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creativity, motivation, organizational structure, setting direction, and promoting change. Parke-Davis believes that its managers have an improved sense of self-aware‐ ness, leadership behaviors, and self-con�dence as a result of the program. In addition, the organization feels the program provides employees with a “clearer idea of re‐ sponsibilities and values needed to lead others … [as well as improved] communication, teambuilding, and prob‐ lem solving skills” (“Making Scientists Into Leaders,” 2001, p. 938). Learning how to lead, when best to lead, and in what situation leadership skills are most appropri‐ ate is the approach put forth in situational theories, as seen in the Parke-Davis curriculum.

The lack of leadership skills initially seen by Parke-Davis in the company’s scientists can also appear, at times, in the criminal justice system. Managers, who are assumed to be the leaders in criminal justice agencies, are usually promoted from within and arrive at their positions be‐ cause of the amount of time served with the organiza‐ tion, by community election, through appointment, or because of socialization skills or heroism. They do not necessarily possess the abilities to be good leaders and may not be able to adapt easily to situations that arise. Because of the way they obtained their positions, it may be more di�cult for them to lead others employed by the agency, since there are relationships already formed with the community and employees. In a study of police chiefs

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