Human Resource Management Essay

Elizabeth Naumovski

hands. These changes in restaurant service interactions do not appear harm- ful, and may even be a positive development, but they do threaten traditional food cultures and those who seek to protect them from foreign influence.

Figure 1 presents a model that links the constructs of globalized and lo- calized identity expressions with the formation of customer identity impres- sions. While maintaining core features of their standard or global identity expressions, companies often find it necessary to modify their offerings to run congruent with local expectations, thereby creating localized identity ex- pressions. Still, managers find it difficult to anticipate and adjust to all nu- ances of local culture. Thus, corporate and brand expressions are invariably perceived through the filter of cultural frames of reference, which include prevailing consumer beliefs, values, norms, customs, lifestyles, competitive standards, and the overall economic situation in the local market. Moreover, consumers themselves actively localize fast-food to meet their own needs. Watson’s team showed how McDonald’s in East Asia served as an after- school hang-out for teenagers, an alcohol-free (and free from overbearing males) refuge for women, and a special place for indulging children. Stated differently, consumers reinterpret “global” products and services, even after market adaptations, to fit their own local frames of reference and cultural practices.

Volume 15 Number 1/2 2003 77

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

Research Objectives

This research investigated consumer impressions of KFC brand identity in China and the United States. The purpose is to build theory relevant to global management. The fast-food business is a challenging, but very appropriate topic for brand identity research. The organizational model combines corpo- rate and individual branding with both tangible good and service delivery is- sues. Fast-food restaurants provide memorable experiences, especially for younger customers, that incorporate cheerful informality along with the sen- sory output (odors, tastes) generated by more traditional eating establish- ments. KFC was chosen because it is a well-known brand in the U.S. and, according to a survey by A.C. Nielsen, the most famous international brand in China (People’s Daily Online 2000). Brand names are frequently more important in East Asian countries than in the West. According to Robinson (1995), a single packaged good brand often accounts for 40-50 percent mar- ket share. Furthermore, East Asians trust corporate identities more than in- dividual brand identities (Han and Schmitt 1997).

The first objective was to quantify cross-cultural differences in fast- food consumption behavior. Watson’s (1997) research suggests that the Chinese respondents will be more likely to eat within a KFC restaurant (rather than take food out) and to stay longer per meal than their U.S. coun- terparts. As Yan (2000) puts it, an ancient principle of Chinese culinary cul- ture regards slow eating as healthy and elegant. Since few Chinese own automobiles, take-out is less of an option, and since a KFC meal is relatively more expensive for the Chinese — the equivalent of six hours of work in China versus just an hour at minimum wage in the U.S. (Iritani 2001) — eat- ing there should be a more deliberate undertaking than it is for Americans. Being part of a more communal, less individualistic culture than that of the U.S., the Chinese also will be more likely to eat KFC food with family and friends. Finally, Chinese women should also spend more time in the restau- rant than Chinese men (Watson 1997; Yan 2000).

The second objective was to explore the differences, as well as the similarities, between Chinese and American assessments of KFC brand identity. Despite many outward parallels between KFC restaurants in China and the United States, the literature suggests that this “global” product is still considerably localized from the consumers’ point of view. There should be at least some significant differences in how respondents in the two countries perceive KFC properties, products, presentations, and publications. Yan (2000) concludes that fast-food customers in Beijing find the Western din- ing experience more satisfying than the food. Thus, it was hypothesized that the Chinese should have more positive impressions of KFC presentation and properties than of KFC product elements.

The third objective of the research was to determine how the different brand identity elements and their items predicted overall customer satisfac-

78 Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

tion and future patronage, and whether these predictions varied across cul- tures. In their study of service quality in Germany and the United States, for example, Witkowski and Wolfinbarger (2002) found that the relationship be- tween the different components of service quality — reliability, empathy, re- sponsiveness, assurance, and tangibles — and perceptions of overall service quality varied across both cultures and across service settings. In restaurant service, for example, empathy was especially important for Germans. Simi- larly, it was hypothesized that the different elements of KFC brand identity will have varying effects upon overall customer satisfaction and future pa- tronage.

Research Methods

A four-page questionnaire was drafted in English. It gathered information about eating at KFC (how often, time of day, eating in v. take-out, time spent in restaurant, eating alone v. eating with friends or family), overall satisfac- tion and likelihood of visiting again, impressions of the four identity ele- ments (eight items each for property and product, five items each for presentation and publications), and respondent demographics, lifestyle, and consumer aspirations. Care was taken to generate items that would have meaning across both cultures. However, some items were created specifi- cally because of their predicted resonance with the Chinese. For example, Schmitt (1994) and Schmitt and Pan (1994) note that the choice and writing of names is crucial in East Asia due to the idiographic nature, and visual proc- essing, of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean writing. Thus, two items were cre- ated to measure the phonetic readability and sound of the KFC/Kentucky Fried Chicken name (see, also, Huang and Chan 1997). A draft version of the questionnaire was pretested with a group of 17 undergraduate business ma- jors in the U.S. and then revised following their suggestions and those of a Chinese-American business professor.

The survey instrument was translated into Chinese by two native speakers (a female graduate student and a male professor), and then, for a lin- guistic equivalence check, back-translated into English by a third native speaker (also a female graduate student). The two English versions were rea- sonably consistent save for a few small errors that were corrected in the final version. Respondents in either language were able to complete the question- naire in less than 10 minutes.

Data were collected from 385 student respondents from California State University, Long Beach, and from 410 students at Qingdao University in China, during April and May, 2001. Students are a reasonable sample for this study. They appear to be heavy consumers of fast food. They are rela- tively homogeneous across cultures in terms of important demographics — age, education, social background — but still differ in terms of language and cultural frames of reference. Lastly, in both countries, but probably more so in rapidly changing China, they are a bellwether of future consumer trends.

Volume 15 Number 1/2 2003 79

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

Only students who had eaten at KFC in the past two years were questioned. In order to get a more “typical” snapshot of American young consumers, the California sample excluded visiting international students. All Qingdao University respondents were Chinese.

Qingdao is a port city of about 2.3 million inhabitants (over 7 million in the metropolitan area) located in Shandong Province about half way be- tween Beijing and Shanghai. The Qingdao KFC management company was established in 1993 and the first restaurant opened in 1995 (eight years after the grand opening in Beijing). There are two KFC restaurants near Qingdao University and eight throughout the entire city. Unlike in the United States, most KFCs in China are owned and managed by a corporate subsidiary; the first Chinese franchise restaurant was opened only in 1993 (Iritani 2001; Trianto 2001). The authors visited several KFC outlets in Qingdao so that their participant observation would enable more informed interpretation of survey results.

Research Findings

Demographic and Behavioral Comparisons

The Chinese students were slightly younger on average (21.3 years) than the Americans (24.7 years), were more likely to be male (65.6% v. 48.6%), and worked only 2.5 hours a week outside of school compared to 24.7 hours a week for their U.S. counterparts. These results appear typical. In China, the great majority of college students come directly from high school and, com- pared to American students in urban, state universities, devote much more time to their academic rather than outside work. Partly because of China’s “one-child” policy, there is a greater than normal proportion of young males in the general population. This bias, combined with traditional attitudes fa- voring the education of sons over daughters, has led to a preponderance of men in Chinese universities. Only about 10% of college-age adults in China get a higher education (Ni 2002).

The Chinese respondents ate at KFC more frequently than did the Americans — 6.8 v. 6.1 visits in the past year. The Chinese were more likely to eat within KFC restaurants (88.6% did v. just 8.3% of the U.S. sample) and, when they did, were much more likely to stay in the restaurant 20 min- utes or more (90.4% v. 41.0% of the Americans who ate inside). The two KFCs near Qingdao University do not have drive-through facilities and vir- tually no Chinese students have automobiles. Since a dinner at KFC is more expensive for the Chinese students than for the Americans, this compara- tively higher cost would seem to encourage less hurried dining behavior. In- terestingly, for those respondents from either country who did eat inside KFC, the percentage dining with friends or family was reasonably close — 69.3% of the Chinese v. 64.5% of the Americans. Finally, 80.0% of the Chi-

80 Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

nese, v. 52.6% of the Americans, indicated that they were very or somewhat likely to visit KFC again in the next few months.

In both samples, women were more likely than men to eat at KFC. Whereas Chinese men reported 5.6 visits on average over the past year, Chi- nese women said they ate there on average 9.2 times. Similarly, the Ameri- can men made 5.2 visits, compared to 7.0 times for their female counterparts. For the Chinese, but not for the Americans, women were also more likely to stay more than 40 minutes (32.6%) than were men (21.2%). The Chinese gender differences are consistent with Watson’s (1997) finding that McDonald’s was something of a “safe haven” for Asian women. The fast-food chains do not serve alcohol and, as a consequence, engender more restrained male behavior. KFC is also one of the few restaurants in China that does not allow smoking (Iritani 2001). For the Americans, on the other hand, the higher number of visits by females might result more from family food procurement responsibilities. Many of the U.S. sample female students are married and some have children. Only 2.0% of the American women, versus 1.6% of their male counterparts, stayed more than 40 minutes at KFC.

Brand Identity Analysis and Comparisons

Table 1 shows the item by item comparisons. There were significant differ- ences (p <.01) for 21 out of 26 individual items. In almost all cases, the Chi- nese had a more positive brand impression of KFC than did the Americans. In particular, they gave much higher marks for KFC furniture and décor and restroom cleanliness (property elements) and were much more likely to rate the food as healthy, well-balanced, and made from fresh ingredients (product elements). The Chinese rated KFC service personnel as more efficient, cour- teous, and nicely dressed (presentation elements) and found KFC advertising as more attractive and well done (publication element). These divergent scores support the notion that cultural frames of reference intervene between the corporate expressions and consumer impressions. For example, the authors have observed that KFC restrooms in Qingdao, although still below U.S. standards, are far cleaner than those in competing Chinese chains.

The few items where the two samples generally agreed and there were no significant differences included “KFC food is very tasty,” “it’s a complete dinner,” and “I like the Colonel Sanders trade character.” Other items, such as “KFC food is relatively affordable for me,” have statistically significant differences, but these are not very impressive in terms of the actual numerical averages. Thus, items with no or trivial differences possibly represent the most globalized aspects of KFC brand identity as measured where it counts — in terms of customer impressions.

Of the five most highly rated items by the Chinese, two were property-related elements — “KFC restaurants are kept clean inside” and “KFC restaurants have convenient operation hours” — and three were presentation-related items — “KFC employees wear nice clothes at work,”

Volume 15 Number 1/2 2003 81

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

82 Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

“KFC employees are courteous,” and “KFC employees fill orders effi- ciently.” The items measuring the product element generally received lower ratings. This supports Yan’s (2000) contention about the special allure for the Chinese of the Western, fast-food dining experience. The Americans, in contrast, did not exhibit any such pattern in their responses.

Table 1 also presents Cronbach alpha statistics for the sets of items se- lected to measure each of the four identity elements. The alphas ranged from .813 to .868, indicating a high degree of scale reliability for both the total sample, and for each of the two subsamples. The U.S. sample alphas for property, presentation, and publications were slightly higher than those for the Chinese. For the product scale, the Chinese alphas were a tad higher.

Satisfaction, Future Patronage, and Brand Identity

The Chinese respondents were slightly more satisfied than their American counterparts with going to KFC for food (3.97 v. 3.79, where 1 = very dissat- isfied and 5 = very satisfied) and were more likely to visit again in the next few months (4.03 v. 3.23, where 1 = very unlikely and 5 = very likely). These country differences are significant at p = .001 for satisfaction and p = .000 for intentions. As might be expected, there is a strong correlation between satis- faction and likely to visit in the next few months:r = .308 for the Chinese, .581 for the Americans, and .491 for the overall sample (all significant at p = .000). Note how much larger is the correlation coefficient between satisfac- tion and future patronage for the U.S. respondents.

A bivariate correlation analysis was run among the KFC satisfaction item, likely to visit item, and the 26 brand identity items. Table 2 shows the five brand identity items most highly correlated with satisfaction and with

Volume 15 Number 1/2 2003 83

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

likeliness to visit for the Chinese, American, and overall samples. For all three analyses, a product identity element item, “KFC food is very tasty,” was the most highly correlated with satisfaction. For the Chinese, the next three items most highly correlated with satisfaction are all related to the property identity element, followed by a service presentation item, “KFC employees are courteous.” For the U.S. sample, in contrast, the second and third most highly correlated items are also product items, while the fourth and fifth are publication related items about KFC advertising.

Turning to the items most correlated with intentions to visit in the fu- ture, “KFC food is very tasty” remains the most important factor for all groups. For the Chinese, the next two most highly correlated items are prod- uct identity measures, followed by a property element item, and then a publi- cation element item. For the U.S. sample, a product item comes second, then a presentation item, a property item, and, lastly another product item. All of the five highest correlation coefficients, for both the Chinese and American sam- ples, were lower for brand identity and likeliness to visit than for brand iden- tity and satisfaction.

84 Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

In addition to the differences in the ranking of items, what is quite ob- vious is how much more highly correlated are the U.S. brand identity items with both satisfaction and likely to visit. For the Americans, the number one item, “KFC food is very tasty,” correlates with satisfaction and likely to visit at, respectively, r = .598 and .523. The comparable coefficients for the Chi- nese are .295 and .249. Less highly correlated items show a similar pattern of much larger U.S. coefficients. Perhaps brand identity is slightly less of a driving force for the young Chinese consumers than it is for their American counterparts.

Conclusions, Limitations, and Future Directions

This research supports the findings about customer behavior at fast-food res- taurants in East Asia (Watson 1997; Yan 2000). Unlike the prior ethno- graphic studies, however, the data herein are entirely quantitative (albeit based upon convenience samples of students) and conclusions are drawn from an explicitly comparative methodology. Confidence in this literature increases when complementary investigative tools replicate results. Never- theless, cross-cultural comparisons need to be interpreted with care since similar outward behaviors may have different cultural foundations. For in- stance, the female respondents in both countries were more likely to visit KFC than were the males, but perhaps for different reasons — as a “safe ha- ven” in China and for family food procurement in the U.S.

Except for a handful of items, the Chinese young consumers in this study had more favorable brand identity impressions of KFC than a compara- ble group of Americans. This persistent scale difference can be explained by differences in the cultural frames of reference. Compared to what too many Chinese eating establishments have been offering in terms of décor, service, and customer amenities, the relatively new KFC restaurants make a very at- tractive alternative. KFC’s modernity and association with American culture may also add to its allure. Finally, KFC in China is a relatively new enterprise still in the “growth stage” of its product life cycle. In the U.S., in contrast, KFC has been around for a while, has generally modest dining facilities, costs the consumer relatively little, and, fairly or not, carries the opprobrium of being unhealthy, high-calorie, high fat “junk food.” Moreover, there are plenty of competing restaurant chains in the U.S. with equal, if not superior, standards.

Another type of cultural influence, a “courtesy bias,” may also contrib- ute to the marked differences in brand impressions across the two samples. Courtesy bias is a nonrandom or systematic measurement error (Baumgart- ner and Steenkamp 2001), which inflates the reported cross-cultural differ- ences. It is possible that the Chinese respondents may have tried to please the investigators by providing the answers they thought were expected of them. They may also have tried to be hospitable toward an America-based fast- food company. All of the questionnaires used the California university letter-

Volume 15 Number 1/2 2003 85

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

head in order to lend credibility to the instrument and to be consistent across samples, but this decision may have further communicated a desirable for- eignness to the Chinese respondents.

However, eagerness to please does not explain away the other major cross-cultural differences found by this study, namely, that (1) the Chinese brand identity impressions were consistently less highly correlated with sat- isfaction and with likeliness to visit again than were the American impres- sions and (2) satisfaction was a weaker predictor of future patronage intentions for the Chinese than for the U.S. respondents. Perhaps corporate and brand identity impressions should be more pertinent to the U.S. sam- ple’s satisfaction and future intentions because KFC’s identity expressions are rooted in American culture. Also, the survey instrument was developed in English and pre-tested with young consumers in the U.S., methods which probably imparted an American flavor to the questions and statements, de- spite care in item formulation and translation. In short, the brand identity, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions concepts and measures might fit to- gether better for U.S. respondents because they reflect an American cultural bias.

The much higher correlation coefficient between satisfaction and fu- ture patronage for the U.S. sample (r = .581 versus r = .308 for the Chinese) may have something to do with American individualism versus East Asian collectivism. When American respondents are satisfied with KFC, they are more likely to go again, often by themselves. Personal feelings take prece- dence. The Chinese, in contrast, visit KFC more often as part of a group, which might attenuate the tie between their own feelings and behavior. That is, the group imperative comes before the individual preference. Other fac- tors that potentially attenuate the relationship for the Chinese include af- fordability and lack of personal transportation.

This research provides evidence of both globalization and localiza- tion — similarities and differences across cultures in brand identity impres- sions and in their relationship with both satisfaction and future patronage intentions. Additional data needs to be collected from other national cultures such as Japan, which shares both the U.S. level of economic development and some of China’s collectivist values. This will help separate the influence of cultural beliefs and customs from situational or contextual variables. Fu- ture research also needs to examine in greater detail how factors such as a different aesthetic sensibilities affect the formation of brand identity im- pressions. Finally, international marketing managers need to routinely as- sess the extent to which the corporate and brand identity elements they project are truly globalized — create invariant consumer impressions across cultures — and the extent to which they are localized — create differing con- sumer impressions across cultures.

86 Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

References

Baumgartner, Hans and Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp (2001), “Response Styles in Marketing Research: A Cross-National Investigation,” Journal of Marketing Research, 38 (May), 143-156.

Berg, Per Olof and Kristian Kreiner (1990), “Corporate Architecture: Turn- ing Physical Settings into Symbolic Resources,” in Symbols and Artifacts: Views of the Corporate Landscape, Pasquale Gagliardi, ed., New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 41-67.

Cateora, Philip R. and John L. Graham (2002), International Marketing, Eleventh Edition, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Economist (2001), “Where’s the Beef?,” (November 3), 70.

Foreign Policy (2001), “McAtlas Shrugged,” (May/June), 26-37.

Han, Jin and Bernd Schmitt (1997), “The Relative Importance of Product- Category Dynamics and Corporate Identity in Brand Extensions: A Com- parison of Hong Kong and U.S. Consumers,” Journal of International Mar- keting, 5 (7), 77-92.

Hine, Thomas (1995), The Total Package: The Evolution and Secret Mean- ings of Boxes, Bottles, Cans, and Tubes, Boston: Little, Brown, and Com- pany.

Huang, Yue Yuan and Allan K. K. Chan (1997), “Chinese Brand Naming: From General Principles to Specific Rules,” International Journal of Adver- tising, 16, 320-335.

Iritani, Evelyn (2001), “Ruling the Roost in China,” Los Angeles Times, (September 10), A1, A8.

Keller, Kevin Lane (2001), “Building Customer-Based Brand Equity,” Mar- keting Management, 10 (July/August), 14-19.

Ni, Ching-Ching (2002), “In China, Private Schools Give It the Old College Try,” Los Angeles Times (May 31), A12, A13.

People’s Daily Online (2000), http://www.peopledaily.com.cn (accessed October 18, 2000).

Pine, B. Joseph II and James H. Gilmore (1998), “Welcome to the Experi- ence Economy,” Harvard Business Review, 76 (July-August), 97-105.

Robinson, Chris (1995), “Asian Culture: The Marketing Consequences,” Journal of the Market Research Society, 28 (1), 55-62.

Volume 15 Number 1/2 2003 87

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

Schlosser, Eric (2001), Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All- American Meal, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Schmitt, Bernd H. (1994), “Corporate and Brand Identities in the Asia- Pacific Region: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives,” in Asia Pacific Ad- vances in Consumer Research, 1, Association for Consumer Research, 1-3.

____________ and Yigang Pan (1994), “Managing Corporate and Brand Identities in the Asia-Pacific Region,” California Management Review (Summer), 32-48.

Schmitt, Bernd and Alex Simonson (1997), Marketing Aesthetics: The Stra- tegic Management of Brands, Identity, and Image, New York: The Free Press.

Trianto, Oliver (2001), “Franchising with Chinese Characteristics,” China International Business, (June), 52-53.

Watson, James L., ed. (1997), Golden Arches East: McDonald’s in East Asia, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Witkowski, Terrence H. and Mary F. Wolfinbarger (2002), “Comparative Service Quality: German and American Ratings Across Service Settings,” Journal of Business Research, 55 (November), 875-881.

Yan, Yunxiang (2000), “Of Hamburger and Social Space: Consuming McDonald’s in Beijing,” in The Consumer Revolution in Urban China, Deborah S. Davis, ed., Berkeley: University of California Press, 201-225.

88 Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Cross-Cultural

Influences on Brand

Identity Impressions

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)

This article has been cited by:

1. Kyuho Lee, Mahmood Khan, Inhyuck “Steve” Ha, Jae-Youn Ko. 2018. Exploring the Impacts of McService on Customers’ Loyalty: An Emerging Market’s Perspective. Journal of Foodservice Business Research 21:1, 55-67. [Crossref]

2. Hong Xue, Yang Wu, Xiaoyu Wang, Youfa Wang. 2016. Time Trends in Fast Food Consumption and Its Association with Obesity among Children in China. PLOS ONE 11:3, e0151141. [Crossref]

3. Barrie Gunter. Does Food Advertising Influence People’s Food Preferences? 147-187. [Crossref] 4. Björn Frank, Boris Herbas Torrico, Takao Enkawa, Shane J. Schvaneveldt. 2014. Affect versus Cognition in the Chain from

Perceived Quality to Customer Loyalty: The Roles of Product Beliefs and Experience. Journal of Retailing 90:4, 567-586. [Crossref]

5. Angelos Pantouvakis. 2013. The moderating role of nationality on the satisfaction loyalty link: evidence from the tourism industry. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence 24:9-10, 1174-1187. [Crossref]

6. Sang-Mook Lee, Naehyun (Paul) Jin, Hak-Seon Kim. 2013. Relationships among Knowledge of Healthy Food, Health Concern, and Behavioral Intention: Evidence from the United States and South Korea. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism 14:4, 344-363. [Crossref]

7. Ian Phau, Graham Ferguson. 2013. Validating the Customer Satisfaction Survey (CSS) Scale in the Australian fast food industry. Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ) 21:3, 147-154. [Crossref]

8. Zhang Ziqiong, Zhang Zili, Law Rob. 2013. Regional effects on customer satisfaction with restaurants. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 25:5, 705-722. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

9. Clyde A. Warden, James Stanworth, Judy F. Chen, Stephen Chi-Tsun Huang. 2012. Strangers in Strange Lands: Hypermarkets and Chinese Consumer Culture Misalignment. International Journal of Market Research 54:6, 799-820. [Crossref]

10. S. Allen Broyles, Thaweephan Leingpibul, Robert H. Ross, Brent M. Foster. 2010. Brand equity's antecedent/consequence relationships in cross‐cultural settings. Journal of Product & Brand Management 19:3, 159-169. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

11. Boris Bartikowski, Katsuyuki Kamei, Jean‐Louis Chandon. 2010. A verbal rating scale to measure Japanese consumers' perceptions of product quality. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics 22:2, 179-195. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

12. T S Baines, P D Ball, S Cooper, P Dawson, S Wilkinson, M Woods, J M Kay. 2008. An exploration of policies and practices used to showcase production facilities. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture 222:9, 1181-1188. [Crossref]

13. Ross Brennan, Paul Baines, Paul Garneau, Lynn Vos. Antiglobal Challenges to Marketing in Developing Countries: Exploring the Ideological Divide 410-440. [Crossref]

14. Seung-Hee Baek, Sunny Ham, Il-Sun Yang. 2006. A cross-cultural comparison of fast food restaurant selection criteria between Korean and Filipino college students. International Journal of Hospitality Management 25:4, 683-698. [Crossref]

15. Terrence H. Witkowski. 2005. Antiglobal Challenges to Marketing in Developing Countries: Exploring the Ideological Divide. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 24:1, 7-23. [Crossref]

D ow

nl oa

de d

by V

IC T

O R

IA U

N IV

E R

SI T

Y (A

us tr

al ia

) A t 0

2: 18

0 1

A ug

us t 2

01 8

(P T

)