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Kine41006.pptxChapter 6
Memory and Learning
By: Jordan, John, Nataly
WHAT IS MEMORY?
Memory is the process enabling humans to retain information over time. It is the capacity to learn from experiences
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF A MEMORY
A memory is housed in the brain through networks of neurons. Those networks of neurons are known as a memory trace.
Memory trace: hundreds of thousands of individual neurons joined through millions of synaptic connections forming vast highways of electrochemical patterns representing specific memories..
PAST BELIEVES
In the past, they believed that neural networks were located in specific brain centers, but now it is clear that there is no single center for a memory.
A memory is compartmentalized into various regions- the hippocampus, frontal lobes, motor cortex, etc.- and they can be retrieved when needed.
The big question with memory is whether it’s located someplace or if it’s a process that occurs only when the memory is retrieved. To this day they still don’t know.
WHAT IS MEMORY CONTINUED...
Any memory system requires 3 things - to encode, store, and retrieve, They form the primary processes describing memory.
Encoding : the process involved in originally registering information from the environment into memory.
Storage: the capacity to retain encoded information in both active and inactive forms until needed
Retrieval: the ability to locate & recall information stored within memory systems
COGNITIVE BASED THEORIES OF MEMORY
A widely accepted theory among cognitive-based scientist is that the individual components of memory, when retrieved, come together in convergence centers.
Convergence Centers is the theory that memories are stored in parts across the brain & only brought together through retrieval processes near the sites where they were initially perceived.
Advocates of this approach assume that convergence centers are hierarchical. Meaning they range from low-level centers to high-level centers for specific memory features.
FOR EXAMPLE:
A lower-level center for all striking skills
A somewhat higher-level center for striking skills using a tennis racquet
An even higher-level center for returning balls using a backhand striking movement
Finally a highest-level center for shot placement in a specific situation using a back handed return
So instead of having to store many individual memory elements, the hierarchical arrangements makes both storage space & retrieval processes manageable.
DYNAMICAL SYSTEM THEORIES OF MEMORY
Most critical to these dynamical theorists is that newly developing views of memory appear to highlight processes of self-organization, adapting networks, and emergence.
Dynamical system theorists also point to the fact that memory appears conditioned by specific environmental feature both at the time of formation and later during recall, and by an individual’s previous knowledge, perceptual capabilities, and psychological state..
Point being that many aspects of of the original event encoded within memory must be taken into account
Neural processes alone are not sufficient to explain memory; it’s viewed as a bottom- up process in which many systems and subsystems interact and have equally important roles to play in memory & the learning of movement skills
MEMORY SYSTEMS
Memory is composed of two independent systems, and one of those independent systems is made up of two subsystems.
The memory systems that make up the human memory are the declarative system which subdivides into the semantic and episodic system, and the procedural system.
DECLARATIVE MEMORY SYSTEM
A system containing our memories concerning objective facts and events.
It contains the knowledge of which we are consciously aware. When we think about our memories, we are really thinking about declarative memories...
SEMANTIC MEMORY (SUBSYSTEM)
Includes generalized knowledge about the world .
It allows us to make sense of the world; it provides the knowledge we need to organize, interpret, and give meaning to ongoing events..
Semantic memory is also independent of the sequence and context in which information occurs.
They are stored independently from where and when they were originally acquired...
MEMORY SYSTEMS CONTINUED...
EPISODIC MEMORY (SUBSYSTEM)
Stores information concerning specific events as related to an individual; holding personal nature and specifying the time and place that events occurred...
Episodic memory is autobiographical
It’s also context and sequence related, meaning it tells us where and when the events occurred- provides the basis for organizing events into a meaningful time frame...
PROCEDURAL MEMORY SYSTEM
Story of H.M :https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0Od5DrdPA4
The story of H.M is what lead to discover that a specialized memory system exists for motor skills, but that a separate memory system exists that underlies all skill learning
It’s how they discovered the procedural memory system. It’s specialized to store information for skills; it contains memories underlying skills in all 3 domains of skilled behavior- cognitive, perceptual and motor.
PROCEDURAL SYSTEM CONTINUED
It deals with “how to” perform various skills rather than “knowing about” the skills. It’s a rule based system containing procedures to complete the action...
Procedural control of skills is carried out without the need for conscious attention, this is referred to as automaticity.
This means that our conscious awareness can be directed toward other activities while still performing skills effectively.
Ex: Basketball player dribbling a ball
Some degree of declarative knowledge must typically first be developed and is essential before procedural memory can be formed.
For example: In learning a motor skill you “think” your way through performing the skill using the conscious facts you encode into declarative memory.
Overtime the declarative knowledge fades and you begin to do more and more skill automatically without “thinking” about it.
This is an illustration that your knowledge of the underlying skill is being transferred from declarative to procedural memory.
Novice and Expert
Scientist have two studies that are designed to highlight differences between a beginning and experienced performer based upon how each of them uses memory.
One study was conducted under golfers using a cognitive-based assumptions concerning memory
Beilock and Carr
Conducted an experiment on declarative memory comparing golfers putting performance of experts v novice who could be expected to be differentially relying on declarative and procedural memory in golfing
After the putting both groups were asked to produce a “generic knowledge protocol” of how the golf putt should be performed correctly
Their answers were compared to interviews with pro golf instructors and an analysis of a “how to book”
As expected, expert golfers were significantly better than novices at generating correct lists of steps for putting; their answers were longer, more detailed, and considerably more accurate. This shows that experts had superiorly developed semantic memories of putting compared to the less experienced novices.
Beilock and Carr pt.2
Asked both groups “Pretend that your friend walked into the room. Describe the last putt you took, in enough detail that your friend could duplicate the last putt you took in detail”
The novice produced longer, more detailed, and more accurate descriptions of their performance than the experts, they displayed a better episodic memory of their attempts.
It was hypothesized that the experts’ reliance on well developed, but automatic and nonconscious, procedural memories of putting actually blocked their recall of the performance events as they performed the action
The actual putting, experts controlled their actions more through procedural memory structures that effectively blocked access to their episodic monitoring of events as they happened.
Highly skilled performances are controlled through automated actions.
Expertise-induced amnesia - term used to describe the tendency for highly skilled performers to exclude performers toe exclude episodic monitoring during the execution of skills
What does that mean?
Overthinking when putting can block a skilled golfer’s access to procedural memory, resulting in “choking”
The primary cause of “choking” in athletic or other stressful situations, results when experts attempt to pay too much attention to their external environments vs too little which has sometimes been argued as the cause of choking
The cause of choking appears to be thinking about how to do the skill using your declarative memory which have been encoded into your procedural memory.
Using declarative memories during your well developed procedural memory disrupts the normal automated and nonconscious fashion
This study supports a theory of choking called the expert-monitoring hypothesis, that paying too much attention to well-learned skills may prove detrimental to performance.
Stages of Memory
We must first, be aware of our environment and more to the point, We decide what to do and in response and how to do it, then if we are to learn or memorise we must be able to retain the lessons of past experiences for use in the future. This is made possible with the three essential functions in three separate stages
Sensory Memory - First stage information from environment first enters memory through this stage be aware of our environment and focus what is important
Short-term memory - Second stage info that is transferred from sensory for further processing. Only holds a limited amount of info.
Long-term memory - Responsible for learning. Info is more or less permanent
Sensory memory
Takes in everything registered by the body’s various sensory receptors and holds it briefly which then is organized and prioritized and encoded in transferable form for transfer to following stages.
Sensory memory is basically the filter or clearinghouse of what is important for further attention and action
Capacity of sensory memory is unlimited but only lasts about 1/10 - 1 second
Short Term Memory
Is described as the working memory - Temp work space within short-term memory combining incoming perceptions with info from long term memory
Responsible for decision making and commanding the musculature to carry out decisions it has a limited capacity in terms of info that it can process at one time.
Magic number 7+/-2 representing the chunks of information that can be processed, no more than 5 chunks or 9 chunks of information at any point.
STM can be held for 20-30 seconds if it is not used then it is lost and cannot be retrieved for further processing or action
Long term memory
LTM contains our memories of past experiences and forms basis for learning
Includes procedural, semantic, and episodic information encoding in a way that allows for retrieval of memories
LTM relies on amount of time or number of trials practicing, attention, and motivation. ( More times you practice the, the greater your attention to it during practice, the greater your motivation/interest.
Capacity of your LTM is unlimited and is permanent but takes time to become permanent
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfDpXj67z2I
Primacy- recency effect
An important factor if you will remember new info and stick in LTM is the order it is presented
Is a phenomenon that info presented at the beginning and ending of a session is more readily learned than the info presented in the middle. (also known as the serial order effect)
Von Restorft Effect
Exception to the Primacy-Recency effect, that some info presented in the middle parts of practice can be encoded into memory as well and sometimes better.
This occurs when info is given a special meaning or stands out more than the first and last information presented to you.
Priming Effects
Is a brief intro of new information prior to the time when it is actually practiced, this can increase the likelihood that the information will be learned when it is later practiced.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Espkj5O7bTs
Emphasizing Location Cues
In the early stages when learning motor skills- especially limb and body movements, these have priority in the encoding systems.
Location of limb and body movements as well as endpoint are remembered before any other movements underlying skill.
Memory processes function to encode important location points.
By knowing this an instructor could help performance by pointing out critical position points in the skill practiced.
Instructors want to work with memory not against it.
For example: A therapist working with a patient to regain gait control might point out important hip and leg positions during walking, particularly the positions associated with extreme flexion and extension during gait cycle.
Sleeping on it
Getting enough sleep is important and there has been many studies so this is well supported by research
Sleep especially after motor skill practice helps enhance the learning
It has an essential role in the consolidation of memory and especially with procedural memories.
This doesn’t mean that more sleep is better.
More sleep than your normal rate cycle has no additional benefits.
But on the other hand not enough sleep or interrupted sleep (unrestful) has detrimental effects on memory consolidation and resultant learning.
There has been a lot of research on this topic.
Research is still going on mostly on topics like younger people may benefit more from sleep, regaining skills lost to injury or neurological impairments, and benefits of sleep can be enhanced by short daily naps.
Why do we forget learned skill?
Information not withheld is lost due to it not being needed or it wasn’t sufficiently learned.
Forgetting is the lost of or inability to retrieve information from memory.
This does not mean that previously learned information is no longer in the memory, it is just not longer accessible.
This occurs due to trace decay or interference
Trace Decay Theory
This is what most people think about when talking about forgetting.
Means the original memory trace stored in one of the memory systems decays before being permanently encoded in LTM.
Once the original trace is gone no longer can be retrieved.
This can take only a fraction of a second in sensory or between seconds and minutes in STM
Some information that originally enters LTM may also be lost due to trace decay if it is not made permanent through sufficient rehearsal and attention although this is still debatable
Once memory trace is encoded into LTM the structure and function become immutable so trace decay is no longer an explanation to forgetting.
Interference Theory
This is the notion that memories in LTM interfere with or get in the way of another
The problem is that a specific memory can’t be retrieved
Given the vast number of memories stored in LTM, so many are similar in some respect that finding the correct one becomes a challenge to memories’ retrieval capabilities.
The storage of information with respect to the comparative time in which memories are placed into LTM has an effect on the strength of interference, denotes 2 types.
Retroactive Inhibition
Refers to the interference of new memories with the retrieval of older memories.
New learning interferes with old learning
When not practiced things we learn and knew well recede in time because the things we learn subsequently affect our ability to recall previous memories.
Our memory is structured to make what we are currently learning more readily available to recall and use.
Can become problematic relative to skilled performance especially when not continuously practiced.
70% of information originally recalled in a practice session is forgotten within the first 24 hours after practice
80% after 48 hours
Rate gradually diminishes over longer periods of time with no more than 5-10% of the original information retained.
This can be decreased by following the overlearning practice (as learned in Ch. 5), periodic refresher practice, and using mental rehearsal of skills during periods of non use.
Continuous motor skills are considerably more resistant to forgetting than discrete motor skills.
Proactive Inhibition
Refers to the interference of old memories with the retrieval of newer memories
Old learning interferes with new learning
Ex: Experienced ballet dancer has issues learning hip hop due to the initial learning of ballet
Strategies for Reducing Interference and Forgetting
Separate similar skills within a practice schedule as far apart as possible in order to reduce effects of interference
Prefer proactive rather than retroactive interference when introducing a new skill.
Present new skills towards the end or last in practice to reduce interference and give learners best chance of encoding the skill and getting it into memory while its still fragile (introduction at this stage)
Encoding Specificity Principles
In focusing on memory it is easy to consider only those aspects of practice of which we are consciously aware and seem directly related to skill performance
It is what we attend to that is encoding into memory
Explicit memory- memories of the things consciously intend to learn and of which we are consciously aware when we retrieve them
Although there are other facets of learning environments that encoded and stored along with explicit memory which are considered backdrops (ex: canvas of a painting) -these are called implicit memory
These two are usually entwined so that memory are really compositions of both conscious and unconscious learned elements of the practice environment
Researchers have observed for years that original conditions of practice change, people tend to have more difficulty in recalling learned information -they call it encoding condition
Recall condition- conditions existing later when a person attempts to perform the skill
The closer these are together the easier it is to retrieve a memory of a skill and perform it well
Encoding specificity principle- observation that retrieval and performance of learned skills are facilitated to the degree that encoding and recall conditions
