower there is the moon o f the third wake.

The Buddhists believed that a person who distorts the Buddhist Dharma o r Teaching will become a leper, and the first symptom of the disease is the falling out o f eyebrows. Thus Ts'ui-yen' s question about hi s eyebrows is to b e inter- preted i n thi s vein . Pao-f u hint s tha t thos e wh o commi t sin s mus t becom e aware of this consequence Ch'ang-ch'ing tries to reassure the master by prom- ising tha t th e eyebrow s wil l gro w anew , whil e Yiin-men abolishe s th e oppo -

IKKYU AND KOANS 219

sition b y a n indefinit e exclamatio n "Kuanl" I n th e colloquia l languag e o f the T'ang an d Sung periods, the word kuan also had the implication o f "wha t the hell! " o r "tak e care! " althoug h th e litera l meaning o f the characte r wa s "a border" or "an obstacle." Thu s the two disciples shared their master's con- cerns, o r a s Dai5 claims i n his capping phras e t o thi s k5an , "bot h o f them followed th e sam e road bu t no t th e same gauge." In contrast , b y his indeter- minate answe r Ch'ang-ch'ing silentl y accepted th e sin s o f Ts'ui-yen, an d b y assuring th e teache r tha t hi s eyebrows would grow anew he feigned a stanc e of unconcern. Also, the first line alludes to Daio's capping phrase , "Take care not t o ste p on a thorn hidde n inside mud," implying that th e real meaning is hidden from ignorant persons. The last line contains a hint that for the person who grasped the meaning of the koan "the moon of the third wake" will imme- diately appear i n his enlightened mind.

Koans in the Daitokuji Traditio n Ikkyu considered himsel f a follower of the transmission line of Japanese mas- ters Daio Kokushi and Daito Kokush i that becam e the mainstream traditio n of Daitokuj i temple in medieval Kyoto. Daito wa s known fo r hi s innovative capping phrase commentarie s o n koan s tha t wer e an importan t par t o f th e Daitokuji ora l tradition . Allusion s to both o f these spiritual predecessors ar e frequently found in Ikkyu's poetry.12 The first poem in the cycle, " Three Turn- ing Phrases'13 of Daito Kokushi " (no. 28), is prefaced by the phrase, "I n th e morning I 'connect our eyebrows' and in the evening 'join our shoulders.' What a person am I?"

I have just passed a barrier, another one is before me. One cannot clim b following only old samples and patterns . These strange lichih fruits have a heavenly taste. The name from th e T'ien-pao er a descended to people .

The vers e focuse s o n th e experienc e o f Daito , wh o a s a discipl e o f Dai o grasped th e meaning o f the one-wor d k5a n o r "The Barrier" (kuan) an d at - tained satori , onl y to face immediately another barrier . Ikky u emphasizes the impossibility o f realizing the highes t trut h onl y through textua l source s an d koan training . He includes in the text a reference to delicious lichih fruits , th e daily mea l o f Yan g Kuei-fei , a consor t o f th e T'an g Empero r Hsiian-tsun g (712-756). The tragic fat e o f Yang Kuei-fei, murdere d o n the demand o f sol- diers wh o accuse d he r o f bein g the mai n sourc e o f turmoi l brough t o n b y the An Lu-shan rebellion during the T'ien-pao er a (742-755) , wa s repeatedly referred t o b y Ikkyu in his poetry as a classic example of a femme fatal e an d unhappy beauty at the same time. "The heavenly taste " o f lichih put a n end to the Heavenly Treasure (Tien-pao) era of rule.

22O TH E KOA N

Another example of this type of poetry is Ikkyu's reference (no. 157 ) to th e "three turning phrases" of Chao-chou—"A clay Buddh a can' t pass acros s a river; a wooden Buddh a can' t pass through a fire; a metal Buddh a can' t pass through a furnace"—in which he tries to solve in a single blow the three prob- lems of Chao-chou :

A poem is finished: sorrowful thoughts resembl e a love song. For many years I was listening to a night rain on a lonely bed. Who had produced a flute tune from th e tower? The melody stopped abruptly ; green peaks are across the river.

The "thre e turnin g phrases " o f Chao-cho u ar e mentione d i n Pi-yen lu cas e 96,14 although Ikkyu' s poem contain s no direc t allusion s o r comments o n the case. Th e mor e obviou s explanation happen s her e t o b e th e leas t intricate . Ikkyu compares three insoluble situations from the koan with his own inability to combine a strict monastic lifestyl e on the mountain slope s with his unceas- ing ties to earthly joys. He solves the koan in the last line's words, "green peak s are across the river." The poem has been completed, the love tune has suddenly become silent , all "three turnin g phrases" ar e effectively "capped " by a mag- nificent landscape tha t delimits any mundane passions and invites one to com- mune with and dissolve into its beauty.

By introducing som e of his poems with a koan case, Ikkyu often turne d th e poems into condense d and allegorica l comments o n the source cases, as with the introduction t o poem no. 44: "A monk asked Yen-t'ou, 'What will happen if a n ol d sai l will no t b e raised? ' ' A smal l fish will swallow a large r one, ' an - swered Yen-t'ou. And wha t happens afte r th e sai l has been raised? ' asked th e monk. A donke y i s nibbling gras s i n th e backyard, ' Yen-t'o u replied. " Th e main characte r o f the k5a n i s Yen-t'ou (827-887) , who initiall y belonged t o the Lin-chi school bu t later turned to the Kuei-shan school . The k5an may be found in a variety of texts, including the Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu, Tsu-t'ang chi, Wu-teng hui-yuan, Ch'an-men sung chi, and Ch'an-lin leichu; Hiran o argue s that Ikkyu' s version is closest to the last of these.15 According to the Zen tradi - tion, Hsu-fang (1184-1269) , whom Ikkyu believed to be his spiritual Chines e forefather, attaine d sator i afte r meditatio n o n this very anecdote. Transmitte d to Ikkyu by Dai5 Kokushi, th e koan ha d great importance withi n the Daito- kuji tradition. 16 Ikkyu comments on the koan through allusions to a few other cases and supplant s the original content wit h additiona l obviou s an d hidde n connotations:

Cold an d heat, suffering s an d pleasures bring shame to mind. Ears are originally only two pieces of skin. One, two, three—yes! —three , two, one. With a single twist o f his hand Nan-ch'ua n ripped the cat.

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The firs t line alludes t o th e thir d o f the "reflections " o f Fo-yen Ching-yua n (1067-1120): "Suffering s an d pleasures , anticipatio n an d concordance — the Wa y i s i n betwee n movemen t an d immobility , col d an d heat— I fee l ashamed, repenting." 17

Hirano, referrin g to a n ora l Daitokuj i koa n tradition , consider s tha t th e questions aske d o f Yen-t'o u correspon d t o anticipatio n an d concordance . When a sail is not raised, the wind prevents a boat's movement , whereas afte r it ha s bee n raised , th e win d pushes th e boa t forward . I woul d lik e to stres s another opposition : th e first situation is associated wit h stillness, and the sec- ond one with movement. Then the whole poem may be seen as a cryptic solu- tion of the koan. The first line contains two of the four expressions mentioned in "Fo-yen's reflections," although logicall y they have no connection wit h the k5an, and the next two lines traditionally have been associated wit h this koan. In th e ora l Daitokuj i tradition , th e words "ears are only two pieces o f skin " were applied as a capping phrase to the first answer in the koan, " A small fish will swallow a larger one, " whil e the words "fangs an d teet h ar e just bones " were a capping phrase to the second answer in the koan.18 However, this cannot be considered the only true answer.

According to the oral Daitokuji tradition, to the words "A small fish swal- lows a larger one " ther e is applied the capping phrase "Five , four, three , two, one." Sonja Arntzen considers the numerical image in its mirrorlike pattern t o be an obvious illustration of the duality principle.19 The Daito Kokushi goroku or recorde d saying s tex t state s tha t on e day , havin g ascende d t o th e hall , Daito announced :

If on e attains in hi s heart a stat e inexpressibl e i n words , i t wil l pertain. Whe n one wishes t o expres s i n words somethin g tha t i s impossible t o comprehen d by the heart, it will be "seven, six, five, four, three, two, one." [Someon e asked,] "And what will happen if one has attained something in the heart and may express it in words?" After a pause he added, "After flowers have blossomed n o effort s ar e necessary t o make them grow. A spring win d will take care of them."20

Perhaps i n th e abov e poem Ikky u attempt s t o solv e the proble m b y linking two figural sequences. The duality turn s naturall y into nonduality , and bot h number-orders conjoi n into a single unit with an ape x in the very middle of the line. The emphatic character hsi (translated her e as "yes!" just to keep it in the translation ) lack s an y specifi c meanin g an d perform s in Chines e poetr y only an exclamatory function. The character hsi in the Japanese is also a homo- phone for the number "four" (C . ssu, but in Japanese bot h are pronounced a s "shi"), becoming a pivot for the ascending and descending numerical order.2'

The last line of Ikkyu's poem allude s to a famous koan fro m th e Wu-men kuan (case I4) 22 or the Pi-yen lu (case 63) : "Once Nan-ch'iian noticed monk s of th e eastern and western halls disputing about a cat . Then h e took th e ca t

222 THE KOAN

and announced , 'I f anyon e talks , I wil l not kil l him.' Nobody pronounce d a word. The n Nan-ch'iia n rippe d th e ca t apart." 23 A solutio n o f th e koa n i s found i n cas e 6 4 o f th e Pi-yen lu: "Nan-ch'iia n relate d wha t happene d t o Chao-chou an d asked what he would have done if he had been present at that time. Chou took of f his straw sandals, put the m on his head, and lef t th e hall. 'If you had been there, the cat would still be alive,' Nan-ch'uan exclaimed."24

Respect for Chinese Patriarch s The names of famous Chinese Zen patriarch s are ofte n mentione d b y Ikkyu, and the name s of the earl y masters Lin-chi , Te-shan , Pai-chang , and Kuei - shan ar e foun d especiall y frequently . On e o f th e poems , calle d " A Man Bu t Not Externa l Objects Has Bee n Grasped" (no. 14) , is included i n the cycle on the "Four Alternatives of Lin-chi" :

The names of Pai-chang and Kuei-shan stil l exist; Will not th e fox and the water buffalo sta y forever ? In the temple of the past dynasty there are no more monks. Yellow leaves and autum n wind whirl above the tower.

This poem illustrates the state o f mind afte r th e subject has dissolved into th e object: an y trac e o f sentien t beings ha s disappeare d an d onl y th e purit y o f nature remain s unchanged. Suc h a position was typica l of the materialisti c school o f Sarvastivada Buddhism . Once Lin-chi said , "The sprin g sun shines and cover s th e eart h wit h silk . A baby' s hai r hang s dow n i n gra y threads. " That is, a person (subject ) loses his self-importance when faced with the outer universe (object ) embodied i n the phenomena o f nature. Th e subjec t tries t o extrapolate himself into that illusory outer world, and such a view is as incred- ulous as gray hair fo r a baby. The world remains harmonious notwithstand- ing—or because of—the absenc e of human beings in it.

The names Pai-chang Huai-ha i an d Kuei-shan Ling-y u in the Ch'an tradi - tion are associated with koan stories about th e wild fox and the water buffalo , respectively. The stor y about th e wild fox is reproduced i n Wu-men kuan case 2 and numerous other koan collections. According to this case, whenever Pai- chang delivered sermons before hi s disciples, an unfamiliar old man appeare d in the assembly . One day after th e sermo n was over, he did not leav e the hal l with th e othe r monks . Pai-chan g aske d abou t hi s identity an d th e ma n an - swered that in the distant pas t he was a monk a t this very temple, bu t becaus e of hi s improper us e o f a turning wor d he wa s punished b y being reborn fo r 500 lives as a wild fox. After th e talk with Pai-chang th e fox attained awaken- ing and , a s a result , became release d fro m hi s wild fo x transfiguration. H e proclaimed that his corpse would be found behind the temple compound an d asked tha t i t be buried with the standar d rit e for Buddhis t monks. That da y

I K K YU AND KOANS 223

the monks indeed found a dead wild fox and cremated him.25 In a poem titled "Pai-chang's Wild Fox" (no. 48) the content on the surface appears completely dissociated fro m th e case:

A thousand mountains, ten thousand rivers , a monk's hut. This year I will surpass the fifth decade of my life . But thoughts on my pillow are not senil e yet. As if in dreams I go on reading books of my youth.

Ikkyu juxtaposes his 50 years with the 500 lives of the monk in the case about Pai-chang an d implicitl y mentions his attachment t o th e traditiona l elegan t (furyu) styl e of aesthetics a s represented in the "book s of my youth" (which perhaps actuall y refers t o eroti c writings). The subjec t of karmic predestina- tion and it s compatibility with the content o f the "wild fox" koan are almost removed ye t transferred into anothe r leve l of sensua l attachment t o worldly pleasures tha t the poet has not yet completely suppressed.

On Three Categories of Handicapped Ones The cycle of poems nos. 58-60 explicitly takes its roots in case 88 of the Pi-yen lu, where Hsuan-sha Shih-lei (835-908) mentions three categories of diseases: "Masters i n differen t region s o f Chin a clai m tha t the y ar e spreadin g th e Dharma and paying homage. Bu t how can they instruct the three categories of deceased? The blind ones do not see the movements of their fingers, striking, putting down hands o r sweeping the ground. Th e deaf ones do not hea r the samadhi expresse d b y words . The mut e one s canno t confir m that the y ha d realized th e Dharma . Ho w ca n the y be instructed? However, if such people cannot be instructed, it means that the Buddha's Law has no miraculous prop- erties."26

The poem "Blindness " (no . 58 ) advises that on e rely on th e invisibl e and not be attached to visible phenomena:

The writings from the Sacred Mountain were not inherited by the Blind Donkey.

Twenty-eight and six patriarchs are to be ashamed o f it. How can he reach the place of glimmering light? His companion has a copper loo k and iron eyes.

Ikkyu often calle d himself "Blind Donkey" (Katsuro), hintin g at the words of Lin-chi that afte r hi s death the Dharma wil l pass to a blind donkey. Perhaps Ikkyu, wh o refuse d t o accep t th e "sea l o f enlightenment " (inka) fro m hi s teacher Kaso S5don, meant that he had obtained the real "transmission of the Dharma outside written words" in accord with the highly praised Zen practice

224 TH E KOA N

of discounting and discarding scriptures. The second line mentions the trans - mission o f the Dharma from 2 8 Indian and 6 Chinese Ch'an patriarchs (fro m Bodhidharma t o Hui-neng) . "The plac e of glimmering light" is obviously the Pure Land (jodo) o f Amida Buddha, where his believers were supposed t o be reborn and t o enjoy eterna l bliss. The "copper look and iron eyes" mentioned in a commentary on the gatha of case i in the Pi-yen lu is a valued trait o f an unusual person.

The next poem in the cycle, "Deafness" (no. 59), praises those who can hear melodies of the "stringless harp" and appreciate them:

Picked up a fly-whisk and made a cry like the hundred-times melted gold.

Because Huai-hai fro m hi s very birth had deep ears, Who else might have such perfect hearin g abilities To listen to soundles s melodies of a stringless harp?

The poem is pivoted on a story about Pai-chang in the Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu (vol. 6).27 Once he visited his master Ma-tsu Tao-yi. Upon his arrival, the mas- ter took from th e meditation seat a fly-whisk and raise d it up. "Do yo u use it or not?" asked Pai-chang. Ma-tsu returned the fly-whisk to its place. Pai-chang kept silent, and then Ma-tsu produced a loud cry. For three days after thi s Pai- chang was nearly deaf and could not hear anything but Ma's voice, yet he was able to understand th e meaning of Ma-tsu's illuminativ e cry because he natu- rally had exceptionally perceptive (literally "deep") ears.

In the poem "Muteness " Ikkyu once again insists that an enlightened per- son does not need any words to express his spiritual experience:

With a single phrase he wished to let out the content o f his heart. But the tongue stuck to the palate: only a weak "hi-hi"! Ling-yun did not respond t o Ch'ang-sheng's answer: Who knows what golden words were in his heart.

Ikkyu's poe m allude s t o a stor y fro m Ling-yiin' s biograph y i n th e Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu (vol. n): "Ch'ang-sheng asked, 'How could lif e appea r befor e the chao s wa s separated? ' 'I n th e wom b o f th e hal l pilla r ther e i s a fetus, ' answered Ling-yiin. 'And what was after the separation of the chaos?' 'A lonely cloud floating across the sky. ' 'Was it put into motion by the sky? ' The master did no t giv e any answer . 'In thi s case, i f water were pure, fish would not liv e there,' said Ch'ang-sheng. The master again kept silent." Ling-vim's silence is a wordless answer that cuts off any discrimination: "the chaos" means complete nonduality, " a fetu s i n the hall's pillar" corresponds t o the state prior t o dif- ferentiation, an d " a cloud in the sky" refers t o th e leve l o f provisional under- standing by means of the realm of differentiation .

IKKYU AND KOANS 225

Ambivalent Attitudes toward Koan Practice Ikkyu's attitude concerning th e use of koans as well as the importanc e o f fa- mous koan collection s wa s rather ambivalent . Althoug h koa n cases are ofte n used as sources for his poetry, the degenerated practic e of using standard col- lections in Japanese monasterie s i n a routine, mechanical fashio n was looked on with great disdain. In the poem "Reading th e Preface to the Pi-yen lu" (no . 138) Ikkyu postulates his views on one of the most voluminous and prestigious of th e koa n collection s tha t i s nearly inexhaustably exploite d i n s o many o f his poems:

Admonitions from Shen-sha n cost a hundred golden pieces. Having burnt them, he hoped t o save both the present an d the

past ones. Stop your disputes about the cold ashes! The "merciful ol d hags" destroyed th e Teaching.

The Pi-yen lu or Blue Cliff Record is perhaps the most famous and widel y used among the koan collections, and Ikkyu seems to have known it by heart. The collection of a hundred short cases accompanied by extensive comments, illus- trative verses, and capping phrases was first compiled by a Sung monk, Hsiieh- tou Ch'ung-hsie n (980-1052) . Later on , Yiian-wu K'o-ch'in (1063-1135) ap- pended the m with his ow n comments, a version tha t wa s said t o hav e been burned by Yuan-wu's main disciple , Ta-hui Tsung-kao (1089-1163). The edi- tion of 1308 contains a few prefaces. Hirano insists that the poem by Ikkyu is concerned mostly with the preface of Fang-hui Wan-li.28 The third line alludes to a phrase fro m that preface, "Chang-yen Ming-yua n warmed the cold ashe s and ha d th e tex t printe d anew. " The "mercifu l ol d hag" (roboshin) wa s also mentioned i n Fang-hui's preface , "Hsueh-tou and Yuan-wu had the heart o f a 'merciful ol d hag,' " that is , they combine d a suprem e sens e of compassio n with extensive discourse.29

The phrase "Admonition s fro m Shen-shan " refer s to the Ling-ch'iian yuan monastery o n Shen-shan Mountain , th e place where Yiian-wu resided. Ikkyu again combines an ambiguous praisin g of the editor who restored the burned koan collectio n wit h a straightforwar d accusatio n tha t h e "destroye d th e Teaching." B y citing the Pi-yen lu, Ikkyu in fact follows the way of his Chinese predecessor and expresses a kind of self-flagellation fo r his own overadherence to the practice that in other instances he himself had rejected .

In the poe m "Maste r Ta-hui Burn s the Pi-yen chi" (no . 72 ) Ikkyu praise s the conduct o f Ta-hui, who according to a popular tradition protested agains t an extrem e reliance on th e literary koan tradition b y destroying the origina l woodblock o f the famous Pi yen lu:

226 THE KOAN

The name of the old man of Miao-hsi will pertain fo r a thousand years . He had polished the Ch'an school and raised i t above the others . In old days Tzu-hsii ordered Wu-wang to cut out his eyeballs. What a pity that a skull does not have shining eye-pupils!

"The ol d man of Miao-hsi" i s Ta-hui Tsung-kao who once lived in a place of that name. The third line alludes to the biography of Wu Tzu-hsii in the Histor- ical Record (Shih chi, section "Ch'un-ch'iu chang-kuo p'ien"). "When follow- ing the orders of Wu-wang, Wu Tzu-hsii was to commit suicide and said: 'Plant a catalpa tre e on my grave, so that I would be able to mak e o f it a coffi n fo r Wu-wang. And furthermore, cut out my eyeballs and fetch them to the eastern gate o f the Wu kingdom, to le t me see how the Yiie h barbarians destro y th e Wu kingdom.' "

The las t lin e refers t o a stor y in th e Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu (vol . n) : "A monk aske d Hsiang-ye n about th e Tao , an d th e maste r answered : 'A dragon sings on a dried tree.' The monk did not understand. Then Hsiang-yen added, 'A skul l has shinin g eye-pupils.' " Ikkyu compares Ta-hui' s posthumou s fat e with that of Wu Tzu-hsii, pointing out that neither happened to see his desires fulfilled afte r death. Ta-hui's attempt to eradicate the Pi-yen lu so as to prevent the degradation of the Ch'an spiritua l essence and the ever-increasing formal- ization of k5an practice turned out to be a failure. In the ensuing centuries the Pi-yen lu became one the main devices used in Zen training, and Ikkyu's poetry abounds i n allusions an d quotation s fro m thi s work . This fac t i s itself ample evidence of the popularity o f the text in fifteenth-centur y Japan .

Sharp Admonitions against His Own Brethren At the sam e tim e Ikkyu angrily accused thos e who considered koa n practic e the onl y trustworthy expedient means t o attai n sator i as , for example, i n the following tw o verses , "Respectfull y Addressing M y Stead y Disciples " (nos . 225-226):

Round-headed profligates in monk's robes ! They have a gorgeous appearance an d people tremble on their

approach. Their main concern i s to promote ancien t cases . Be ashamed o f fostering in vain your smugness!

Do not claim that you had solve d all the koans. An octagonal millstone lays above the heart . You are unable to sense the smel l of your own shit, But distinctly see in a mirror the misdeeds of others.

IKKYU AND KOANS 227

"An octagonal millstone" (hakku mabari) wa s mentioned fo r the firs t time by Yang-yi (964-1020), "An octagonal millstone flies through th e air, " and i s an indication o f innat e abilitie s tha t ar e no t eas y t o realize . I n 132 5 durin g a dispute at the Imperial court between a Tendai monk and Daito Kokushi, the latter used it as a capping phrase when answering the question, "Wha t is the meaning of a special transmissio n beyond the Teaching?" Th e two last lines were borrowe d b y Ikky u fro m a commentar y o n cas e 7 7 of th e Pi-yen lu,30 which stresses the difficulty i n realizing the innate nature of a person (subject) as opposed t o th e eas e of understanding th e externa l world (object ) of illu- sory phenomena.

Ikkyu goe s o n hi s attac k agains t practice s i n vogu e i n th e Japanes e Zen monasterie s in th e poem "I n Japa n Comparison s Ar e Taken Literally " (no. 345):

"Evaluating exams" involve people in lies, and they are permeated with a poison.

They initially contain the spirit of humble people, not o f gentlemen. Having found a metaphor i n the mist they take it literally. Lo-t'ien san g about "a moss robe and a cloudy belt."

"Evaluating exams " (kanben) wer e a specifi c kin d o f Zen dialogu e (mondo), when masters exchanged questions and answers to test the authenticity of sa- tori experience . Lo-t'ien wa s another nam e o f the poe t P o Chii- i (772-846) , whose poetry abounds with allegories and was highly popular among Japanese Zen monks. Ikkyu's irony is aimed at those who take allegoric expressions like "a mos s rob e an d a cloud y belt" literall y thoug h the y mean onl y "a moss - covered boulder" and "clouds on the mountainous peak."

Breaking Rules Brings Them to Lif e Ikkyu's own unconventional conduct was often shocking . He drank wine, vis- ited brothels , at e fish, and befriende d mavericks of all sorts. H e believed that strict adherenc e t o th e Buddhis t precepts i s nothing but a sor t o f hypocrisy, yet he firmly held the single principle, "Do no t do evil, do only good things." His ironic smile is present in the poem "On the Precept 'Do Not Drink Wine' " (no. 331):

He emptied three bowls of wine but did not moisten his lips. To compose poems when drunk is the only joy for Lo-t'ien . But Master Leng was wondering: Who on a nice day will be his companion in wine-drinking?

228 TH E KOA N

The first line alludes to the story from th e Ts'ao-shan lu and the Wu-men kuan (case 10) , "Th e mon k Ch'in g Shu i cam e t o Ts'ao-shan an d claime d tha t h e was very poor and asked for alms. 'Acharya Shui!' called Ts'ao-shan. 'Yes , sir!' answered Shui . 'You have drunk three bowls of tasty wine in the famous wine shop o f Ch'ing Yuan , bu t di d no t moiste n ye t your lips. ' "31 "Master Leng " refers t o Ch'ang-ch'in g Hui-leng . Hi s nam e i s connected wit h the followin g story in the Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu (vol. 18): "Once addressing the community Ch'ang-ch'ing said , 'Though my singing is clear, you stil l do no t understan d me. What wil l you d o i f I arriv e from th e darkness? ' A monk asked , 'Wha t does it mean to arriv e from th e darkness?' 'Yo u have emptied you r tea-bowl, now yo u ca n leave, ' sai d Ch'ang-ch'ing . Chung-t a said , 'Master , le t hi m b e your companion in tea-drinking.' "

Ikkyu replaces the words "companion in tea-drinking" (chabari) with "com - panion i n wine-drinking" (shuban), reversin g in this way the supposedl y well- known "Master Leng' s koan." The poem consists of two parts: the first part is really connecte d wit h the wine-drinkin g koan an d th e poe t P o Lo-t'ien (P o Chu-i) known by his love of wine; the secon d par t allude s t o th e koa n tha t originally containe d no t a singl e mention o f wine , but Ikky u intentionally transfers i t fro m a referenc e to te a int o a verse about wine . The oppositio n between parts is demolished, and the whole poem transcends into an affirma - tion of wine-drinking tha t is incompatible with the title. An apparent paradox adds an ironic vein and turns it into a kind of koan. The first line was repro- duced in another poem by Ikkyu, "Pleasure i n Suffering" (no . 46), but here he made i t more explicit by including the name of Tung-shan in the secon d line:

You emptied three bowls of wine but di d not moisten your lips: With such words old Tung-shan consoled a lonely poor man . As soon as you enter a burning house, In a single moment an ache for ten thousand kalpas will

appear.

Ikkyu's deep dissatisfaction with the existing state of affairs i n the Zen com- munity was expressed in the poem, "In Former Days I Worshipped the Image of Dait o Kokushi , bu t No w I'v e Change d M y Gar b an d Entere d th e Pur e Land School " (no . 228).

The Crazy Cloud i s Hajun of the Daitokuji tradition: I wish to put an end to the battles of demons in my community. Of what use are "ancient stories " and koans ? Instead of terrible sufferings I count now the treasures of others .

Ikkyu condemns the quarrels and doctrinal disputes between monks of Daito- kuji an d equate s himself (Crazy Cloud) with Hajun (S . Papiyas), th e kin g of

IKKYU AN D KOAN S 22 9

the demons who dwells in the Takejizai-ten heaven (S. Paranirmita-vasavartiri) and wh o tries to creat e obstacle s fo r buddhas strivin g to attai n nirvana. Th e name Haju n als o recall s the name o f the poet himsel f (Sojun) . Th e "terribl e sufferings" ma y b e interprete d a s difficultie s connecte d wit h th e solvin g o f koans in Zen monasteries, whil e "counting treasure s o f others" i s believed by some commentators t o b e the counting of rosary bead s durin g the nembutsu recitations i n the Pure Lan d tradition , whic h Ikkyu apparently practice d fo r a time.

We do no t posses s an y reliable data abou t th e reason s fo r Ikkyu' s short - term conversio n t o th e Amidis t creed . Perhap s i t laste d onl y a fe w months and was an expression of dissatisfaction with the standard s o f Daitokuji and especially wit h th e activitie s o f it s abbot , Yoso , who m Ikky u scolde d an d damned i n any number of ways. He even wrote a se t of works, called "Jikai - shu," focused exclusively on condemning Yoso. In the "Jikai-shu" he mentions that h e converted t o th e Pur e Lan d schoo l i n th e sixt h mont h o f 1461 , bu t before doin g s o he returne d th e imag e o f th e patriarc h Dait o t o th e mai n temple of Daitokuji.32 Nevertheless , hi s biographical "Chronicle" ("Nempu") contains not a single mention o f such a conversion.

Ikkyu ofte n pronounce d self-accusation s for hi s improper conduc t base d on an awareness that inevitable karmic retributio n awaite d him, a s he claims in the poem, "Having Severe d Ties with My Community, I Accuse Myself with This Gatha" (no . 194) :

Addressed disciples , presided ove r a community, built "devi l palaces"; "Since ol d days sweating horses have made incredible efforts. " A master and an ordinary disciple are both equally crooks. I feel pity for Han Hsi n who lamented over a good bow.

The introductor y word s (suiji) t o cas e 7 o f the Pi-yen lu contain a phrase , "Since ol d days sweating horses ha d no t ha d huma n knowledge , but wanted only t o b e retribute d fo r makin g incredibl e efforts." 33 Th e line s allud e t o a poem in the Tung-shan wai chi that says:

When pacifying the Six States, An immovable heart penetrates th e eight cardinal points , People do not notice that horses are sweating, But want only to be retributed fo r making an incredible effort .

The poem implie s a criticism of those soldier s wh o after a victory pay no attention t o their sweating horses that actuall y brought the m the victory. The line in the koan shifts the image into the religious sphere to compare the effor t of soldiers to that of monks striving to attain enlightenment. I n both cases the auxiliary means are thrown away after th e goal had been attained. Only a true

230 THE KOAN

master i s able to kee p i n mind the real devic e tha t brought him to th e final aim. The last tw o lines allude to a story from th e Historical Record (Shih chi, section "Yxieh-wan g chii-shi shih-chia") by Ssu-ma Ch'ien: "When Ha n Hsi n was captured b y Han-wang, he said , 'When fast-running hares di e out, goo d dogs ar e used fo r soup ; when high-flying birds disappear , goo d bow s are lef t aside; whe n a stat e i s defeated, faithfu l minister s are executed. ' " Ikkyu ex- presses regret about the position o f Han Hsin , who scapegoated innocents for any failures suffered .

In the poem "Lamentation s on the Degradation o f the Daitokuj i School " (no. 486), Ikkyu condemns his own Zen tradition i n the harshest manner:

Who is the true master amon g descendants in the Eastern Sea? They do not distinguis h true and false ; thei r knowledge is distorted. Kyoun knows the smel l of piss on his own body: They are his elegant messages and love-poems.

A comment o n case 77 from th e Pi-yen lu says, "The smel l of own's shit is no t sensed."34 Later o n Daito used th e words "he does not kno w the smel l of his own shit" as a capping phrase. Ikkyu must have been aware of that expression, popular in the Daitokuji tradition, but preferred to turn it topsy-turvy to dem- onstrate hi s awareness of evi l dwelling inside his lineage as wel l as in himself and hi s irresistible passion fo r composing verse.

Some of the major topics repeated consistently in the Kyoun-shu include the problem of keeping and breaking Buddhist precepts , praising the ancient Zen masters and paying tribute to some contemporaries, providin g enigmatic com - ments regardin g th e authenticit y o f satori , o r makin g casua l remark s abou t current events . In fact , most of Ikkyu's poems demonstrate striking deviations from th e rules of classical Chinese prosody. They were written not t o demon- strate his erudition an d knowledge of versification rules but to hint , strike , or push towar d spiritua l awakenin g in the traditio n of Lin-chi or Te-shan . Due to hi s extensive use o f koan storie s throug h frequentl y ambiguous o r ironi c allusions, Ikky u manage d t o enlarg e th e semanti c fiel d o f hi s 28-characte r verses and wen t far beyon d the limits and convention s of the gozan poetry of his contemporary composer s o f verse as part o f the literar y techniqu e o f the Rinzai "Five Mountains" monasti c institution very much influenced by Sung Chinese culture.

NOTES i. I refrain fro m includin g Ikkyu' s biographical sketch in this chapter. Interested

readers ca n fin d a detaile d biograph y i n severa l English-languag e works , including Sonja Arntzen , Ikkyu Sojun: A Zen Monk and his Poetry (Bellingham , Wash.: Western Washington University Press, 1973); Arntzen, Ikkyu and the Crazy Cloud Anthology: A Zen Monk of Medieval Japan (Tokyo : University of Tokyo Press, 1986) , pp. 3-61; J. H. Sanford, Zen-Man Ikkyu (Chico , Cal. : Scholars Press, 1981), pp . 1-117 ; and J . C. Co -

I K K YU AND KOANS 23!

veil, Zens Core: Ikkyu's Freedom (Seoul: Hollym Internationa l Corp., 1980) . There are a great number of his biographies in Japanese, althoug h most of them repeat the same "facts" that are contained i n the official "Ikkyu' s Cronicle" ("Nempu") and in his po- ems. A fe w of th e bes t genera l biographica l studie s ar e Ichikaw a Hakugen , Ikkyu: Ransei ni ikita zensha (Tokyo : Niho n hos o shuppa n kyokai , 1970) ; Murat a Taihei , Ningen Ikkyu (Tokyo : Kobunsha, 1976) ; Nishida Masayoshi , Ikkyu: Fukyo no seishin (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1977) ; Minakami Tsutomu, Ikkyu Tokyo: Chuko bunko, 1978) ; and Kamata Shigeo, Ikkyu: Fukyo ni ikiru (Tokyo: Kozaido, 1995). A complete bibliography would amount to dozens of pages.

2. Th e Kyoun-shu was published i n Japanese many times from differen t manuscript s that sometimes differ considerably . The critical revised text that contains al l the poems from th e existin g manuscripts wa s published b y It o Toshik o i n th e journa l Yamato bunka 41 (1964): 10-59. K contains 1,06 0 numbered pieces. Because it has became stan- dard practic e t o refe r t o thos e numbers , I follow thi s system in this chapter. Th e best annotated edition is the two-volume Kyoun-shu zenshaku (hereafter KSZ), I, ed. Hiran o Sojo (Tokyo: Shunjusha, 1976) , and II , ed. Kageki Hideo (Tokyo : Shunjusha, 1997) . I t contains 88 1 poems. In 197 2 Ichikawa Hakugen published the most authoritative Oku- mura manuscrip t i n Nihon zenka no shiso i n th e serie s Nihon koten bungaku taikei (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1972) , which provides extensive annotations fo r the first 231 poems. Yanagida Seiza n selected 300 of Ikkyu's poems and published the m accompa - nied by his interpretive renderings in modern Japanese an d with detailed comment s in Kato Shuich i and Yanagid a Seizan , eds., Ikkyu, i n Nihon zen goroku, vol. 1 2 (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983) . The Western-language publications by Sanford, Arntzen, Covell, etc. as cited in note I provide translations for more than 200 poems from Ikkyu' s collected verses accompanied b y their own intricate interpretation s an d comments . Thes e com- mentaries shoul d b e take n int o account . Nevertheless , i n most case s onl y a limite d number of Ikkyu's poem s are discussed repeatedly while a large section of the most complicated pieces stil l awaits interpretation. T o stress the complexity of the problem , I would like to mention a book by Yanagda Seizan , Ikkyu: Kyoun-shu no sekai (Kyoto: Jinbun shoin, 1980) , that amounts to 25 0 pages but offer s a profound analysis of only twelve poems from th e Kyoun-shu.

3. Pi-yen lu, T 48, p. I92b. 4. T 48, p. i65a . 5. T 48, p. 2i9b. 6. I n a slightl y modified form i t wa s reproduced b y Ikkyu in th e poe m "Wipin g

Filth with the Scriptures" (no. 70) , "A dog pisses on the sandalwood old Buddha hall." The scatological them e combined with sacrilegious notions in fact wa s used by Ikkyu as a n extrem e demonstratio n o f th e absenc e o f an y distinctio n betwee n sacre d an d profane, pure and impure, or the use of the scriptures for reading or simply as a paper to wipe an ass .

7. T 48, p. 209a. 8. KSZ , 1:46 . 9. Ts'ungjung lu, in T 48, p. 28oa. 10. T 48, p. I45a-c. 11. T48 , p. i48b. 12. Se e Kenneth Kraft , Eloquent Zen: Daito and Early Japanese Zen (Honolulu :

University of Hawaii Press, 1992) . 13. "Turnin g phrases" (tengo) were used by Zen master s to confuse disciples, push

them towar d awakening and revea l th e innat e essence of the Dharma . I n hi s preface Ikkyu quotes only the first among the three turning phrases of Daito .

232 THE KOAN

14. T 48, p. uga. 15. Hirano , i n KJZ 1:41 . The Ch'an-lin leichu is in ZZ, 117 , vol. 15 , p. i%i&. 16. KS Z 1:41 . 17. Ku-ts'un-su yu-lu, in ZZ, 118 , p. 304a . 18. KSZ , I . 42-43. 19. Arntzen , Ikkyu and the Crazy Cloud Anthology, p. 103 . 20. Hiran o Sqjo , ed. , Daito Kokushi goroku, in Zen no koten, vol. 3 (Tokyo: Kodan-

sha, 1983) , p. 113 . 21. I thank Rober t Duquenne at the Institut e of Hobogirin, Kyoto , for suggesting

this. 22. Wu-men kuan, in T 48, p. 2940. 23. T 48, p. 1940 . 24. T 48, p. I95a . 25. Se e T 48, p. 293a-b. I refrain from a n analysis of the k5an's origina l content. A

sophisticated treatmen t o f this k5an an d it s connections wit h the concept o f causality in Zen may be found i n the articl e by Steven Heine, "Putting the 'Fox' Back into th e 'Wild Fox Koan': The Intersection o f Philosophical and Popular Religious Elements in the Ch'an/Ze n Tradition, " Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol . 56 , no . 2 (1996) : 257-317.

26. T 48 , p. 2I2C . 27. KS Z 1:138 . 28. Cite d fro m Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu, 30 vols., in T 51 , 2076 . 29. Zengaku daijiten (Tokyo : Taishukan shoten, 1977) , p. 1314 . 30. T 48, p. 2040 . 31. T 48, p. 294a. 32. Jikai-shu, i n Minakami Tsutomu , Ikkyu bungei shisho (Tokyo: Asahi shuppan -

sha, 1987) , p. 80. 33. T 48, p. 1473 . 34. T 48, p. 204C .