CJAS2

predictable, and they assume that they do not intervene in or cause problems for the functioning of an organiza‐ tion. Therefore, the closed-system models do not depend on the external environment for explanations or solu‐ tions to managerial issues; instead, they are enclosed and sealed o� from the outside world (Daft, 2015). These models rely primarily on internal organizational pro‐ cesses and dynamics to account for organizational, group, and individual behaviors. Closed systems are eas‐ ier to deal with theoretically than open systems, and they are preferred, despite their limitations. For example, if abuse of prisoners took place in a certain prison, a closed- system approach would look for explanations for the abuse within the prison itself and then adopt correc‐ tional procedures. The prison would examine the prison policies, prison warden, correctional o�cers, prison cul‐ ture, o�cer–inmate interaction, inmate–inmate interac‐ tion, and other organizational components of the prison. It would not consider environmental in�uences to iden‐ tify the causes of the problems. In other words, the exter‐ nal environment would not be blamed for the abuse. The prison and its o�cials would assume that something within the facility led to these issues.

The closed-system models, some of which may seem un‐ realistic in the present circumstances, were the products of the problems and subsequent changes that emerged during the Industrial Revolution. At the beginning of in‐

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