CJAS2

become the basis for explanations of organizational events, and they can be broadly classi�ed as closed sys‐ tems or open systems depending on their starting pre‐ sumption (Thompson, 1967). The closed-system models tend to focus on internal events when explaining organi‐ zational actions and behavior, while open-system models focus on events occurring externally to the organization that in�uence changes within the organization. A systems view considers an organization as a set of interacting functions that acquire inputs from the environment, process them, and then release the outputs back to the external environment (Daft, 2015). At the outset, it needs to be clari�ed that the words model and theory will be used interchangeably in this chapter, though at a more subtle level it could be argued that they have �ne di�er‐ ences in their implications.

The rest of the chapter is loosely divided into three sec‐ tions. The �rst provides a discussion on the closed-sys‐ tem models, where the three main sub�elds of the classi‐ cal perspective are presented—namely, scienti�c man‐ agement, administrative management, and bureaucratic management. Within each sub�eld, the advantages and disadvantages in managing the criminal justice system are examined. In the second section, the open-system models are reported, where the humanistic and behav‐ ioral perspectives are introduced. This section provides a discussion on the total quality management model and the supply chain/synergy model which introduces a new58% of sample

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