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management. Of course, people are familiar with the terms chief executive o�cer, director, president, chief oper‐ ating o�cer, and so on. These are automatically assumed to be titles that indicate the ranks of management. We also assume that those holding the management roles work to provide the organizational mission by making decisions and setting goals for those not designated as management. But are these obvious assumptions? Hecht (1980) asserts, “Many a person who carries the title of manager is not really a manager” (p. 1). What this means is that people on the front lines may make decisions, for‐ mulate procedures, and have input into the mission and long-term goals of the organization. Take police o�cers, for example. One o�cer on patrol may consider a driver as speeding if he or she is driving at �ve or more miles over the posted speed limit. Another o�cer may not con‐ sider a driver to be speeding unless he or she is 10 miles or more over the posted speed limit. Even though the law says that the speed limit is 55 miles per hour, and the po‐ lice agency is expected to ticket drivers driving in excess of the posted speed limit, a patrol o�cer may practice a policy of �ve to ten miles over the speed limit. This al‐ lows the o�cer to make decisions on enforcement of the law and in�uence the mission of the organization. In other words, the police o�cer is acting as a manager. Individuals employed in positions considered to be at the second or third level may also have input or titles that in‐ dicate they are managers within the organization. Does

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