Organization
Santosh_2102
KiniOB2e_C13_Final_R.pptxCHAPTER 13
Leadership Effectiveness
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Major Questions You Should Be Able to Answer
13.1 How does having an integrated model of leadership help me become an effective leader?
13.2 How can I use trait theories to improve my ability to lead?
13.3 Do effective leaders behave in similar ways?
13.4 How do I know when to use a specific leader behavior
13.5 How can I use transformational leadership when working with others?
13.6 How can more recent approaches to leadership improve my effectiveness at work?
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Leadership and Leader Effectiveness
Leadership
A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal
Effective leadership
To be effective requires a mix of traits, competencies, and interpersonal attributes
From contingency theory we know effective leaders match their choice of behavior to the situational context
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Leadership: a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
A person does not need to have a formal position of authority to be a leader.
Anyone who exerts influence over others in the pursuit of organizationally relevant matters is a leader.
OB scholars have developed a great number of theories to help guide managers to improve their leadership effectiveness.
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An Integrated Model of Leadership
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Figure 13.2 presents an integrated model of leadership.
Effective leadership is influenced by four types of leadership behavior: task-oriented, relationship-oriented, passive, and transformational.
Effective leadership also is affected by a combination of task-oriented traits and interpersonal attributes.
Demographic characteristics such as gender and age, task-oriented traits, and interpersonal attributes influence an individual’s use of leader behaviors.
Situational factors dictate that effective leadership requires using the “right” behavior at the “right” time.
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Leading Versus Managing
Leaders
Inspire
Influence
Create the vision and strategic plan
Managers
Implement
Plan
Organize
Control
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Managers typically perform functions associated with planning, investigating, organizing, and control, and leaders focus on influencing others.
Leaders inspire others, provide emotional support, and try to get employees to rally around a common goal.
Leaders also play a key role in creating a vision and strategic plan for an organization, while managers are charged with implementing the vision and strategic plan.
Good leaders are not necessarily good managers, and good managers are not necessarily good leaders.
Effective leadership requires effective managerial skills at some level.
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Test Your OB Knowledge (1 of 5)
Javier is a leader in his organization. Javier most likely engages in all of the following activities EXCEPT
proposing a vision for the organization.
getting employees excited and engaged in the process to meet sales goals.
providing support for an employee dealing with the death of a family member.
using effective managerial skills.
planning the production schedule for the month.
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The correct answer is E, planning the production schedule for the month.
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Leadership Effectiveness: Traits and Interpersonal Attributes (1 of 2)
What is the trait approach?
Attempts to identify personality characteristics or interpersonal attributes that can be used to differentiate leaders from followers
Early research identified
Intelligence
Dominance
Self-confidence
Level of energy and activity
Task-relevant knowledge
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Trait approach: attempts to identify personality characteristics or interpersonal attributes that can be used to differentiate leaders from followers.
Table 13.1 summarizes the results of a meta-analysis that identified positive task-oriented traits and positive/negative interpersonal attributes.
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Leadership Effectiveness: Traits and Interpersonal Attributes (2 of 2)
Researchers have long sought to identify a set of traits to differentiate leaders from followers.
The results have largely been mixed; we now know the following traits and attributes have a small but positive association with effective leader emergence.
Intelligence and emotional intelligence
Communication skills
The Big 5: conscientiousness; open to experience; emotional stability; extroversion; and agreeableness
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The “great man” theory of leadership was based on the assumption that great leaders were born with some inborn ability to lead, but trait theorists believed that leadership could be developed through experience and learning.
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Leadership Effectiveness: The Dark-Side Traits
Research has also shown that individuals who possess certain dark traits are more likely to emerge as leaders.
These traits, however, are negatively associated with leadership effectiveness.
1. Narcissism
Self-centered, strong drive for personal power
More charismatic and passionate yet more likely to promote counterproductive behaviors from others
2. Machiavellianism
Entails the use of manipulation, puts results ahead of principles
Linked to counterproductive behaviors
3. Pyschopathy
Lack of concern for others
Lack of remorse or guilt
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There are several “dark triad” traits that often result in career derailment.
Narcissism: having a self-centered perspective, feelings of superiority, and a drive for personal power and glory.
Machiavellianism: the use of manipulation, a cynical view of human nature, and a moral code that puts results over principles.
Psychopathy: characterized as a lack of concern for others, impulsive behavior, and a lack of remorse or guilt when one’s actions harm others.
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Leadership and Gender
Male leaders
More task oriented behaviors
Autocratic, directive style
More likely to view themselves as effective
Female leaders
More relationship-oriented behaviors
Democratic or participative style
Viewed as being more effective by peers, managers, direct reports
Viewed as more cohesive, cooperative, learning-oriented
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The increase of women in the workforce has generated much interest in understanding the similarities and differences in female and male leaders.
Research reveals the following conclusions:
Men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively.
Women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women.
Female leadership was associated with more cohesion, cooperative learning, and participative communication among team members.
Peers, managers, direct reports, and judges/trained observers rated women executives as more effective than men.
Men rated themselves as more effective than women evaluated themselves.
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Leadership Effectiveness (1 of 2)
Perceptions matter
Implicit leadership theory is based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers.
These beliefs are summarized in a leadership prototype.
A mental representation of the traits and behaviors that people believe are possessed by leaders.
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Implicit leadership theory: the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers.
Leadership prototype: mental representation of the traits and behaviors possessed by leaders.
We tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits or behaviors that are consistent with our prototypes.
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Leadership Effectiveness (2 of 2)
What are the takeaways from trait theory?
Leadership traits are linked to leadership emergence.
Positive traits should be cultivated and “dark-side” traits avoided.
It is important to develop a global mind-set.
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Traits play a central role in how we perceive leaders, and they ultimately impact leadership effectiveness. Therefore, we cannot ignore the implications of leadership traits.
The list of positive traits and “dark triad” traits shown in Table 13.1 provides guidance regarding the leadership traits you should attempt to cultivate and avoid if you want to assume a leadership role in the future.
Organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments in their selection and promotion processes.
A global mind-set, the belief in one's ability to influence dissimilar others in a global context, is an increasingly valued task-oriented trait.
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Test Your OB Knowledge (2 of 5)
The leader at Joe’s organization believes that all organizations overstate their expenses in order to pay less income tax. What trait is this leader exhibiting?
psychopathy
Machiavellianism
extraversion
criminal intent
narcissism
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The correct answer is B, Machiavellianism
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Behavioral Styles Approach to Leadership Effectiveness
Uses four categorizes of unique behaviors displayed by effective leaders
Task-oriented
Relationship-oriented
Passive
Transformational
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Because traits and interpersonal attributes are less amenable to change, it may make sense to focus on patterns of behavior exhibited by effective leaders. This is the focus used by those interested in the behavioral styles approach, which attempts to identify the unique behaviors displayed by effective leaders.
As you might expect, leaders rely on many different types of behaviors to influence others and to accomplish goals. One researcher, for example, identified 65 distinct categories of leader behavior. The good news is that these behaviors can be boiled down into four categories: task-oriented, relationship-oriented, passive, and transformational.
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Task-Oriented Behaviors
Primary purpose—ensure that people, equipment, and other resources are used in an efficient way
Initiating Structure
Organizes group behavior to maximize productivity
Moderately strong positive relationship with leader effectiveness
Transactional Leadership
Focuses on clarifying roles and requirements
Uses contingent rewards and punishments
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Researchers have predominantly studied two types of task-oriented behaviors: initiating structure and transactional leadership.
Initiating structure: leader behavior that organizes and defines what group members should be doing to maximize output.
Examples of initiating structure are when someone organizes a team meeting for a class project or when someone seeks input from a knowledgeable source to help guide the team’s work.
Transactional leadership: focuses on clarifying employees’ roles and task requirements and providing followers with positive and negative rewards contingent on performance.
Transactional leadership encompasses the fundamental managerial activities of setting goals, monitoring progress toward goal achievement, and rewarding and punishing people for their level of goal accomplishment.
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Relationship-Orientated Behaviors (1 of 2)
Primary purpose—to enhance employees’ skills and to create positive work relationships
Consideration
Creating mutual respect or trust and focusing on a concern for group members’ needs and desires
Promotes social interaction
Empowerment
Creates perceptions of psychological empowerment in others
Reflects employees’ beliefs that they have control over their work
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The purpose of relationship-oriented leadership is to enhance employees’ skills and to create positive work relationships among coworkers and between the leader and his/her employees.
OB researchers have primarily investigated the impact of four relationship-oriented behaviors: consideration, empowerment, servant-leadership, and ethical leadership.
Consideration: leader behavior that creates mutual respect or trust and prioritizes group members’ needs and desires.
Consideration promotes social interactions and identification with the team and leader.
Considerate leader behavior has a moderately strong positive relationship with measures of leadership effectiveness.
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Relationship-Oriented Behaviors (2 of 2)
Servant leadership
Service to others over service to oneself
Servant leaders possess several key characteristics:
Listening
Empathy
Healing
Awareness
Persuasion
Conceptualization
Foresight
Stewardship
Development of people
Community building
Ethical leadership
Focus is on being a moral role model
Positive relationship to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors, motivation and performance
Lower levels of job stress, counterproductive work behaviors, and turnover
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Empowering Leadership
Empowering leadership: the extent to which a leader creates perceptions of psychological empowerment in others.
Psychological empowerment: employees’ beliefs that they have control over their work.
Leaders increase psychological empowerment by engaging in behaviors that enhance perceptions of meaning, self-determination or choice, competence, and impact.
Managers lead for meaningfulness by inspiring their employees and modeling desired behaviors.
Managers lead for choice by delegating meaningful assignments and tasks.
Managers lead for competence by supporting and coaching employees and by making sure employees have the knowledge needed to successfully perform their jobs.
Managers lead for progress by monitoring and rewarding others.
Servant-Leadership
Servant-leadership: focuses on increased service to others rather than to oneself.
Because the focus of servant-leadership is serving others over self-interest, servant-leaders are less likely to engage in self-serving behaviors that hurt others.
Servant-leadership is expected to promote leadership effectiveness because it focuses on providing support and growth opportunities to employees.
Characteristics of servant-leadership described in Table 13.3 are listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and interest in building community.
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Passive Leadership Behavior
Laissez-faire leadership
Represents a general failure in taking take responsibility for leading
Employees often left feeling unsupported and demoralized
Passive leaders will often
Avoid conflict
Fail to coach
Fail to set performance goals, give feedback
Generally fail to address employee needs or concerns
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Passive leadership is best illustrated by what OB scholars call laissez-faire leadership.
Laissez-faire leadership: a general failure to take responsibility for leading.
Examples of laissez-faire leadership include avoiding conflict, failing to provide coaching on difficult assignments, failing to assist employees in setting performance goals, failing to give performance feedback, failing to address issues associated with bullying, or being so hands-off that employees have little idea about what they should be doing.
Laissez-faire leadership prompts incivility among people and has an overall negative impact on employees’ perceptions of leadership effectiveness.
Individuals using laissez-faire leadership should be trained to use behaviors associated with other forms of task and relational leadership or removed from their position.
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Takeaways from Behavioral Theory
Leader behavior is more important than leader traits when it comes to effectiveness.
Leader behaviors can be improved and developed.
There is no one best style of leadership—it depends on the situation.
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Leader behavior is more important than leader traits when it comes to effectiveness.
Leader behaviors can be systematically improved and developed.
There is no one best style of leadership.
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Test Your OB Knowledge (3 of 5)
Margaret leads her employees by having formal, well-developed guidelines and procedures for each task they perform. Which leadership style best describes Margaret’s style?
consideration
passive
servant leadership
competent leadership
transactional leadership
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The correct answer is E, transactional leadership.
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Effective Leadership: Matching Style to the Situation
Fiedler’s situational theory
Leaders are thought to have a dominant style: motived by either relationship or task.
Leader effectiveness depends on the extent to which leader style matches the situation.
As situations change, different styles become more appropriate.
Fiedler identified three dimensions of situational control:
Leader–member relations
Task structure
Position power
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Contingency theory: based on the premise that a leader’s effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which a leader’s style fits or matches characteristics of the situation at hand.
Leadership Styles
Fiedler believed that leaders have one dominant or natural leadership style that is resistant to change.
A leader’s style is described as either task-motivated or relationship-motivated.
Task-motivated leaders focus on accomplishing goals, whereas relationship-motivated leaders are more interested in developing positive relationships with followers.
Least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale: measures the extent to which an individual takes a task or relationship-based approach toward leadership.
High scores on the LPC scale (high LPC) indicate that an individual is relationship-motivated, and low scores (low LPC) suggest a task-motivated style.
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Fiedler’s Contingency Model
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Situational control refers to the amount of control and influence the leader has in her or his immediate work environment.
There are three dimensions of situational control: leader–member relations, task structure, and position power.
Leader-member relations: the extent to which the leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group.
Task structure: the amount of structure contained within tasks performed by the workgroup.
Position power: the degree to which the leader has formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance from employees.
As shown in Figure 13.3, the dimensions of situational control vary independently, forming eight combinations of situational control that vary from high to low.
High control implies that the leader’s decisions will produce predictable results because the leader has the ability to influence work outcomes, while low control implies that the leader’s decisions may not influence work outcomes because the leader has very little influence.
Neither the task-oriented nor the relationship-oriented leadership style is effective in all situations.
Task-oriented leadership should be most effective in either high-control or low-control situations from Figure 13.3.
Relationship-oriented leadership should be most effective in situations of moderate control in Figure 13.3.
If a leader’s dominant leadership style does not match the situation, Fiedler suggests it is better to move the leader to a more suitable situation since people cannot change their leadership style.
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Takeaways from Fiedler’s Model
Leadership effectiveness goes beyond traits and behaviors.
Organizations should attempt to hire or promote people whose leadership styles fit or match the situational demands.
Leaders need to modify their style to fit a situation.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Leadership effectiveness goes beyond traits and behaviors.
Organizations should attempt to hire or promote people whose leadership styles fit or match situational demands.
Leaders need to modify their style to fit a situation.
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Leadership Effectiveness: Path-Goal Theory
What is path-goal theory?
Leader seen as effective when employees view them as a source of satisfaction or as paving the way to future satisfaction
Leaders do this by
Reducing roadblocks
Providing guidance and support
Linking rewards to goal accomplishment
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Path-goal theory: holds that leader behaviors are effective when employees view them as a source of satisfaction or as paving the way to future satisfaction.
Leaders are expected to do this by (1) reducing roadblocks that interfere with goal accomplishment, (2) providing the guidance and support needed by employees, and (3) linking meaningful rewards to goal accomplishment.
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Path-Goal Theory
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The path-goal theory shown in Figure 13.4 shows that leadership effectiveness is influenced by the interaction between eight leadership behaviors and a variety of contingency factors.
What determines leadership effectiveness? The match between leadership behavior and contingency factors.
Figure 13.4 shows that two contingency factors—employee characteristics and environmental factors—are expected to cause different leadership behaviors to be more effective than others.
Five important employee characteristics are locus of control, task ability, need for achievement, experience, and need for clarity.
Two relevant environmental factors are task structure (independent versus interdependent tasks) and work group dynamics.
The eight categories of leader behavior for the revised path-goal theory are described in Table 13.4.
In putting this theory into action:
Employees with an internal locus of control are more likely to prefer participative or achievement-oriented leadership and unlikely to be satisfied with directive leader behaviors that exert additional control over their activities.
Directive and supportive leadership should help employees experiencing role ambiguity.
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Takeaways from Path-Goal Theory
Effective leaders use multiple types of leader behavior.
Leaders are encouraged to clarify the paths to goal accomplishment and to remove any obstacles that may impair an employee’s ability to achieve his or her goals.
Leadership styles should be modified to fit various employee and environmental characteristics.
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Leadership Effectiveness: Applying Contingency Theories
Research suggests five steps for leaders.
Step 1: Identify important outcomes.
Step 2: Identify relevant leadership behaviors.
Step 3: Identify situational conditions.
Step 4: Match leadership to the conditions at hand.
Step 5: Determine how to make the match.
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Although researchers and practitioners support the logic of contingency leadership, the practical application of such theories has not been clearly developed.
A team of researchers has proposed a five-step general strategy that managers can use across a variety of situations:
Identify important outcomes.
Identify relevant leadership types/behaviors.
Identify situational conditions.
Match leadership to the conditions at hand.
Decide how to make the match.
There can be unintended negative consequences when managers use a contingency approach with members from a team.
Treating group members differently can result in some employees feeling that they are not among the leader’s “in-group,” and this can have a counterproductive effect on employees’ self-efficacy and subsequent group performance.
Leaders of teams need to be careful when treating individual team members differently, as there are potential pros and cons to the application of contingency theories in a team context.
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Test Your OB Knowledge (4 of 5)
Tech Innovations is in the process of hiring a leader. The organization has poor leader-member relations, low task structure, and weak position power. What type of leader should be hired according to Fiedler’s contingency model?
relationship-motivated
passive
task-motivated
directive
supportive
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The correct answer is C, task-motivated.
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Transformational Leaders
Transformational leaders motivate followers to pursue organizational goals over self-interests by using leader behaviors that appeal to followers’ self-concepts such as values, motives, and personal identity.
Four key leader behaviors
Inspirational motivation
Idealized influence
Individual consideration
Intellectual stimulation
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Transformational leaders use a combination of charisma, interpersonal skills, and leader behaviors to transform followers’ goals, motives, and behavior.
The origins of transformational leadership date back to the 1940s when German sociologist Max Weber discussed the pros and cons of charismatic leadership.
Charisma: a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires acceptance, devotion, and enthusiasm.
The dominant model of transformational leadership was proposed by a renowned OB scholar named Bernard Bass.
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Transformational Leadership
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Transformational leaders: transform followers to pursue organizational goals over self-interests.
Transformational leaders use leader behaviors that appeal to followers’ self-concepts—namely their values, motives, and personal identity.
Figure 13.5 presents a transformational model of leadership.
There are four key behaviors of transformational leaders: inspirational motivation, idealized influence, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation.
Inspirational motivation: establishing an attractive vision of the future, the use of emotional arguments, and exhibition of optimism and enthusiasm.
Idealized influence: instilling pride, respect, and trust within employees.
Individualized consideration: behaviors associated with providing support, encouragement, empowerment, and coaching to employees.
Intellectual stimulation: involves behaviors that encourage employees to question the status quo and to seek innovative and creative solutions to organizational problems.
Figure 13.5 shows on the left-hand side that transformational leader behavior is first influenced by both person and situation factor characteristics.
Relevant person characteristics include personality, emotional intelligence, and gender.
Organizational culture is a relevant situation characteristic, with cultures that are adaptive and flexible more likely to create environments that foster the opportunity for transformational leadership to be exhibited.
The use of transformational leadership creates positive effects on followers and work groups such as increased self-efficacy, increased identification with the leader, psychological empowerment, and perceived organizational support, among others.
In turn, these positive effects are expected to lead to positive outcomes like individual, group, and organizational performance; organizational commitment; organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs); reduced turnover intentions; and safety behaviors.
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Implications of Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership can be ethical or unethical
Establishment of a positive view of the future is the first step.
The best leaders are not just transformational.
Transformational leadership affects outcomes at the individual, group, and organizational levels.
Transformational leadership works virtually.
Transformational leadership does not imply ethical leadership.
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The establishment of a positive vision of the future—inspirational motivation—should be considered a first step toward applying transformational leadership.
The best leaders are not just transformational, but rather they also rely on other task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors.
Transformational leadership affects outcomes at the individual, group, and organizational levels.
Transformational leadership works virtually.
Transformational leaders can be ethical or unethical.
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Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Based on the assumption that leaders develop unique one-to-one relationships with each of the people reporting to them
Focus on the quality of the relationship rather than behaviors or traits
Leaders with positive in-group exchanges (high LMX) get along better, have higher trust, respect, and liking
Leaders with out-group exchanges (low LMX) tend to have more formal relationships—such as pay for performance—lower levels of trust and respect
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Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory: based on the assumption that leaders develop unique one-to-one relationships with each of the people reporting to them.
LMX focuses on the quality of relationships between managers and subordinates as opposed to the behaviors or traits of either leaders or followers.
LMX theory does not assume that leader behavior is characterized by a stable or average leadership style.
Two distinct types of LMX relationships are expected to evolve.
In-group exchange: characterized by a partnership of reciprocal influence, mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fate (i.e., high LMX).
Out-group exchange: relationship tends to be more formal and revolves around specifically negotiating the relationship between performance and pay (i.e., low LMX).
LMXs have widespread influence on many important outcomes, including individual-level behavioral outcomes like performance, turnover, and organizational citizenship behavior, and attitudinal outcomes such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and justice.
The quality of an LMX is influenced by three categories of variables: follower characteristics, leader characteristics, and interpersonal relationship variables.
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Implications of LMX Theory
Managerial and personal implications
Expectations
Leaders are expected to establish high performance expectations.
Diversity
Managers need to be careful that they don’t create a homogenous work environment.
Initiative
It is important to take positive actions to improve a poor LMX.
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Leaders are encouraged to establish high-performance expectations for all their direct reports because favoritism and differential treatment within teams lead to negative outcomes.
Because personality and demographic similarities between leaders and followers are associated with higher LMXs, managers need to be careful that they don’t create a homogeneous work environment in the spirit of having positive relationships with their direct reports.
It is important to take positive actions at improving a poor LMX.
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Leaders and Followers
Leaders want followers who are
Productive
Reliable
Honest
Cooperative
Proactive
Flexible
Followers want leaders who will
Foster significance and meaning in their work
Foster sense of community and respect
Make them feel engaged and energized at work
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Leaders want followers who are productive, cooperative, reliable, proactive, honest, and flexible.
Leaders do not benefit from followers who hide the truth, withhold information, fail to generate ideas, are unwilling to collaborate, provide inaccurate feedback, or are unwilling to take the lead on projects and initiatives.
Followers seek, admire, and respect leaders who foster three emotional responses in others:
Feelings of significance: what one does at work is important and meaningful.
Community: a sense of unity encourages people to treat others with respect and dignity and to work together.
Excitement: people are engaged and feel energized at work.
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How to Be a Better Follower
Understand your boss.
Preferred leadership style, ways of communication, etc.
Understand your own style, needs, goals, expectations, and strengths and weaknesses.
Conduct a gap analysis between the understanding you have about your boss and the understanding you have about yourself.
Build on mutual strengths and adjust or accommodate the leader’s divergent style, goals, expectations, and weaknesses.
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You can use a four-step process in managing the leader–follower relationship.
You must understand your boss and have an appreciation for your manager’s leadership style, interpersonal style, goals, expectations, pressures, and strengths and weaknesses.
You need to understand your own style, needs, goals, expectations, and strengths and weaknesses.
You should conduct a gap analysis between the understanding you have about your boss and the understanding you have about yourself.
You need to build on mutual strengths and adjust or accommodate the leader’s divergent style, goals, expectations, and weaknesses.
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Test Your OB Knowledge (5 of 5)
All of the following are transformational leader behaviors EXCEPT
leader-member exchange (LMX).
intellectual stimulation.
inspirational motivation.
individualized consideration.
idealized influence.
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The correct answer is A, leader-member exchange (LMX).
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Leadership Effectiveness: Putting It All in Context
Figure 13.6 The Organizing Framework for Understanding and Applying Organizational Behavior
Jump to Appendix 5 for description
Copyright 2014 Angelo Kinicki and Mel Fugate. All rights reserved. Reproduction prohibited without permission of the authors.
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Appendix 1 An Integrated Model of Leadership
Leadership effectiveness is influenced by four types of leadership behavior: task-oriented, relationship-oriented, passive, and transformational. It is also affected by a combination of task-oriented traits and interpersonal attributes.
The leadership behaviors are also influenced by demographics, intelligence and skills, task-oriented traits, and interpersonal attributes.
Situation factors can also influence effectiveness, suggesting that different situations call for different leader behaviors.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
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Appendix 2 Fiedler’s Contingency Model
The dimensions of situational control vary independently, forming eight combinations in which control varies from high to low. High control implies that the leader’s decisions will produce predictable results because the leader has the ability to influence work outcomes. Low control implies that the leader’s decisions may not influence work outcomes because the leader has very little influence.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Appendix 3 Path-Goal Theory
| GENERAL LEADER BEHAVIORS | SPECIFICS OF SITUATION can cause some leadership behaviors to be more effective than others | RESULTING LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS |
| Path-goal clarifying, achievement oriented, work facilitation, supportive, interaction facilitation, group-oriented decision making, representation and networking, value based | Employee characteristics: locus of control, task ability, need for achievement, experience, and need for clarity | Employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance; leader acceptance; work-unit performance |
| Environmental factors: task structure and work group dynamics |
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Appendix 4 Transformational Leadership
| Person and situation factors | Leader behavior | Effects on followers and work groups | Outcomes |
| Traits | Inspirational motivation | Increased self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy | Increased individual, group, and organizational performance |
| Life experiences and leader trait affect | Idealized influence | Increased identification with the leader and work group members | Positive work attitudes |
| Organizational culture | Individualized consideration | Increased perceptions of psychological empowerment and perceived organizational support | Increased individual and group creativity and or innovation |
| Intellectual stimulation | Increased positive affect, increased perceptions of task meaningfulness, increased perceptions of organizational justice, increased trust and liking with the leader, increased perceptions of positive climates and work group processes | Reduced stress and turnover, increased organizational citizenship behavior, increased customer service, and positive perceptions of leader effectiveness |
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Appendix 5 Leadership Effectiveness: Putting It All in Context
The Organizing Framework for Understanding and Applying OB shows the relationship between the three categories Inputs, Process, and Outcomes.
Inputs
Person factors: traits, skills, gender, and prototypes, ethical beliefs and values, experience, and self-concept
Situation factors: organizational culture and climate, task structure, work group dynamics, leader’s personality and style, trust between leaders and followers
Leads to
Processes
Individual Level: task-oriented leadership, relationship-oriented leadership, passive leadership, transformational leadership, and leader-member exchange
Group, Team Level: task-oriented leadership, relationship-oriented leadership, passive leadership, transformational leadership, and leader-member exchange
Organizational Level: task-oriented leadership, relationship-oriented leadership, passive leadership, and transformational leadership
Leads to
Outcomes
Individual Level: task performance, work attitudes, well being and or flourishing, citizenship behavior and or counterproductive behavior, turnover, career outcomes, and creativity
Group, Team Level: group and or team performance, group satisfaction, and group collaboration
Organizational Level: accounting and or financial performance, customer satisfaction, and corporate reputation
In return, Outcomes relates to both Inputs and Processes.
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