WRITE 8-9 pages on Topic- EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IMPACTS ON THE WORKFORCE

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The Role of Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace: A Literature Review Ashkan Khalili Multimedia University, Malaysia

Emotional intelligence has become a familiar issue between educators, counselors and business leaders due to a considerable role in the workplace. Namely, accurate self- assessment together with conflict management are just some significant influences of emotional intelligence within organisations that would result in increasing organisational effectiveness. Hence the purpose of this manuscript is to provide a comprehensive literature review on the emergence of emotional intelligence in the workplace as well as discussing main theories of emotional intelligence, based on the relevant literature and previous empirical studies.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the Workplace

Traditionally, negligence (Eriksson, 2004), avoidance (Turnbull, 1999), irrational and negation (Fineman, 1993), weakness and inability to control oneself have been viewed in emotional themes within organisational life. Recently, role of emotions in the workplace have started to exert positively through organisational scholars (Fineman, 1997; Domagalski, 1999; Turnbull 1999; Fisher & Ashkanasy, 2000; Brief and Weiss, 2002; Jordan and Troth, 2002). “texture” of organizing (Fineman, 1993) and also enterprise impacts on individual’s thought, feeling in the workplace (Brief & Weiss, 2002), belong to emotion supposition (Fineman, 1993). Excellent organisations are places where feelings are managed, matured or removed. Feelings are perceived as irrelevant to job activity but emotions get in the way of effective performance (Fineman, 1996).

Many researches that have concentrated on emotion in the workplaces have asserted that organisations are “emotional places” (Armstrong, 2000), “incubators of emotions” (Muchinsky, 2000) or “emotional arenas” (Fineman, 2000) and it always stimulates doubt and commotion (French, 2001). That is to say, few researches have concentrated on how emotions are experimented in the workplace (Pekrun & Frese, 1992), comprising organisation psychic pressure and stress (Fineman, 2000). Since emotions and feelings are at the core of the human experiment (Muchinsky, 2000), very nature of the “organisation” of work pertain to what individuals do with their sensations (Fineman, 1993).

One important aspect of work performance is work affect (Kafetsios & Zampetakis, 2008). Muchinsky (2000) claimed that emotions have many differences which cover from pleasurable experiments of our existence which are positive experiences to the negative ones that are the most noxious. Individual’s job-related behaviour is reflected from affective or emotional experiments in the work place that generate cognition (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996).

Brief and Weiss (2002) proposed that while firms can impact on one’s feelings, thoughts and actions, individual’s feelings, thoughts and actions likewise can impress the enterprise

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which they are employed. Indeed, work environment is an emotion-eliciting place; therefore individuals are required to employ “emotional labor”.

Hochschild (1983) identified emotional labor as “the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display for a wage”. Certainly, emotion in the organisation is such a communicable phenomenon that impact on other workers’ emotions. Sanchez-Burks and Huy (2007) claimed that due to emotional contagion which is an automatic, non-conscious psychological process, people experiment shared thrills. In other words, interaction in the workplace causes spreading or transferring thrills from an individual to others (Eriksson, 2004). Goleman et al. (2001) stated that when the group is more uninterrupted, emotions shared are stronger.

Therefore, the rising testimony of this emotional side of work exhibits one of the fundamental motives of growth makes it worth looking into the concept of emotional intelligence (EI).

Indeed, emotional intelligence plays a considerable role in the workplace. Within the past 30 years research investigating factors that contribute to success in workplace have resulted in distinguishing factors that are affiliated to workplace intelligence. These researches used quantified data on performance from countless organisations and industries and have contributed to the knowledge base in emotional intelligence (Lynn, 2002).

Moreover, The 1990s showed increasing attention on the part of researchers and practitioners on the construct of emotional intelligence. This interest reflects the theoretical proposition that individuals who are high in emotional intelligence are seemingly more successful in work-related and non-work aspects of life than low-emotionally intelligent ones. Wolfe and Caruso (2004, p.3) asserted emotions include essential information that assists us “to be better at what we do”. In 1998, Goleman reviewed analyses of studies of about 500 organisations around the world, “point to the paramount place of emotional intelligence in excellence on the job—in virtually any job” (Goleman, 1998, p. 6). He indicates organisations become leaders and rise to the top position while they have the highest emotional intelligence measure. Another significant finding that he discovered during reviewing these studies is star employees have more emotional intelligence (EI) than other employees. He found emotional intelligence is important twice as much as analytic and technical skill for those organisations.

Emotional intelligence has been investigated since early 1990s, but solely in recent years become pertinent to the workplace. Weisinger (1998) proposed the existence of a direct linkage between emotional intelligence and success at work. In accord with Bridget Murray (1998), individuals who are at the top of their field are not only good at their works. This means that, emotional intelligence (EI) takes more than intelligence quotient (IQ) to achieve success at workplace (Goleman, 1995). That is to say, besides bosses and corporate leaders, employees also need high portion of emotional intelligence, because they present the organisation to the public. Cherniss (2000) found several scholars suggested that there is a positive and direct relationship between the level of emotional intelligence (EI) and workplace performance. Cooper (1997) claimed that well managed

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emotions can assist ones to extend trust, loyalty and commitment, with their selves, their groups and their firms.

Various occupations call for different types of emotional intelligence. For instance, success in sales requires the empathic competency to identify the mood of the customer and the interpersonal skill to make a decision when to present a product and when to keep quiet. And also, success in painting or professional tennis demands a more one form of self-discipline and motivation. Thus emotional intelligence affects just about everything you do at work. “Even when you work in a solitary setting, how well you work has a lot to do with how well you discipline and motivate yourself” (Goleman, as cited in Murray, 1998, p. 3).

In 1993, Spencer and Spencer managed an analysis at L’Oreal Company and discovered that sales agents who were elected dependent on their emotional competencies sold significantly more than agents who were selected using standard recruitment techniques. The study exhibited that sales agents who were selected based on emotional ability sold an average of $91,370 more than those in the control group annually. Continually, the research also showed that salespeople selected based upon emotional competence had 63% less turnovers in the first year than those selected in a typical way (Spencer & Spencer, 1993).

Another issue that must be considered in emotional intelligence and workplace is gender differences and acquisition of emotional intelligence which found interesting results. Goleman (1998, p. 285) claimed that “men and women seem equally able to increase their emotional intelligence”. In a study by Steven Stein (as cited in Murray, 1998), 4,500 men and 3,200 women were assessed for their emotional intelligence. He discovered that women scored higher than men on empathy and social responsibility while men surpassed women on stress tolerance and self-confidence. His findings suggested women and men are equally emotionally intelligent, but they are different in these spheres. Khalili (2011) conducted an empirically investigation of emotional intelligence within employees of a private small and medium enterprise (SME) in Iran. He found that women are more emotionally intelligence than men but there is no significant difference between them.

Age has been considered in emotional intelligence acquisition. Goleman (1998, p.285) said researches show that, “maturity remains an advantage; it may be slightly harder to ‘teach young dogs new tricks’”. Mayer and Salovy (as cited in Goleman, 1998) discovered emotional intelligence increases significantly by age with an apex happening in the forties. Fariselli, Ghini and Freedman (2006) examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and age in the workplace. They chose 405 American workers between 22- 70 years. They discovered that emotional quotient (EQ) score increases slightly by age. They concluded that while a slight majority of older individuals are higher in EQ, there are many young people with higher EQ scores than their older counterparts. As well, they discussed that emotional intelligence is an important and crucial competence that leaders require to take into consideration in the current work context (Fariselli, Ghini & Freedman, 2006).

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Another part that research in the emotional intelligence area has concentrated considerably is leadership which is a fundamental workplace quality. Fleishman and Harris (1962) noted that before commencing research in the field of emotional intelligence, the Ohio State Leadership investigations informed leaders who were capable of establishing mutual trust, respect, and certain warmth and close relationship with members of their group were more effective. This consequence is not surprising given that many scholars have debated that effective leadership is fundamentally contingent on the leader’s competencies to solve the composite social difficulties which can arise in organisations (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000).

Other field of interest in the workplace is the cost-effectiveness of emotional intelligence. Several researches have stated the economic value of employing staff based on emotional intelligence. Based on a report to Congress, the US General Accounting Office (GAO) (1998) indicated the amount saved when the United States Air Force used Bar-On’s Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) to select program recruiters. By choosing those persons who scored highest in Bar-On’s Emotional Quotient Inventory as recruiters, they increased their ability to select successful recruiters by threefold and saved $3 million per year. Boyatzis (1999) discovered that when partners in a multinational consulting organisation were estimated on emotional intelligence competencies, partners who scored above the median on nine or more competencies delivered $1.2 million more profit than did other partners. Industry in the United States is losing between $5.6 and $16.8 billion annually, by not following training guidelines established to raise emotional intelligence (EI) in the workplace (Cherniss & Goleman, 1998). They discovered that the influence of training employees in emotional and social skills with programs which followed their guidelines was higher than for other programs, and by not executing these programs enterprises were receiving less of an influence and as a result losing money.

Emotional intelligence has formed a hypothesis as impacting a myriad of workplace variables such as performance, job satisfaction, absenteeism, organisational commitment and leadership (Rozell, Pettijohn & Parker, 2002).

Thi Lam and Kirby (2002) investigated the linkage between emotional intelligence and cognitive-based performance using US university graduates. Thi Lam and Kirby placed participants in stressful situations to replicate a modern work environment and measured emotional intelligence with the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS). Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) is a test of ability rather than a self- report measure. The test-taker performs a series of tasks that are designed to estimate the individual’s competency to be aware of, identify, understand, and work with emotion. However, they discovered that overall emotional intelligence, emotional perception, and emotional regulation uniquely describe person cognitive-based performance over and beyond the level attributable to general intelligence (Thi Lam & Kirby, 2002).

Nikolaou and Tsaousis (2002) investigated the relevance of emotional intelligence and source of occupational stress on a sample of 200 professionals in mental health

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institutions in Greece. They found a negative relationship among emotional intelligence and stress at workplace, indicating that high scorers in overall emotional intelligence endured less stress identifying with occupational environment. As well, they discovered a positive relation between emotional intelligence and organisational commitment, which suggested that emotional intelligence is a determining factor of employees’ loyalty to the organisations. Regarding overall emotional intelligence score, they did not address significant differences among males and females. An important relationship was discovered between emotional intelligence, age and education. They also found job type influences overall emotional intelligence scores, but no influence was found among job type and emotional intelligence subscales (Nikolaou & Tsaousis, 2002).

Oginska-Bulik (2005) investigated a study in Poland with the aim to see if emotional intelligence plays an important role in forming the interaction among individuals and their work environment. The results approved a necessary role of emotional intelligence on being aware of occupational stress and intercepting employees from negative health outcomes. Oginska-Bulik (2005) indicated a higher degree of emotional intelligence in women rather than men.

David McClelland (1998) investigated division heads of a global food and beverage company and found that 50% of division directors hired using standard methods left within two years, mostly due to poor performance. When the firm began selecting based upon emotional abilities like initiative, self-confidence, and leadership, only 6% left in two years. He also discovered that the divisions conducted by leaders strong in emotional intelligence competencies exceed in performance yearly revenue targets by a margin of 15-20% more high than divisions with leaders that did not show emotional intelligence abilities (McClelland, 1998).

In 1998, Daniel Goleman (1998) claimed by reviewing researches of nearly 500 companies around the world concluded that leaders have high degrees of emotional intelligence. Goleman noted leaders are highly emotionally intelligent because (1) they present the company to the public, (2) act reciprocally with the highest number of people inside and outside the organisation, and (3) set the tone for staff morale. In 1998, Goleman conducted a research which took into consideration competence models for 181 various job positions from 121 companies. Management in each firm was asked to agree on a profile indicating which factors were required for an individual to exhibit excellence in a specific job. He discovered that 67% of the competencies management outlined as determining factors of excellence within a job was related to emotional abilities. Just few years later, he formed a hypothesis that emotional competence is a learned capability based on emotional intelligence that causes outstanding performance at work. Dulewicz and Higgs (2000) reported alike results. They researched one thousand managers, over a seven-year period, concentrating on their abilities and their advancement through the organisation. They discovered that emotional intelligence factors contributed 36% to an individual’s progression, while intellectual intelligence contributed 27% through the organisation.

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Major Theories of Emotional Intelligence (EI) The increasing penchant in emotions as well as growing awareness of the role that it plays in business and in life is in great part due to the propagation of research over the past decade on emotions generally and EI specifically (Jamali, D. et al., 2008). Generally, emotional intelligence can be classified into two sets.

Firstly, it is the ability model matured by Mayer and Salovey that concentrates upon using intelligence to guide emotions (Weinberger, 2004). Weinberger mentioned that as of 2004, Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso were the only scholars promoting a more limited ability (cognitive) model. Mayer and Salovey (1997) thought that emotional intelligence is based initially in mental abilities. David Caruso was another scholar that joined Mayer and Salovey. Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) identified the diverging of the foundational components of emotional intelligence based on the specific “bent” of the foundational theorists. They improved a measurement of emotional intelligence called the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

Secondly, it is called the mixed-model (Bar-On, 1988 and Goleman, 1998) where emotional intelligence is not solely depending on cognition, but upon a socio-emotion centered in personality traits.

Precisely, Mayer and Salovey, (1997) focused upon the relevance between emotion and cognition, while Bar-On (2000) concentrated upon emotional intelligence influences on performance and well being, and Goleman (1995, 1998, Goleman et al., 2002) concentrated on emotional intelligence as a competency model. Three theories that have generated the most willingness in terms of research and applications are namely the theories of Bar-On (1988, 2000), Mayer and Salovey (1997), and Goleman (1998).

Bar-On (1988, 2000) The first theory which emerged is Bar-On theory in 1988. He coined the term of “emotional quotient” (EQ) in his doctoral dissertation which is an analogue to intelligent quotient (IQ).

Bar-On (1997) matured his own mixed-model construct of emotional intelligence, which is tested and appraised by the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-I). His construct follows a 1-5-15 breakdown of assessing individual’s level of emotional intelligence. There is an overall EQ score (1), with each of the five compound scales receiving a score (5), and likewise 15 subscales, each receiving its own individual score. The five social and emotional abilities subscales are sorted as “intrapersonal”, “interpersonal”, “stress management”, “adaptability”, and “general mood” which all together impact an individual’s ability to challenge with environmental demands effectively.

Hence, his model framed emotional intelligence in the concept of personality theory that in case of general model of psychological well-being and adaption is best viewed (Goleman, 2001). That is to say, the 15 subscales are divided up in accord with their respective composite scales. All Bar-On EQ-I scales and the emotional intelligence competencies and skills which assessed by each scale are addressed in Table 1.

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Mayer and Salovey (1997) Mayer and Salovey (1997) framed emotional intelligence within a developmental model of intelligence which occurred as a result of a realization that traditional measures of intelligence was not capable to measure individual differences in the emotional intelligence ability to realize, process and effectively conduct emotions. Thus, they derived a model based on cognitive consideration which outlines the specific mental brilliance for distinguishing and culling emotions (Goleman, 2001).

Their model (Figure 1) is inclusive four tiers of abilities with the elaboration of emotional skill which is increased from basic emotional perception to more complex processes of unifying emotion and cognition.

The first tire includes abilities that allow one to perceive, estimate, and express emotions. These types of abilities comprise identifying individual’s own and other’s emotions, manifesting one’s emotions and distinguishing the expressions of emotion in others. In the second tire skills involve using emotions to facilitate and prioritize idea (Goleman, 2001).

That is to say, using the emotions to assist in judgment as well as recognizing that mood swings can lead to a thoughtfulness of alternative viewpoints, and understanding that

Table 1: The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI)

EQ-I SCALES The EI competencies and skills assessed by each scale

Intrapersonal Self-regard Emotional self- awareness Assertiveness Independence Self-actualization

Self-awareness and self-expression: To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself To be aware of and understand one’s emotions

To effectively and constructively express one’s emotions and oneself To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others To strive to achieve personal goals and actualize one’s potential

Interpersonal Empathy Social responsibility Interpersonal relationship

Social awareness and interpersonal relationship: To be aware of and understand how others feel To identify with one’s social group and cooperate with others To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with others

Stress management Stress tolerance Impulse control

Emotional management and regulation: To effectively and constructively manage emotions To effectively and constructively control emotions

Adaptability Reality-testing Flexibility Problem-solving

Change management: To objectively validate one’s feelings and thinking with external reality To adopt and adjust one’s feelings and thinking to new situations To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature

General mood Optimism Happiness

Self-motivation: To be positive and look at the brighter side of life To feel content with oneself, others and life in general

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a shift in emotional state and perspective can facilitate various kinds problem solving. The third tier comprises of abilities namely labeling and discriminating among emotions, understanding complex mixture of feelings and formulating rules about feelings. The last (forth) tire is the general skill to manage emotions to uphold some social goals. This level is more complex one of emotional intelligence, because abilities at forth tire allow individuals to selectively engage in or separate from emotions to monitor and marshal emotions in themselves and others (Goleman, 2001).

In 2002, Caruso and Salovey by using their ability-based construct identified “Emotional Blueprint” which equips managers in their emotional skills. In their manuscript, they identified an “Emotional Blueprint” through which managers can appraise and mature their emotional intelligence competencies. Their construct of emotional intelligence concentrates upon the cognitive abilities of an individual to be capable of identify, use, understand, and manage emotions. In other words, they posed emotional intelligence which combines feeling with thinking. What appear later are the main themes of emotional intelligence in Caruso and Salovey manuscript (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2002, p. 8):

1) “Read People: Identifying Emotions. Emotions contain data. They are signals to us about significant events going on in our world, whether it’s our internal world, social world, or the natural environment.”

2) “Get in the Mood: Using Emotions. How we feel influences how we think and what we think about. Emotions direct our attention to important events; they ready us for a certain action, and they help guide our thought processes as we solve problems.”

3) “Predict the Emotional Future: Understanding Emotions. Emotions are not random events. They have underlying causes, they change according to a set of rules, and they

Figure 1: Mayer and Saloveys’ EI Model

Figure 1: Mayer and Saloveys’ EI Model

ADOPTED FROM: Bar-On and Parker (2000)

Emotional Perception

Registering and deciphering of

feelings and emotions

Emotional Integration

Integration of emotions into the

cognitive system, altering

cognition/thought

Emotional Management

Regulation of emotions and the

monitoring of their expression

Emotional Understanding

Assimilation, understanding,

reasoning with emotions

Emotional

Intelligence

Adopted from: Bar-On and Parker (2000)

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can be understood. Knowledge of emotions is reflected by our emotion vocabulary and our ability to conduct emotional what-if analyses.”

4) “Do It with Feeling: Managing Emotions. Because emotions contain information and influence thinking, we need to incorporate emotions intelligently into our reasoning, problem solving, judging, and behaving.”

Goleman (1998) Goleman (1998) introduced his emotional intelligence based on performance theory (that is merit based) including a separable set of abilities that integrate cognitive and affective skills. He identified five dimensions of emotional intelligence in his proposed framework (Table 2), comprising self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, social awareness (empathy) and social skills.

Goleman’s (1998) five dimensions model of emotional intelligence are described as below:

1) Self-Awareness is allied with the competency to be conscious of which emotions, moods, and impulses individual is experiencing and why. This also comprises individual’s consciousness of the results of his or her feelings on others.

2) Self-Regulation pertains to the competency to keep individual’s own emotions and impulses in check, to remain calm in potentially volatile conditions, and to maintain composure notwithstanding individual’s emotions.

3) Motivation refers to the ability to remain concentrated upon goals irrespective of obstacles, to operate from hope of prosperity rather than fear of inability to succeed, delaying satisfaction, and to accept change to achieve goals.

4) Empathy represents individual’s competency to understand the feelings transmitted through verbal and nonverbal messages, to prepare emotional support to people when required, and to understand the linkages among others’ emotions and behaviour.

5) Social Skills is allied with individual’s competency to deal with difficulties without behaving those who work with him or her, to not permit own or others’ negative feelings to restrain collaboration, and to handle affective conflict with tact and diplomacy.

That is to say, his five dimensions of EI classified into two broad categories (Figure 2), which are personal competence and social competence in dealing with one’s own self and others respectively (Goleman, 1995).

Table 2 illustrates Goleman’s model of emotional intelligence in 1998, which identified five domains of emotional intelligence (EI). That earlier model consists of twenty-five competencies, which divided into two broad competencies.

First category is personal competencies which mean understanding and conducting emotions in oneself that comprise of three dimensions: Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Motivation. Second category is social competencies which mean knowing and

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managing emotions in others that include two dimensions: Social-Awareness (Empathy) and Social Skills (Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Kunnanatt, 2004).

The refinement model (Table 3) brings from latter statistical analyses by his colleague Richard Boyatzis that supported decomposing the five dimensions into the four domains: Self-Awareness which is being aware of what one feels, Self-Management considers the

Table 2: Goleman’s Five Dimensions Model of EI

THE EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE FRAMEWORK

P er

so n

al s

k il

ls (

ho w

w e

m an

ag e

ou rs

el ve

s)

Self-awareness Emotional awareness Accurate self- assessment Self-confidence

Knowing one’s internal states, preferences, resources and intuitions Recognizing one’s emotions and their effects Knowing one’s strengths and limits

A strong sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities

Self-regulation Self-control Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Adaptability Innovation

Managing one’s internal impulses and resources Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity Taking the responsibility for personal performance Flexibility in handling change Being comfortable with novel ideas, approaches, and new information

Motivation Achievement drive Commitment Initiative Optimism

Emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence Aligning with goals of the group or organisation Readiness to act on opportunities Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks

S oc

ia l

sk il

ls (

ho w

w e

m an

ag e

re la

ti on

sh ip

s)

Empathy Understanding others

Developing others Service orientation Leveraging diversity Political awareness

Awareness of other’s feelings, needs, and concerns Sensing others’ feelings and perspectives, and taking active interest in their concerns Sensing others’ development needs and bolstering their abilities Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting customers’ needs Cultivating opportunities through different kinds of people Reading a group’s emotional currents and power relationships

Social Skills Influence Communication Conflict management Leadership Change catalyst Building bonds Collaboration & cooperation Team capabilities

Adeptness and inducing desirable responses in others Wielding effective tactics for persuasion Listening openly and sending convincing messages Negotiating and resolving disagreements Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups Initiating or managing change Nurturing instrumental relationships Working with others toward shared goals

Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals

Adopted from: Goleman’s (1998) Book “Working With Emotional Intelligence”

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ability to regulate distressing influences like anxiety and anger and to restrain emotional impulsivity, Social Awareness which comprises the competency of Empathy, and Relationship Management or Social Skill which in a fundamental sense, the effectiveness of our relationship skills depend on our ability to adjust ourselves to or affect the emotions of another person. That ability in turn builds on other domains of emotional intelligence, especially Self-Management and Social Awareness. If we cannot control our emotional tantrums or impulses and lack Empathy, there is less possibility we will be effective in our relationships (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000).

Indeed, in their analysis of data on workplace effectiveness, they discovered that Emotional Self-Awareness is required for effective Self-Management, which in turn anticipates greater Social Skill. A secondary pathway runs from Self-Awareness to Social Awareness (specifically Empathy. Finally, Relationship Management depends on a base of Self-Management and Empathy, each of which in turn requires Self-Awareness.

Figure 2: Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Two Broad Categories

Figure 2: Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Two Broad Categories

ADOPTED FROM: Bar-On and Parker (2000) and Kunnanatt (2004)

Personal Competence

• Self-Awareness

• Self-Management

• Self-Motivation

Social Competence

• Social Awareness

• Social Skills

Emotional Intelligence

Adopted from: Bar-On and Parker (2000) and Kunnanatt (2004)

Table 3: Goleman’s Refinement Model of EI (2001)

Personal Competence Social Competence

Recognition Self-Awareness -Emotional self-awareness -Accurate self-assessment -Self-confidence

Social Awareness -Empathy -Organisational awareness -Service

Regulation

Self-Management -Emotional self-control -Transparency -Adaptability -Achievement -Initiative -Optimism

Relationship Management -Inspirational leadership -Influence -Developing others -Change catalyst -Conflict management -Building bonds -Teamwork & collaboration

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Goleman (1998) and Bar- On (1997) perceived emotional intelligence as a mixed-model that combines not only cognitive abilities, but also personality traits also. Goleman (1998) Working with Emotional Intelligence and Goleman et al. (2002) Primal Leadership, are two books that further purified Goleman’s broad definition of emotional intelligence into domains (2001, p. 39)(Table 3). These fields reflect an intrapersonal component as well as an interpersonal component. These two broad parts make up Goleman’s whole construct, but then they are broken down further into specific competencies (2001, p.39):

1) Personal Competence: These abilities determine how we conduct ourselves. a) Self-Awareness • Emotional self-awareness: Reading one’s own emotions and recognizing their

impact; using “gut sense” to guide decisions • Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and limits • Self-confidence: A sound sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities b) Self-Management • Emotional self-control: Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under control • Transparency: Displaying honesty and integrity; trustworthiness • Adaptability: Flexibility in adapting to changing situations or overcoming obstacles • Achievement: The drive to improve performance to meet inner standards of

excellence • Initiative: Readiness to act and seize opportunities • Optimism: Seeing the upside in events

2) Social Competence: These abilities determine how we conduct relationships.

a) Social Awareness • Empathy: Sensing others’ emotions, understanding their perspective, and taking

active interest in their concerns • Organisational awareness: Reading the currents, decision networks, and politics

at the organisational level • Service: Recognizing and meeting follower, client, or customer needs b) Relationship Management • Inspirational leadership: Guiding and motivating with a compelling vision • Influence: Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion • Developing others: Bolstering others’ abilities through feedback and guidance • Change catalyst: Initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction • Conflict management: Resolving disagreements • Building bonds: Cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships • Teamwork and collaboration: Cooperation and team building

This model (Table 3) is a refinement of the model that Goleman used in 1998. That earlier framework (Table 2) identified five domains, or dimensions, of emotional intelligence that comprised twenty-five competencies. Three dimensions—Self-Awareness, Self- Regulation, and Motivation—depicted personal abilities, that is, knowing and conducting emotions in oneself. Two dimensions—Empathy and Social Skills—depicted social abilities, that is, knowing and conducting emotions in others. The current model reflects

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recent statistical analyses by his colleague Richard Boyatzis that supported collapsing the twenty-five competencies into twenty, and the five domains into the four ones (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000).

Certainly, these three main models are the substructure for other emotional intelligence theories and constructs. Over passing decades, theorists have generated definition of emotional intelligence. Namely, Zeidner et al. (2004) by analyzing of the literature, mediate that there are two models of emotional intelligence as below: 1. Mental ability models: these models are concentrates on aptitude for processing

affective information, in which emotional intelligence is viewed as a well defined and conceptually related collection of cognitive abilities for the processing of emotional information and regulating emotion adaptively, namely Mayer and Salovey ability model (1997).

2. Mixed models: in these models emotional intelligence conceptualize as a various construct, including aspects of personality and ability to comprehend, assimilate, understand and conduce emotions. These models include motivational factors and drastic dispositions. Bar-On (1988-2000) and Goleman (1998) can be classified as mixed models.

Discussion Nature of organisations has been changed in the last two decades. Firms have been decided to move toward knowledge, team-based and client-oriented vocations which results in raising individuals’ autonomy at all levels of enterprises. Moreover criteria of success have been changed in the workplace. Previously, individuals examined just by their smart but in recent years organisations seek to hire individuals who are more emotionally intelligence.

Based on review of the relevant literature, three main theories have been perceived in emotional intelligence domain: (1) Bar-On (1988, 2000). His model framed emotional intelligence in the concept of personality theory which in case of general model of psychological well-being and adaption is best viewed (Goleman, 2001). (2) Mayer and Salovey (1997). They derived a model base on cognitive consideration which outlines the specific mental brilliance for distinguishing and culling emotions (Goleman, 2001). (3) Goleman (1998). Goleman (1998) introduced his emotional intelligence model based on performance theory (that is merit based) including a separable set of abilities that integrate cognitive and affective skills.

Therefore, there are two broad categories of models in this area: (1) Ability model: Matured by Mayer and Salovey that concentrates upon using intelligence to guide emotions (Weinberger, 2004). Mayer and Salovey (1997) thought that emotional intelligence is based initially in mental abilities. (2) Mixed model: Matured by Goleman (1998) and Bar-On (1988), where emotional intelligence is not solely depending on cognition, but upon a socio-emotion centered in personality traits. Definitely, Mayer and Salovey focused upon the relevance between emotion and cognition, while Bar-On concentrated upon emotional intelligence influences on performance and well being, and Goleman relied on emotional intelligence as a competency model.

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