Organization - V
Santosh_2102
Kinicki_Fugate_OB_1e_Ch05.pptxPart 1: Individual Behavior
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Chapter 5 | Slide 2
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FOUNDATIONS OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION How Can I Apply Motivation Theories?
5.1 The What and Why of Motivation
5.2 Content Theories of Motivation
5.3 Process Theories of Motivation
5.4 Motivating Employees Through Job Design
The What and Why of Motivation
What is Motivation?
Refers to the psychological processes “that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought”
Chapter 5 | Slide 3
Motivation refers to the psychological processes “that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought.”
Direction pertains to what an individual is attending to at a given time, intensity represents the amount of effort being invested in the activity, and persistence represents for how long that activity is the focus of one’s attention.
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Direction
Intensity
Persistence
Motivation
The What and Why of Motivation
Types of Motivation
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Chapter 5 | Slide 4
Extrinsic motivation results from the potential or actual receipt of extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards like recognition, money, or a promotion represent a “payoff ” received from others for performing a particular task.
Intrinsic motivation occurs when an individual is “turned on to one’s work because of the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss) for the motivation to work effectively.”
We create our own intrinsic motivation by giving ourselves intrinsic rewards such as positive emotions, satisfaction, and self-praise.
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The What and Why of Motivation
Why Do Managers Care about Motivation?
Managers care because motivation causes employees to:
Join the organization
Stay with the organization
Be engaged at work
Perform OCBs
Help others
Chapter 5 | Slide 5
Quite simply, motivation is the fuel that drives results and performance. There are five generic reasons why managers care about motivation. They are:
Join the organization. Managers want to motivate high-quality job applicants to come to work for them.
Stay with the organization. Research shows that higher performers are more likely to leave an organization than average employees. Managers clearly want to motivate talented employees to remain with the company in good times and bad.
Be engaged at work. Competitiveness suggests that it is crucial for managers to motivate employees in ways that lead to engagement.
Perform organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). They represent behaviors that go beyond the official duties or requirements of one’s job, and they are positively related to other important OB outcomes.
Help others. Collaboration and cooperation are key in today’s workplace. Managers want to motivate employees to help others in the pursuit of organizational goals.
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The What and Why of Motivation
Two Fundamental Perspectives on Motivation
Content theories
Focus on identifying internal factors such as needs and satisfaction
Process theories
Focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and environmental characteristics influence employee motivation
Chapter 5 | Slide 6
Researchers have proposed two general categories of motivation theories: content theories and process theories.
Content theories of motivation focus on identifying internal factors such as needs and satisfaction that energize employee motivation.
Process theories of motivation focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and environmental characteristics influence employee motivation.
Process theories are more dynamic than content theories.
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Test Your OB Knowledge
Juan is trying to learn how to use advanced spreadsheet features. He is not getting the correct answers but he keeps trying. What is Juan exhibiting?
Direction
Extrinsic motivation
Persistence
Attention to detail
Emotional Intelligence
Chapter 5 | Slide ‹#›
The answer is (C). Persistence represents how long an activity will be the focus of attention.
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Content Theories of Motivation
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Employees dislike work
Can only be motivated with rewards and punishments
Theory Y
Employees are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative
Chapter 5 | Slide 8
McGregor formulated two sharply contrasting sets of assumptions about human nature.
Theory X is a pessimistic view of employees: that they dislike work, must be monitored, and can only be motivated with rewards and punishment (“carrots and sticks”). McGregor felt this was the typical perspective of managers.
To help managers break with this negative tradition, McGregor formulated his own Theory Y. Theory Y is a modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work: that they are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative.
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Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Chapter 5 | Slide 9
Maslow proposed that the five needs are met sequentially and relate to each other in a prepotent hierarchy. “Prepotent” means that the current most pressing need would be met first before the next need becomes the most powerful or potent. In other words, he believed human needs generally emerge in a predictable stair-step fashion. Thus when physiological needs are met, safety needs emerge, and so on up the need hierarchy, one step at a time. Once a need is satisfied, it activates the next higher need in the hierarchy. This process continues until the need for self-actualization is activated.
Although research does not clearly support this theory of motivation, it remains popular among managers.
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Self-Actualization
Safety
Physiological
Love
Esteem
Content Theories of Motivation
Using Maslow’s Theory
To motivate employees:
Remember employees have needs beyond a paycheck
Focus on satisfying employee needs related to self-concepts:
Self-esteem
Self-actualization
Satisfied needs lose their potential
Be careful when estimating employee’s needs
Chapter 5 | Slide 10
For managers, Maslow’s theory reminds us that employees have needs beyond earning a paycheck.
It also is important for managers to focus on satisfying employee needs related to self-concepts—self-esteem and self-actualization—because their satisfaction is significantly associated with a host of important OB outcomes.
A final lesson revolves around the conclusion that satisfied needs lose their motivational potential. Therefore, managers are advised to motivate employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs.
Managers should be careful when estimating employees’ needs because research has showed that they have inaccurate beliefs about what motivates employees. Managers mistakenly estimated the importance of external rewards like pay and promotions while underestimating the motivation potential of intrinsic rewards.
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Content Theories of Motivation
McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
Chapter 5 | Slide 11
The Three Acquired Needs - McClelland’s theory directs managers to drive employee motivation by appealing to three basic needs.
Need for achievement, the desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others.
Need for affiliation, the desire to maintain social relationships, to be liked, and to join groups.
Need for power, the desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve.
Importantly, people vary in the extent to which they possess these needs, and often one need dominates the other two.
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Acquired Needs Theory
Need for Achievement
Need for Affiliation
Need for Power
Content Theories of Motivation
Using Acquired Needs Theory
Appeal to the preferences associated with each need
Chapter 5 | Slide 12
Applying the theory entails appealing to the preferences associated with each need when you (1) set goals, (2) provide feedback, (3) administer rewards, (4) assign tasks, and (5) design the job. Some suggestions:
Need for achievement. People motivated by this need, prefer working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks or projects. They like situations in which performance is due to effort and ability rather than luck, and like to be rewarded for their efforts. High achievers also like to receive a fair and balanced amount of positive and negative feedback. This enables them to improve their performance. Finally, high achievers prefer to work with other high achievers or by themselves. They get frustrated with slackers.
Need for affiliation. People motivated by this need like to work in teams and in organizational climates characterized as cooperative and collegial. They also don’t make the best managers because they tend to avoid conflict, have a hard time making difficult decisions without worrying about being disliked, and avoid giving others negative feedback. Think twice before asking these people to lead groups or projects. It’s also important to give balanced feedback to these people, but make it more personal. People high in affiliation may not like to stand out, so consider giving praise in private.
Need for power. People with a high need for power like to be in charge. They enjoy being in control of people and events and appreciate being recognized for this responsibility. You can delegate authority and responsibility to these people. The power need drives people to prefer goal-oriented tasks or projects, and they prefer direct feedback.
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Achievement
Prefers working on challenges
Situations in which performance is due to effort and ability
Affiliation
Likes to work in teams in with cooperation and collegiality
Tends to avoid conflict
Power
Likes to be in charge
Appreciates being recognized
Prefers to work with other high achievers
Likes to be praised in private
Likes to be in control of people and events
Content Theories of Motivation
Self-Determination Theory
Needs are learned over time
Assumes that three innate needs influence behavior
Competence
Autonomy
Relatedness
Focuses on the needs that drive intrinsic motivation
Chapter 5 | Slide 13
Identifies innate needs that must be satisfied for us to flourish.
Self-determination theory assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being—competence, autonomy, and relatedness. This theory focuses on the needs that drive intrinsic motivation. It emphasizes intrinsic motivation because research shows that intrinsic motivation is longer lasting and has a more positive impact on task performance than extrinsic motivation.
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Need for Competence, Autonomy, Relatedness
Intrinsic Motivation
Enhance Task Performance
Content Theories of Motivation
Using Self-Determination Theory
Create environments that support and encourage the opportunity to experience the needs
Managers can provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve competence
Managers can empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of autonomy
Can use fun and camaraderie to foster relatedness
Chapter 5 | Slide 14
Competence. Managers can provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve employee competence. Managers can make sure that employees have the knowledge and information they need to perform their jobs.
Autonomy. Managers can empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of autonomy. Managers need to develop trust with their employees, so they feel that their boss will back them up when they make decisions.
Relatedness. Many companies use fun and camaraderie to foster relatedness.
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Content Theories of Motivation
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors:
Satisfaction comes from motivating factors
Dissatisfaction comes from hygiene factors
Chapter 5 | Slide 15
Motivator-hygiene theory proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors—satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from hygiene factors.
In this view, managers can embrace two means of improving motivation: by improving motivators that drive satisfaction and improving hygiene factors that otherwise reduce job satisfaction.
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Content Theories of Motivation
Using Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Chapter 5 | Slide 16
Job dissatisfaction was associated primarily with factors in the work context or environment. Herzberg labeled these as hygiene factors because each was associated with dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factors—including company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one’s supervisor, and working conditions—cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction. Herzberg did not consider their removal as providing an immediate impact on satisfaction or increasing motivation. Individuals will experience the absence of job dissatisfaction when they have no grievances about hygiene factors.
Motivating factors—Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with factors in the work content of the task being performed. Herzberg labeled these as motivating factors or motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance. Motivators—including achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement—cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction.
Therefore, Herzberg’s theory predicts managers can motivate individuals by incorporating motivators into an individual’s job.
For Herzberg, the groups of hygiene and motivating factors did not interact. “The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, but rather no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction.”
Herzberg conceptualizes dissatisfaction and satisfaction as two parallel continuums. The starting point represents a null state at which both dissatisfaction and satisfaction are absent. Theoretically an organization member could have good supervision, pay, and working conditions (no dissatisfaction) but a tedious and unchallenging task with little chance of advancement (no satisfaction).
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Content Theories of Motivation
Using Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Research does not support the two-factor aspect of the theory, however, some practical applications of the theory include:
Hygiene first
Motivation next
A few well-chosen words
Chapter 5 | Slide 17
Research does not support the two-factor aspect of his theory nor the proposition that hygiene factors are unrelated to job satisfaction.
Practical applications of the theory help explain why it remains an important theory of OB.
Hygiene First. There are practical reasons to eliminate dissatisfaction before trying to use motivators to increase motivation and performance. You will have a harder time motivating someone who is experiencing pay dissatisfaction or otherwise struggling with Herzberg’s hygiene factors.
Motivation Next. Once you remove dissatisfaction, you can hardly go wrong by building motivators into someone’s job. This suggestion represents the core idea behind the technique of job design.
A Few Well-Chosen Words. Finally, don’t underestimate the power of verbal recognition to reinforce good performance. Savvy managers supplement Herzberg’s motivators with communication. Positive recognition can fuel intrinsic motivation, particularly for people who are engaged in their work.
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Test Your OB Knowledge
Self-determination theory focuses on:
Three innate needs – competence, autonomy, and relatedness
Extrinsic motivation
Lower order needs
Needs for power and affiliation
None of the above
Chapter 5 | Slide ‹#›
The answer is (A).
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Process Theories of Motivation
Equity/Justice Theory
Chapter 5 | Slide 19
Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships
Process theories of motivation attempt to describe how various person factors and environmental factors in the Integrative Framework affect motivation. They go beyond content theories by helping you understand why people with different needs and levels of satisfaction behave the way they do at work.
Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships.
Equity theory is based on cognitive dissonance theory. According to this theory, people are motivated to maintain consistency between their beliefs and their behavior. Perceived inconsistencies create cognitive dissonance or psychological discomfort), which, in turn, motivates corrective action.
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Process Theories of Motivation
Elements of Equity Theory
Outputs (O):
What a person perceives they are getting out of their job
Inputs (I):
What a person perceives they are putting into their job
Comparison:
How does a person’s O/I ratio compare with relevant others’ O/I ratios
Chapter 5 | Slide 20
Outputs—“What do I perceive that I’m getting out of my job?” Organizations provide a variety of outcomes for our work, including such things as pay/ bonuses, medical benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status symbols, recognition, and participating in important decisions. Outcomes vary widely, depending on one’s organization and rank.
Inputs—“What do I perceive that I’m putting into my job?” An employee’s inputs, for which he or she expects a just return, include education/training, skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality traits, effort expended, experience, and personal appearance.
Comparison—“How does my ratio of outputs to inputs compare with relevant others?” Your feelings of inequity revolve around your evaluation of whether you are receiving adequate rewards to compensate for your collective inputs. In practice people perform these evaluations by comparing the perceived fairness of their output to input ratio to that of relevant others (see Figure 5.5). By dividing outputs by inputs, the larger the ratio, the greater the benefit. This comparative process was found to generalize across personalities and countries. People tend to compare themselves to other individuals with whom they have close interpersonal ties such as friends, and to whom they are similar, such as people performing the same job or individuals of the same gender or educational level, rather than to dissimilar others.
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Process Theories of Motivation
The Outcomes of Equity Comparison
Chapter 5 | Slide 21
I/O Ratio is Equal to Relevant Other’s
Satisfaction
I/O Ratio is Less than Relevant Other’s
Negative Inequity
May Result in Anger and/or Change in Attitude or Behavior
I/O Ratio is Greater than Relevant Other’s
May Result in Satisfaction
May also Result in Feelings of Guilt
Three different equity relationships resulting from an equity comparison: equity, negative inequity, and positive inequity. Because equity is based on comparing ratios of outcomes to inputs, inequity will not necessarily be perceived just because someone else receives greater rewards. If the other person’s additional outcomes are due to his or her greater inputs, a sense of equity may still exist. However, if the comparison person enjoys greater outcomes for similar inputs, negative inequity will be perceived. On the other hand, a person will experience positive inequity when his or her outcome to input ratio is greater than that of a relevant comparison person.
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Process Theories of Motivation
Justice Theory
Organizational justice refers to the extent to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work
Three types of justice
Distributive Justice
Procedural Justice
Interactional Justice
Chapter 5 | Slide 22
Organizational justice reflects the extent to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work. This, in turn, led to the identification of three different components of organizational justice: distributive, procedural, and interactional.
Distributive justice reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated.
Procedural justice is defined as the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions.
Interactional justice relates to the “quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented.”
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Process Theories of Motivation
Using Equity and Justice Theories
Employee perceptions are what count
Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them
Employees should be given an appeals process
Leader behavior matters
A climate for justice makes a difference
Chapter 5 | Slide 23
Employee Perceptions Are What Count. No matter how fair management thinks the organization’s policies, procedures, and reward system are, each employee’s perception of the equity of those factors is what counts.
Employees Want a Voice in Decisions That Affect Them. Managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decisions about important work outcomes. In general, employees’ perceptions of procedural justice are enhanced when they have a voice in the decision-making process.
Employees Should be Given an Appeals Process. Employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare. Being able to appeal a decision fosters perceptions of distributive and procedural justice.
Leader Behavior Matters. Employees’ perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers. Thus, it is important for managers to consider the justice-related implications of their decisions, actions, and public communications.
A Climate for Justice Makes a Difference. Managers need to pay attention to the organization’s climate for justice.
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Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory
Holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes
Chapter 5 | Slide 24
Expectancy theory holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made.
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Process Theories of Motivation
Major Elements of Expectancy Theory
Chapter 5 | Slide 25
Motivation will be high when all three elements in the model are high. If any element is near zero, motivation will be low.
Expectancy—“Can I Achieve My Desired Level of Performance?” An expectancy represents an individual’s belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. In other words, it is an effort → performance expectation. Expectancies take the form of subjective probabilities. Probabilities range from zero to one. An expectancy of zero indicates effort has no anticipated impact on performance.
Instrumentality—“What Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards Will I Receive If I Achieve My Desired Level of Performance?” An instrumentality is how an individual perceives the movement from performance to outcome. It represents a person’s belief that a particular outcome is contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance. Performance is instrumental when it leads to something else.
Valence—“How Much Do I Value the Rewards I Receive? Valence refers to the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. Valence mirrors our personal preferences. For example, most employees have a positive valence for receiving additional money or recognition. In contrast, being laid off or being ridiculed for making a suggestion would likely be negatively valent for most individuals. In Vroom’s expectancy model, outcomes refer to different consequences that are contingent on performance, such as pay, promotions, recognition, or celebratory events.
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Process Theories of Motivation
Using Expectancy Theory
Chapter 5 | Slide 26
Expectancy theory has important practical implications for individual managers and organizations as a whole (see Table 5.1). The following three practical lessons are essential for applying expectancy theory:
Enhance effort → performance expectancies. This can be done by using tools and techniques associated with performance management. This leadership includes behaviors associated with goal setting, communication, feedback, coaching, providing consequences, and establishing/monitoring performance expectations.
Determine desired levels of performance and set SMART goals. Goals need to be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results oriented, and Time bound.
Link rewards to desired outcomes. This means that you need to get to know your employees so that you can reward them with outcomes they value.
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Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory
Successful people have one thing in common…their lives are goal oriented
Goal setting helps individual's, teams, and organizations achieve success
Chapter 5 | Slide 27
Regardless of the nature of their specific achievements, successful people tend to have one thing in common. Their lives are goal oriented. This is as true for politicians seeking votes as it is for world class athletes. Research also supports this anecdotal conclusion. The results of more than 1,000 studies from a wide range of countries clearly shows that goal setting helps individual, teams, and organizations as a whole to achieve success.
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Process Theories of Motivation
How Does Goal-Setting Theory Work?
Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance
Goal specificity refers to the quantifiability of a goal
Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work
People need ability and resources
People need to be committed to the goal
Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient
Higher performance when use feedback and participation to stay focused and committed
Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction
Reinforces employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance
Chapter 5 | Slide 28
Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals like “do your best” or “improve performance.” This is why it is essential to set specific, difficult goals. Goal specificity refers to the quantifiability of a goal.
Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work. People must have the ability and resources needed to achieve the goal, and they need to be committed to the goal. If these conditions are not met, goal setting does not lead to higher performance
Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work. Feedback and participation enhance performance only when they lead employees to set and commit to a specific, difficult goal.
Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction, which in turn reinforces employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance. Goal setting sets in motion a positive cycle of upward performance.
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Process Theories of Motivation
What are the Mechanisms Behind the Power of Goal-Setting Theory?
Chapter 5 | Slide 29
How do goals affect performance?
Goals Direct Attention. Goals direct one’s attention and effort toward goal relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities.
Goals Regulate Effort. Goals have an energizing function in that they motivate us to act. As you might expect, harder goals foster greater effort than easy goals. Time deadlines also factor into the motivational equation.
Goals Increase Persistence. Within the context of goal setting, persistence represents the effort expended on a task over an extended period of time.
Goals Foster the Development and Application of Task Strategies and Action Plans. Goals prompt us to figure out how they can be accomplished. This is a cognitive process of creatively developing a plan that outlines the steps, tasks, or activities that must take place to accomplish a goal.
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Goals Direct Attention
Goals Increase Persistence
Goals Foster Development & Application of Task Strategies and Action Plans
Goals Regulate Effort
Test Your OB Knowledge
Jane believes if she works hard and takes an online class she will receive a promotion. What element of motivation does this represent?
Justice theory
Equity theory
Instrumentality
Valence
Expectancy
Chapter 5 | Slide ‹#›
The answer is (C).
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
What is Job Design (Job Redesign, Work Design)
Any set of activities that involve:
Alteration of specific or interdependent systems of jobs
Intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and on-the-job productivity
Chapter 5 | Slide 31
Completing tasks is the core of any job, and job design focuses on increasing employee-intrinsic motivation by changing the type of tasks we complete in the course of doing our jobs.
Job design, also referred to as job redesign or work design, “refers to any set of activities that involve the alteration of specific jobs or interdependent systems of jobs with the intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and their on the-job productivity.”
Job design focuses on motivating employees by considering the environmental factors within the Integrative Framework.
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Top-Down Approaches to Job Design—Scientific Management
Chapter 5 | Slide 32
Kind of management which conducts a business by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning
Efficiency and productivity increase
Repetitive jobs lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, stress, low sense of accomplishment and growth
In top-down approaches management creates efficient and meaningful combinations of work tasks for employees. If done correctly, in theory employees will display higher performance, job satisfaction, and employee engagement, and lower absenteeism and turnover. Based on research and experimentation to determine the most efficient way to perform jobs.
Scientific management is “that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning.”
Designing jobs according to the principles of scientific management has both positive and negative consequences. Positively, employee efficiency and productivity are increased. On the other hand, research reveals that simplified, repetitive jobs also lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, higher levels of stress, and low sense of accomplishment and personal growth.
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Top-Down Approaches to Job Design—Job Enlargement
Involves putting more variety into a worker’s job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty
Chapter 5 | Slide 33
Companies first used this technique in the late 1940s in response to complaints about tedious and overspecialized jobs created from the principles of scientific management.
Job enlargement involves putting more variety into a worker’s job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty. Some call this horizontally loading the job. Researchers recommend using job enlargement as part of a broader approach that uses multiple motivational methods because by itself, job enlargement does not have a significant and lasting positive effect on job performance.
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Top-Down Approaches to Job Design—Job Rotation
Chapter 5 | Slide 34
Calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another
Advantages of Job Rotation
As with job enlargement, companies use job rotation to give employees greater variety in their work.
Job rotation calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another. Rather than performing only one job, workers are trained and given the opportunity to perform two or more separate jobs on a rotating basis.
Proposed benefits of job rotation include the following:
Engagement and motivation are increased by providing employees with a broader perspective of the organization.
Increased worker flexibility and easier scheduling because employees are cross-trained to perform different jobs.
A vehicle to increase employees’ knowledge and abilities, this improves an employee’s promotability and it builds a pipeline of internal talent.
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Engagement and motivation are increased
Increased worker flexibility and easier scheduling
Increased employee knowledge and abilities
Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Top-Down Approaches to Job Design—Job Enrichment
Chapter 5 | Slide 35
Entails modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience:
Achievement
Recognition
Stimulating work
Responsibility
Advancement
Job enrichment entails modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.
These characteristics are incorporated into a job through vertical loading. Rather than giving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty (horizontal loading), vertical loading consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility.
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Top-Down Approaches to Job Design—Job Characteristics Model
Chapter 5 | Slide 36
Researchers tried to determine how work can be structured so that employees experience intrinsic motivation. Hackman and Oldham proposed that intrinsic motivation is determined by three psychological states. In turn, these psychological states are fostered by the presence of five core job characteristics. The model is illustrated in Figure 5.8.
In summary, the goal of the job characteristic model is to promote high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics.
The five core job characteristics are as follows:
Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities.
Task identity. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. In other words, task identity is high when a person works on a product or project from beginning to end and sees a tangible result.
Task significance. The extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization.
Autonomy. The extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job.
Feedback. The extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job.
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Top-Down Approaches to Job Design—Job Characteristics Model In Practice
Can be used to increase job satisfaction
Managers can enhance employees’ intrinsic motivation
Increases in quality of performance
Chapter 5 | Slide 37
This model can be used to increase employee job satisfaction.
Managers can enhance employees’ intrinsic motivation and performance, while reducing absenteeism and stress, by increasing the core job characteristics.
Managers are likely to find noticeable increases in the quality of performance after a job redesign program.
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Bottom-Up Approaches to Job Design—Job Crafting
Chapter 5 | Slide 38
The physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work
Represents proactive and adaptive employee behavior aimed at changing tasks, relationships, and cognitions associated with one’s job
This approach to job design is driven by employees rather than managers and is referred to as job crafting. Job crafting is defined as “the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work.”
Employees are viewed as “job crafters” according to this model because they are expected to define and create their own job boundaries. As such, this approach to job design represents pro-active and adaptive employee behavior aimed at changing tasks, relationships, and cognitions associated with one’s job.
Forms of job crafting:
The first involves changing one’s task boundaries. You can do this by altering the scope or nature of tasks you complete at work or you can take on fewer or more tasks.
The second entails changing the relational nature of one’s job. Specifically, you can alter the quantity or quality of interactions you have with others at work, or you can establish new relationships.
The third is cognitive crafting. It encompasses a change in how you perceive or think about the existing tasks and relationships associated with your job.
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Motivating Employees Through Job Design
Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals) Approach to Job Design
Chapter 5 | Slide 39
Employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development
This last approach to job design represents a middle ground between top-down and bottom-up methods and attempts to overcome their limitations. For example, top-down approaches are constrained by the fact that managers cannot always create changes in task characteristics that are optimum for everyone. Similarly, job crafting is limited by the amount of latitude people have in changing their own jobs.
Idiosyncratic deals (I-deals) represent “employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development.”
I-deals tend to involve task and work responsibilities, schedule flexibility, location flexibility, and compensation.
The goal of such deals is to increase employee intrinsic motivation and productivity by allowing employees the flexibility to negotiate employment relationships that meet their needs and values.
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Test Your OB Knowledge
Jorge would like to increase intrinsic motivation by giving his employees independence and discretion in certain aspects of their job. According to the Job Characteristics Model, which core job dimension is he using?
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Skill variety
Chapter 5 | Slide ‹#›
The answer is (C).
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Chapter 5 | Slide 41
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Integrative Framework for Understanding and Applying OB
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Part 1: Individual Behavior
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