Organizational Communication for leaders
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Kinicki_Fugate_OB_1e_Ch16.pptxPart 3: Organizational Processes
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Chapter 16 | Slide 2
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MANAGING CHANGE AND STRESS
How Can You Apply OB and Show What You’ve Learned?
16.1 Forces for Change
16.2 Types and Models of Change
16.3 Understanding Resistance to Change
16.4 The Good and Bad of Stress
16.5 Effective Change and Stress Management
Forces for Change
External Forces for Change
Originate outside of an organization
Can apply to the organization, competitors, or the entire industry
Dramatically affects why an organization exists and which markets it will participate in and how
Chapter 16 | Slide 3
External forces for change originate outside the organization. Such forces often apply to your organization and its competitors or even entire industries. External forces therefore can dramatically affect why an organization exists, as well as which markets it participates in and how. For instance, external changes can either present new opportunities for organizations to realize and grow (e.g., smartphones for consumers and Apple’s iPhone), or they can cause the ultimate demise or failure of a business (e.g., smartphones for consumers and Blackberry).
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Forces for Change
Key External Forces for Change
Demographic characteristics
Technological advancements
Shareholder, customer, and market changes
Social and political pressures
Chapter 16 | Slide 4
Demographic Characteristics. Chapter 2 provided a detailed discussion of demographic changes occurring in the U.S. workforce. You learned that organizations are changing benefits and aspects of the work environment in order to attract, motivate, and retain diverse employees. Organizations also are changing the way in which they design and market their products and services and design their store layouts based on generational differences.
Persistently high unemployment levels among young people around the world are creating a strong force for change by governments and organizations alike. Experts believe that much of the current unrest in the Middle East is being fueled by a younger population that cannot find meaningful employment opportunities.
Technological Advancements. Technology is a common and often cost-effective tool for improving productivity, competitiveness, and customer service. Other surveys report that 98% of recruiters use some form of social media to find employees. This one technology has changed how employees look for and find jobs, how companies recruit talent, and how companies make money facilitating these relationships.
Shareholder, Customer, and Market Changes. Shareholders have become more involved with pressing for organizational change in response to ethical lapses from senior management and anger over executives’ compensation packages. Customers also are increasingly sophisticated and demand the companies with whom they do business to deliver higher value products and services. If they don’t get what they want, then they will shop elsewhere. This has led more and more companies to seek customer feedback about a wide range of issues in order to attract and retain customers, because “turning a potential negative situation into visible positive sentiment is social media’s biggest potential advantage.”
Social and Political Pressures. These forces are created by social and political events. For example, widespread concern about the impact of climate change and rising energy costs have been important forces for change in almost every industry around the world. Companies have gone “green,” looking for ways to use less energy themselves and to sell products that consume less energy and are safer to use.
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Forces for Change
Internal Forces for Change
Come from inside the organization
Forces may be subtle (low job satisfaction)
May manifest in outward signs (low productivity, conflict, or strikes)
Chapter 16 | Slide 5
Internal forces for change come from inside the organization.
These forces may be subtle, such as low job satisfaction, or can manifest in outward signs, such as low productivity, conflict, or strikes.
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Forces for Change
Key Internal Forces for Change
Chapter 16 | Slide 6
Human Resource Problems or Prospects. These problems stem from employee perceptions about how they are treated at work and the match between individual and organization needs and desires. Chapter 2 highlighted the relationship between an employee’s unmet needs and job dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction is a symptom of an underlying employee problem that should be addressed. Unusual or high levels of absenteeism and turnover also represent forces for change. Organizations might respond to these problems by using the various approaches to job design discussed in Chapter 5, and by removing the different stressors. To help combat these challenges, leaders and managers of change are well served to encourage employee participation and suggestions.
Managerial Behaviors and Decisions. Excessive interpersonal conflict between managers and their subordinates or the board of directors is a sign that change is needed.
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Human Resource Problems or Prospects
Managerial Behaviors and Decisions
Test Your OB Knowledge
Managers at Storm Kayak Corporation (SKC) changed their marketing strategy to target baby boomers. Which change force did SKC experience?
Internal – job dissatisfaction
Internal - leadership
External - demographic
External – domestic/international competition
External – information technology
Chapter 16 | Slide ‹#›
The correct answer is (D).
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Types and Models of Change
Three General Types of Change
Adaptive change
Innovative change
Radically innovative change
Chapter 16 | Slide 8
Low degree of complexity
High degree of complexity
Adaptive change is the least complex, costly, and uncertain. It involves reimplementation of a change in the same organizational unit at a later time or imitation of a similar change by a different unit. Adaptive changes are not particularly threatening to employees because they are familiar.
Innovative change falls midway on the continuum of complexity, cost, and uncertainty. Innovative changes are therefore more complex, as organizations need to learn new behaviors, as well as create, implement, and enforce new policies and practices. These situations have both more uncertainty and cause more fear than adaptive changes.
Radically innovative change is at the high end of the continuum of complexity, cost, and uncertainty. Changes of this sort are the most difficult to implement and tend to be the most threatening to managerial confidence and employee job security. At the same time, however, radically innovative changes potentially realize the greatest benefits. Radical changes must also be supported by an organization’s culture. Organizational change is more likely to fail if it is inconsistent with any of the three levels of organizational culture: observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions.
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Types and Models of Change
Lewin’s Change Model
Key assumptions underlying Lewin’s Model:
Learn and unlearn
Motivation
People make or break
Resistance
Reinforce
Chapter 16 | Slide 9
Most models of organizational change originated from the landmark work of social psychologist Kurt Lewin. Lewin developed a three-stage model of planned change that explained how to initiate, manage, and stabilize the change process. The three stages are unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. Before reviewing each stage, it is important to highlight some key assumptions underlying this model and many of the others:
1. Learn and unlearn. The change process involves learning something new, as well as discontinuing or unlearning current attitudes, behaviors, or organizational practices.
2. Motivation. Change will not occur unless there is motivation to change. This is often the most difficult part of the change process.
3. People make or break. People are the key to all organizational changes. Any change, whether in terms of structure, group process, reward systems, or job design, requires individuals to change. Organizations don’t change if employee behaviors don’t change.
4. Resistance. Resistance to change is found even when the goals of change are highly desirable.
5. Reinforce. Effective change requires reinforcing new behaviors, attitudes, and organizational practices.
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Types and Models of Change
Three Stages of Lewin’s Change Model
Chapter 16 | Slide 10
Unfreezing. The focus of this stage is to create the motivation to change. Individuals are encouraged to replace old behaviors and attitudes with new ones (desired by management). The initial challenge in the unfreezing process is creating and communicating a convincing reason to change.
Changing. This is where the rubber meets the road and change occurs. Because change involves learning and doing things differently, this stage entails providing employees with new information, new behavioral models, new processes or procedures, new equipment, new technology, or new ways of getting the job done.
Refreezing. The goal of this stage is to support and reinforce the change. Change is supported by helping employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things. This is accomplished by first giving employees the chance to exhibit the new behaviors or attitudes. Once this happens, positive reinforcement is used to encourage the desired change.
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Unfreezing
Changing
Refreezing
Types and Models of Change
Systems Model of Change
Based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading effect throughout an organization
Practical model to diagnose what to change and how to evaluate the success of a change effort
Chapter 16 | Slide 11
A systems approach to change is based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading effect throughout an organization.
A systems model of change is similar to the systems framework used in the Integrative Framework of OB. However, it is a bit more complex, as shown in Figure 16.4.
This model includes inputs, strategic plans, target elements of change, and outputs.
It is a very practical approach and can be used to diagnose what to change and to determine how to evaluate the success of a change effort.
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Types and Models of Change
Systems Model of Change - Inputs
Intended change must align with:
Mission (the reason an organization exists)
Vision (a compelling future state for an organization)
Readiness for change:
Necessity
Top management support
Personal ability to cope with changes
Received personal consequences
Chapter 16 | Slide 12
The starting point for organizational change should be asking and answering the question: “Why change?” Leaders need to get clear on the overarching motive or reason for change. It then is essential to assure that the intended changes align with the organization’s mission, vision, and resulting strategic plan.
Mission statements represent the “reason” organizations exist.
A vision is a compelling future state for an organization, and it also is another important input in the systems model of change.
Readiness for change is defined as beliefs, attitudes, and intentions regarding the extent to which changes are needed and the capacity available to successfully implement those changes.
Put another way, effective change at work requires both the employees and the employer to be willing and able to change (i.e., have high readiness). Readiness has four components:
1. Necessity for change
2. Top management support for change efforts
3. Personal ability to cope with changes
4. Perceived personal consequences of change
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Types and Models of Change
Systems Model of Change – Strategic Plans
Chapter 16 | Slide 13
Outlines an organization’s long-term direction and the actions necessary to achieve planned results
Based on SWOT analysis
A strategic plan outlines an organization’s long-term direction and the actions necessary to achieve planned results.
Among other things, strategic plans are based on results from a SWOT—strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats—analysis. This analysis aids in developing an organizational strategy to attain desired goals, such as profits, customer satisfaction, quality, adequate return on investment, and acceptable levels of turnover and employee satisfaction.
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Types and Models of Change
Systems Model of Change – Target Elements of Change
Components of an organization that may change
Used to diagnose problems and identify change-related solutions
Consist of:
Organizational arrangements
Social factors
Methods
People
Chapter 16 | Slide 14
Target elements of change are the components of an organization that may be changed. They essentially represent change levers that managers can push and pull to influence various aspects of an organization.
The choice of which lever to use, however, is based on a diagnosis of a problem, or problems, or the actions needed to accomplish a goal.
The target elements of change are used to diagnose problems and to identify change-related solutions.
There are four targeted elements of change:
1. Organizational arrangements
2. Social factors
3. Methods
4. People
Each target element of change contains a subset of more detailed organizational features.
There are two final issues to keep in mind about the target elements. First, the double-headed arrows in the figure connecting each target element of change convey the message that change ripples across an organization. Second, the “people” component is placed in the center of the target elements of change box because all organizational change ultimately impacts employees and vice versa.
Organizational change is more likely to succeed when managers proactively consider the impact of change on employees.
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Types and Models of Change
Systems Model of Change – Outputs
Represent the desired end results or goals of a change
Should be consistent with organization’s strategic plan
Can be at the individual, group, or organizational level
Chapter 16 | Slide 15
Outputs represent the desired end results or goals of a change. Once again, these end results should be consistent with an organization’s strategic plan. Figure 16.4 indicates that change may be directed at the individual, group, or organizational level.
Change efforts are more complicated and difficult to manage when they are targeted at the organizational level. This occurs because organizational-level changes are more likely to affect multiple target elements of change shown in the model.
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Types and Models of Change
Kotter’s Steps for Leading Organizational Change
Concentrates on effective implementation
Does not help in diagnosing the need for or targets for change
Provides specific recommendations about behaviors and activities needed to lead organizational change
Chapter 16 | Slide 16
John Kotter, an expert in leadership and change management, believes that organizational change most often fails not because of inadequate planning but because of ineffective implementation. To help overcome this, he proposed an eight-step process for leading change (see Table 16.1). This approach differs from the systems model in that it does not help in diagnosing the need for or targets of change. It is, however, somewhat like Lewin’s model in that it guides managers through the process of effective organizational change.
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Types and Models of Change
Kotter’s Steps for Leading Organizational Change
Chapter 16 | Slide 17
The value of Kotter’s steps is that they provide specific recommendations about behaviors and activities needed to successfully lead organizational change.
Notice that vision and strategy are central components to Kotter’s approach, as they are in the systems model.
But it also is helpful to know that Kotter insists that the steps need to be followed in sequence and none skipped. It therefore requires a tremendous commitment of resources (time, money, and people) to implement Kotter’s eight steps. The result is that this approach is very difficult for organizations, and even more so for individuals, to utilize.
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Establish a Sense of Urgency
Create the Guiding Coalition
Develop a Vision and Strategy
Communicate the Change Vision
Empower the Broad-Based Action
Generate Short-Term Wins
Consolidate Gains and Produce More Change
Anchor New Approaches in the Culture
Types and Models of Change
What is Organization Development (OD)?
OD is about planned change aimed at increasing an organization’s ability to improve itself as a humane and effective system
OD takes theories and results from the laboratory and applies them to real-life work settings
OD takes a distinctively democratic and participative approach to solving conflicts and problems
Chapter 16 | Slide 18
Organization development (OD) differs from the previously discussed models of change. And while its origins are in Lewin’s approach, it does not entail a structured sequence as proposed by Lewin and Kotter. OD does, however, possess the same diagnostic focus associated with the systems model of change. OD is much broader in orientation than any of the previously discussed models.
Many OD experts and practitioners argue that employee empowerment is central to this approach to change.
Throughout its history OD has combined academic rigor with practical application, which has led some experts to say it is the most common approach to organizational change today. Three fundamental aspects have helped it earn this distinction:
1. OD is about planned change aimed at increasing “an organization’s ability to improve itself as a humane and effective system.”
2. OD takes theories and results from the laboratory and applies them to the real-life work settings.
3. OD takes a distinctly democratic and participative approach to solving conflict and problems. This means that an organizational development approach to organizational change is not simply a top-down approach where senior leaders prescribe changes or directives to be followed by employees. Instead, OD advocates the involvement of all players in identifying needed changes, planning how to make such changes, and then the ultimate implementation and evaluation of change efforts.
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Types and Models of Change
How Does OD Work?
Chapter 16 | Slide 19
Diagnosis: What is the problem and its causes? Many means can be used to answer this question: interviews, surveys, meetings, written materials, and direct observation. We recommend the 3-Stop Problem-Solving Approach and the Integrative Framework of OB to help. The target elements in the systems model of change can also be useful.
Intervention: What can be done to solve the problem? The treatment or intervention represents the changes being made to solve the problem. Treatments are selected based on the causes of the problem. The key thing to remember is that there is not one “set” of intervention techniques that apply to all situations.
Evaluation: Is the intervention working? Evaluation requires measurement. The measures must match the problem. It also is helpful if the final evaluation is based on comparing measures of effectiveness obtained before and after the intervention.
Feedback: What does the evaluation suggest about the diagnosis and the effectiveness of how the intervention was implemented? If the evaluation reveals that the intervention worked, then the OD process is complete and you can consider how best to “refreeze” the changes. However, a negative evaluation means one of two things: (1) either the initial diagnosis was wrong or (2) the intervention was not effectively implemented. Negative evaluations generally require you to collect more information about steps 1 and 2 in the OD process shown in Figure 16.5.
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Types and Models of Change
How Does OD Influence Organizational Outcomes?
Chapter 16 | Slide 20
OD has been shown to positively influence a number of outcomes in the Integrative Framework of OB.
Employee satisfaction with change was higher when top management was highly committed to the change effort.
Varying one target element of change created changes in other target elements. Also, there was a positive relationship between individual behavior change and organizational-level change.
Interventions using more than one OD technique were more effective in changing job attitudes and work attitudes than interventions that relied on only one human process or structural approach.
US and European firms used OD interventions more frequently than firms from China and Japan, and some OD interventions are “culture free” (i.e., are more or less effective depending on the national culture) and some are not.
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Employee satisfaction with change is higher when top management is committed to the change
Varying one target element of change creates changes in other target elements
Interventions using more than one technique are more effective in changing job attitudes
US and European firms use OD interventions more frequently than firms from China and Japan
Test Your OB Knowledge
When managing organizational change, managers should do all of the following EXCEPT:
Provide employees with new information to get the job done
Be clear on the overarching motive for change
Generate short term wins
Discourage individuals to replace old behaviors and attitudes with new ones
Use feedback to determine the effectiveness of the intervention
Chapter 16 | Slide ‹#›
The correct answer is (D).
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Understanding Resistance to Change
What is Resistance to Change?
Any thought, emotion, or behavior that does not align with real or potential changes to existing routines
One of three possible influence outcomes including compliance and commitment
Chapter 16 | Slide 22
Resistance to change is any thought, emotion, or behavior that does not align with real or potential changes to existing routines.
This means that people resist both actual and imagined events.
Viewing change in this way is helpful because managing resistance and change are fundamentally attempts to influence employees to think, feel, or behave differently.
This perspective underscores that resistance is one of the three possible influence outcomes—the other two being compliance and commitment.
This perspective has led many people to conclude that resistance to change represents a failed influence attempt. And while resistance can indeed spell failure, we are going to challenge this assumption and approach resistance in a different and more useful way, and help you gain more compliance and commitment to change.
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Understanding Resistance to Change
A Dynamic View of Resistance
Chapter 16 | Slide 23
Historically, and still, many managers of change see resistance as employees pursuing their own interests and attempting to undermine the interests of the manager or larger organization. This view suggests that there is a victim, either the manager of change who must “fight” or overcome the lack of compliance or commitment by employees, or employees who are victims of uncaring or inconsiderate managers and employers who serve their interests at the expense of employees.
These two perspectives are why resistance is commonly viewed as a negative and individual-level outcome in the change process (and in the Integrative Framework of OB).
While both of these views are possible, and at times are very real, there is much more to the resistance story. Specifically, it is equally likely that resistance is caused by two other key factors:
1. Change agent’s characteristics, actions, inactions, and perceptions. A change agent is someone who is a catalyst in helping organizations to deal with old problems in new ways. Change agents can be external consultants or internal employees.
2. Quality of the relationship between change agents and change recipients. When viewed in this way resistance is a dynamic form of feedback (see Figure 16.6).
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Understanding Resistance to Change
Causes of Resistance to Change – Recipient Characteristics
Includes a variety of individual differences:
Dispositional resistance to change
Surprise and fear of the unknown
Fear of failure
Loss of status and/or job security
Peer pressure
Past success
Chapter 16 | Slide 24
Recipient characteristics include a variety of individual differences.
They also represent the actions (engaging in new behaviors) or inactions (failing to engage in new behaviors) displayed by recipients.
Finally, recipient perceptions of change (e.g., “This change is unfair because I am being asked to do more with no increase in pay”) can contribute to resistance.
Six of the key recipient characteristics are discussed below:
Dispositional resistance to change. This is a stable personality trait, like many of the personality characteristics you learned about in Chapter 3. Individuals with a high dispositional resistance to change are “less likely to voluntarily initiate changes and more likely to form negative attitudes toward the changes [they] encounter.”
Dispositional resistance comprises four attributes:
1. Routine seeking—extent to which you enjoy and seek out stable environments.
2. Emotional reaction—degree to which you feel stressed and uncomfortable when change is imposed.
3. Short-term focus—extent you are preoccupied with inconveniences in the near term due to the changes instead of long-term benefits.
4. Cognitive rigidity—stubbornness or lack of willingness to consider alternative ways of doing things.
Surprise and fear of the unknown. When innovative or radically different changes are introduced without warning, affected employees become fearful of the implications. The same is true when managers announce new goals without explaining the specific plans for how the goals will be achieved.
Fear of failure. Intimidating changes on the job can cause employees to doubt their capabilities. Self-doubt erodes self-confidence and cripples personal growth and development.
Loss of status and/or job security. Administrative and technological changes that threaten to alter power bases or eliminate jobs generally trigger strong resistance.
Peer pressure. Someone who is not directly affected by a change may actively resist it to protect the interests of his or her friends and coworkers.
Past success. Success can breed complacency. It also can foster a stubbornness to change because people come to believe that what worked in the past will work in the future.
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Understanding Resistance to Change
Causes of Resistance to Change – Change Agent Characteristics
Include a variety of individual differences:
Decisions that disrupt cultural traditions or group relationships
Personality conflicts
Lack of tact or poor timing
Leadership style
Failing to legitimize change
Chapter 16 | Slide 25
Like change recipients, this cause includes a variety of individual differences possessed by change agents. Change agent characteristics also represent the actions or inactions displayed by change agents. For example, a change agent who fails to communicate with employees or is perceived as instituting unfair policies is likely to create resistance from recipients. Finally, resistance is a function of the change agent’s perceptions of why employees behave the way they do in the face of organizational change.
Decisions that disrupt cultural traditions or group relationships. Whenever individuals are transferred, promoted, or reassigned, cultural and group dynamics are thrown into disequilibrium.
Personality conflicts. Just as a friend can get away with telling us something we would resent hearing from an adversary, the personalities of change agents can breed resistance. Change agents that display any of the traits of bad leadership discussed in Chapter 13 are likely to engender resistance from recipients.
Lack of tact or poor timing. Undue resistance can occur because change agents introduce change in an insensitive manner or at an awkward time. Proposed organizational changes are more likely to be accepted by others when change agents effectively explain or “sell” the value of their proposed changes. This can be done by explaining how a proposed change is strategically important to an organization’s success.
Leadership style. Research shows that people are less likely to resist change when the change agent uses transformational leadership.
Failing to legitimize change. Change must be internalized by recipients before it will be truly accepted. Active, honest communication and reinforcing reward systems are needed to make this happen. This recommendation underscores the need for change agents to communicate with recipients in a way that considers employees’ point of view and perspective.
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Understanding Resistance to Change
Causes of Resistance to Change – Change Agent-Recipient Relationship
Resistance is reduced when there is a positive, trusting relationship
Chapter 16 | Slide 26
In general, resistance is reduced when change agents and recipients have a positive, trusting relationship. Trust involves reciprocal faith in others’ intentions and behavior. Mutual mistrust can doom to failure an otherwise well-conceived change. Mistrust encourages secrecy, which begets deeper mistrust. Managers who trust their employees make the change process an open, honest, and participative affair. Employees who, in turn, trust management are more willing to expend extra effort and take chances with something different.
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Test Your OB Knowledge
All of the following are causes of resistance to change EXCEPT:
A change agent who is perceived as a transformational leader
Fear of failure on the part of recipients
Past success on the part of recipients
Mistrust between recipients and change agent
Change agent failing to legitimize change
Chapter 16 | Slide ‹#›
The correct answer is (A).
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The Good and Bad of Stress
What is Stress?
An adaptive response to environmental demands, referred to as stressors, that produce adaptive responses that include:
Physical
Emotional
Behavioral reactions
Chapter 16 | Slide 28
Influenced by individual differences
Stress is an adaptive response to environmental demands, referred to as stressors, that produce adaptive responses that include physical, emotional, and behavioral reactions that are influenced by individual differences.
This definition of stress describes it as an interaction between person and environmental factors, just as you learned in Chapter 1 and illustrated in the Integrative Framework of OB you’ve applied throughout this book.
It therefore is helpful to think of both types of factors as potential causes and remedies for stress.
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The Good and Bad of Stress
What is Good Stress?
Stress associated with positive emotions and outcomes called eustress
Illustrates that:
Stress is not merely nervous tension
Stress can have positive consequences
Stress is not something to be avoided
The complete absence of stress is death
Chapter 16 | Slide 29
Stress is inevitable and
needs to be managed, not escaped
We call stress that is associated with positive emotions and outcomes eustress.
For instance, think of stress that generates positive emotions, like excitement instead of anxiety, which then helps motivate you to do a better presentation, have fun on a first date, or take and make the game-winning shot.
More generally, this illustrates that:
• Stress is not merely nervous tension.
• Stress can have positive consequences.
• Stress is not something to be avoided.
• The complete absence of stress is death.
These points make it clear that stress is inevitable. Efforts need to be directed at managing stress, not at somehow escaping it altogether.
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The Good and Bad of Stress
Occupational Stress – Potential Stressors
Chapter 16 | Slide 30
Individual Level
Group Level
Organizational Level
Extra-Organizational
Individual level. Job demands are the most common, but work overload, unclear or conflicting expectations, everyday hassles, perceived control over events occurring in the work environment, and job characteristics can also be problematic.
Group level. Recall discussion in Chapter 8 about the challenges of working in groups and it will be obvious how many of these can cause stress. For instance, managers create stress for employees by (1) exhibiting inconsistent behaviors, (2) failing to provide support, (3) showing lack of concern, (4) providing inadequate direction, (5) creating a high-productivity environment, and (6) focusing on negatives while ignoring good performance.
Organizational level. Organizational culture is a potential stressor in itself. For instance, a high-pressure environment that fuels employee fear about performing up to standard can increase the stress response. The increased use of information technology is another source of organizational stress, as continual connectivity causes employees to be “on call” anytime.
Extra-organizational. Extra-organizational stressors are those caused by factors outside the organization. For instance, in Chapter 10 we discussed how conflicts associated with balancing school with one’s career or family life are stressful. Socioeconomic status is another extra-organizational stressor. Stress is higher for people with lower socioeconomic status, which represents a combination of income, education, and occupation.
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The Good and Bad of Stress
Occupational Stress – Cognitive Appraisals
Chapter 16 | Slide 31
Primary appraisals:
Perceptions of whether a stressor is irrelevant, positive, or negative
Secondary appraisals:
Perceptions of how able you are to deal or cope with a given demand
“It’s not what happens to you but how you respond that matters”
Cognitive appraisal is the process by which people evaluate the meaning of events and demands (e.g., stressors) for their own well-being. Put another way, what makes stressors actually stressful is how they are cognitively appraised. There are two types of appraisals that determine whether a particular stressor is actually experienced as stress, and to what degree it is stressful.
Primary appraisals are perceptions of whether a stressor is irrelevant, positive, or negative. Stress appraisals are obviously the most important in terms of our current discussion because they imply that a situation or stressor is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging.
Secondary appraisals are perceptions of how able you are to deal or cope with a given demand. During this evaluation a person considers which coping strategies are available and which ones are most likely to help resolve the situation at hand. Combined, these appraisals influence the choice of your coping strategies and in turn the subsequent outcomes.
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The Good and Bad of Stress
Occupational Stress – Coping Strategies
Chapter 16 | Slide 32
Control Strategy
Escape Strategy
Symptom Management Strategy
Coping strategies are characterized by the specific behaviors and cognitions used to cope with a situation. People use a combination of three approaches to cope with stressors and stress (see Figure 16.7).
Control strategy, consists of using behaviors and cognitions to directly anticipate or solve problems. A control strategy has a take-charge tone. Research consistently, but not always, shows health and other benefits for control coping. People are more apt to use control coping when they possess high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and problem-solving skills.
Escape strategies are those in which you avoid or ignore stressors. These strategies can be beneficial if you have no control over the stressors or their causes.
Symptom management strategies, which focus on reducing the symptoms of stress, are the third type of strategy commonly used, such as relaxation, meditation, medication, or exercise to manage the symptoms of occupational stress. A vacation, for example, can be a good way to reduce the symptoms of stress. Other people may drink or take drugs to reduce stress.
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The Good and Bad of Stress
Occupational Stress – Stress Outcomes
Psychological/attitudinal
Behavioral
Cognitive
Physical stress
Chapter 16 | Slide 33
Linked to counterproductive behaviors and negatively affects physical and psychological health
Stress has psychological/attitudinal, behavioral, cognitive, and physical health consequences or outcomes. Besides your own personal experiences, a large body of research supports the negative effects of perceived stress on many aspects of our lives.
Workplace stress is associated with many undesirable effects on many outcomes in the Integrative Framework of OB:
• Decreases in job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, positive emotions, and performance.
• Increases in emotional exhaustion, burnout, absenteeism, and turnover.
The undesirable effects extend beyond these, however. Stress is linked to many counterproductive behaviors, like yelling, verbal abuse, and violence toward others. It also is associated with the frequency of drinking and taking illicit drugs.
These stress outcomes are very costly to individuals and organizations alike. Finally, ample evidence supports the conclusion that stress negatively affects our physical and psychological health. Stress contributes to the following physical and mental health problems:
• Lessened ability to ward off illness and infection
• High blood pressure
• Coronary artery disease
• Tension headaches
• Back pain
• Gastrointestinal problems
• Psychological well-being
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Effective Change and Stress Management
Overcoming Resistance to Change
Resistance is a form of feedback
Managers must understand why it is occurring before trying to overcome it
Chapter 16 | Slide 34
We previously noted that resistance is a form of feedback and managers need to understand why it is occurring before trying to overcome it. This can be done by considering the extent to which the three sources of resistance shown in Figure 16.6 are contributing to the problem.
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Effective Change and Stress Management
Overcoming Resistance to Change – Methods
Employees are more likely to resist when they perceive that the personal costs of change outweigh the benefits, so managers should:
Provide as much information as possible to employees
Inform employees about the reasons/rationale
Conduct meetings to address employees’ questions
Provide employees the opportunity to discuss how the proposed change might affect them.
Above points also helps build trust and improve the agent-recipient relationship
Chapter 16 | Slide 35
Employees are more likely to resist when they perceive that the personal costs of change outweigh the benefits. If this is the case, then managers are advised to:
1. Provide as much information as possible to employees about the change.
2. Inform employees about the reasons/rationale for the change.
3. Conduct meetings to address employees’ questions regarding the change.
4. Provide employees the opportunity to discuss how the proposed change might affect them.
Change Agent–Employee Relationships. The four recommendations just described also will improve the agent–recipient relationship by enhancing the level of trust between the parties.
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Effective Change and Stress Management
Overcoming Resistance to Change – Methods
Organizational processes and practices:
Not assume people are consciously resisting change
Important for management to obtain employee feedback about obstacles to change
Consider modifying the targeted elements of change
Chapter 16 | Slide 36
Managers should not assume that people are consciously resisting change. Resistance has a cause which generally involves some obstacle in the work environment, such as job design, performance management practices, and organizational change.
Obstacles in the organization’s structure or in a “performance appraisal system [that] makes people choose between the new vision and their own self-interests” impedes change more than an individual’s direct resistance.
This perspective implies that it is important for management to obtain employee feedback about any obstacles that may be affecting their ability or willingness to accept change.
In the end, change agents should not be afraid to modify the targeted elements of change or their approach toward change based on employee resistance. If people are resisting for valid reasons, then a new change initiative is needed.
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Effective Change and Stress Management
Overcoming Resistance to Change – A Contingency Approach
Chapter 16 | Slide 37
Effective managers apply the knowledge and tools to match the requirements of the situation (one size does not fit all).
A similar contingency approach is recommended for avoiding or overcoming resistance to change. Table 16.2 describes six managerial strategies, the appropriate situations in which to take such actions, along with their respective advantages and drawbacks.
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Education & Communication
Participation & Involvement
Facilitation & Support
Negotiation & Agreement
Manipulation & Co-Optation
Explicit & Implicit Coercion
Effective Change and Stress Management
How to Manage Stress
Muscle relaxation
Biofeedback
Meditation
Cognitive restructuring
Holistic wellness
Chapter 16 | Slide 38
The four most frequently used stress reduction techniques are muscle relaxation, biofeedback, meditation, and cognitive restructuring. Each method involves somewhat different ways of coping with stress (see Table 16.3).
Beyond the benefits of all these techniques, research shows that leisure activities (e.g., playing or watching sports, shopping, reading) also can help you combat stress. And the effectiveness of these activities is boosted further still if you are intrinsically motivated to do them.
However, it also shows that cognitive restructuring is the most effective.
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Test Your OB Knowledge
Janice is experiencing a stressful situation at work. She reacts to the situation by going out drinking after work. Which coping strategy is Janice using?
Control strategy
Presenteeism strategy
Escape strategy
Cognitive restructuring strategy
Symptom management strategy
Chapter 16 | Slide ‹#›
The correct answer is (E).
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16
Integrative Framework for Understanding and Applying OB
Chapter 16 | Slide 40
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Part 3: Organizational Processes
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
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