Psychology research short papers

Research Article

The Other-Race Effect Develops During Infancy Evidence of Perceptual Narrowing David J. Kelly,1 Paul C. Quinn,2 Alan M. Slater,3 Kang Lee,4 Liezhong Ge,5 and Olivier Pascalis1

1 University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom;

2 University of Delaware;

3 University of Exeter, Exeter, United

Kingdom; 4 University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and

5 Zeijiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, People’s

Republic of China

ABSTRACT—Experience plays a crucial role in the devel-

opment of face processing. In the study reported here, we

investigated how faces observed within the visual envi-

ronment affect the development of the face-processing

system during the 1st year of life. We assessed 3-, 6-, and

9-month-old Caucasian infants’ ability to discriminate

faces within their own racial group and within three other-

race groups (African, Middle Eastern, and Chinese).

The 3-month-old infants demonstrated recognition in all

conditions, the 6-month-old infants were able to recognize

Caucasian and Chinese faces only, and the 9-month-old

infants’ recognition was restricted to own-race faces. The

pattern of preferences indicates that the other-race effect

is emerging by 6 months of age and is present at 9 months

of age. The findings suggest that facial input from the

infant’s visual environment is crucial for shaping the

face-processing system early in infancy, resulting in differ-

ential recognition accuracy for faces of different races in

adulthood.

Human adults are experts at recognizing faces of conspecifics

and appear to perform this task effortlessly. Despite this im-

pressive ability, however, adults are more susceptible to rec-

ognition errors when a target face is from an unfamiliar racial

group, rather than their own racial group. This phenomenon is

known as the other-race effect (ORE; see Meissner & Brigham,

2001, for a review). Although the ORE has been widely reported,

the exact mechanisms that underlie reduced recognition accu-

racy for other-race faces, and precisely when this effect emerges

during development, remain unclear.

The ORE can be explained in terms of a modifiable face

representation. The concept of a multidimensional face-space

architecture, first proposed by Valentine (1991), has received

much empirical support. According to the norm-based coding

model, individual face exemplars are represented as vectors

within face-space according to their deviation from a prototyp-

ical average. The prototype held by each person represents the

average of all faces that person has ever encoded and is therefore

unique. Although it is unclear which dimensions are most sa-

lient and used for recognition, it is likely that dimensions vary

between individuals and possibly within each person over time.

The prototype (and therefore the entire face-space) continually

adapts and is updated as more faces are observed within the

environment. Consequently, individuating face-space dimen-

sions of a person living in China are expected to be optimal for

recognition of other Chinese persons, but not, for example, for

recognition of African individuals.

Other authors have hypothesized that the dimensions of the

face prototype present at birth are broad and develop according

to the type of facial input received (Nelson, 2001). According to

this account, predominant exposure to faces from a single racial

category tunes face-space dimensions toward that category.

Such tuning might be manifested at a behavioral level in

differential responding to own- versus other-race faces, for ex-

ample, in spontaneous visual preference and a recognition ad-

vantage for own-race faces.

Recent findings regarding spontaneous preference have

confirmed the impact of differential face input on the tuning of

the face prototype during early infancy. It has been demon-

strated that selectivity based on ethnic facial differences

emerges very early in life, with 3-month-old infants preferring to

look at faces from their own group, as opposed to faces from other

Address correspondence to David J. Kelly, University of Sheffield, Psychology Department, Western Bank, Sheffield, South Yorkshire S10 2TP, United Kingdom, e-mail: [email protected].

PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

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ethnic groups (Bar-Haim, Ziv, Lamy, & Hodes, 2006; Kelly et

al., 2005, 2007). We (Kelly et al., 2005) have shown that this

preference is not present at birth, which strongly suggests that

own-group preferences result from differential exposure to faces

from one’s particular ethnic group. In addition, Bar-Haim et al.

(2006) tested a population of Ethiopian infants who had been

raised in an absorption center while their families awaited

housing in Israel. These infants were frequently exposed to both

Ethiopian and Israeli adults and subsequently demonstrated no

preference for either African or Caucasian faces when presented

simultaneously.

Collectively, these results provide strong evidence that faces

observed in the visual environment have a highly influential role

in eliciting face preferences during infancy. Additional evi-

dence supporting this conclusion comes from a study concern-

ing gender preference (Quinn, Yahr, Kuhn, Slater, & Pascalis,

2002), which showed that 3- to 4-month-old infants raised pri-

marily by a female caregiver demonstrate a visual preference for

female over male faces, whereas infants raised primarily by a

male caregiver prefer to look at male rather than female faces.

Although the literature on differential face recognition con-

tains discrepancies regarding the onset of the ORE, evidence

points toward an early inception. Some of the initial investiga-

tions reported onset at 8 (Feinman & Entwhistle, 1976) and 6

(Chance, Turner, & Goldstein, 1982) years of age. More recent

studies have found the ORE to be present in 5-year-olds (Pez-

dek, Blandon-Gitlin, & Moore, 2003) and 3-year-olds (San-

grigoli & de Schonen, 2004a). In addition, Sangrigoli and de

Schonen (2004b) showed that 3-month-old Caucasian infants

were able to recognize an own-race face, but not an Asian face,

as measured by the visual paired-comparison (VPC) task.

However, the effect disappeared if infants were habituated to

three, as opposed to one, other-race face exemplars. Thus, al-

though the ORE may be present at 3 months of age, it is weak

enough to be eliminated after only a few instances of exposure

within an experimental session.

Additional lines of evidence indicate that the face represen-

tation undergoes change throughout development. At 6 months

of age, infants are able to individuate human and monkey faces,

and although the ability to individuate human faces is main-

tained in later development, the ability to individuate monkey

faces is absent in 9-month-old infants and in adults (Pascalis, de

Haan, & Nelson, 2002). Although the face-processing system

appears to adapt toward own-species faces, it still retains flex-

ibility for within-species categories of faces (i.e., other-race

faces). Korean adults adopted by French families during child-

hood (ages 3–9 years) demonstrated a recognition deficit for

Korean faces relative to their ability to recognize European faces

(Sangrigoli, Pallier, Argenti, Ventureyra, & de Schonen, 2005).

Their pattern of performance was comparable to that of the

native French people who were tested in the same study.

The purpose of the study reported here was to clarify the

developmental origins of the ORE during the first months of life.

Using the VPC task, we assessed the ability of 3-, 6-, and 9-

month-old Caucasian infants to discriminate within own-race

(Caucasian) faces and within three categories of other-race faces

(African, Middle Eastern, and Chinese). This task measures

relative interest in the members of pairs of stimuli, each con-

sisting of a novel stimulus and a familiar stimulus observed

during a prior habituation period. Recognition of the familiar

stimulus is inferred from the participant’s tendency to fixate on

the novel stimulus. Previous studies have found that 3-month-

old infants can perform this task even when they are exposed to

different views of faces (e.g., full view vs. 3/4 profile) during the

habituation period and the recognition test (Pascalis, de Haan,

Nelson, & de Schonen, 1998). We also varied face views between

familiarization and testing, a procedure that is preferable to

using identical pictures in the habituation and testing phases

because it ensures that face recognition—as opposed to picture

recognition (i.e., image matching)—is tested. Our selection of

which age groups to test was based on previous research dem-

onstrating that the ORE is found in infancy (3-month-olds;

Sangrigoli & de Schonen, 2004b) and that the face-processing

system appears to undergo a period of tuning between 6 and 9

months of age (Pascalis et al., 2002).

METHOD

Participants

In total, 192 Caucasian infants were included in the final

analysis. There were 64 subjects in each of three age groups: 3-

month-olds (age range 5 86–102 days; 33 females, 31 males), 6-

month-olds (age range 5 178–196 days; 31 females, 33 males),

and 9-month-olds (age range 5 268–289 days; 30 females, 34

males). All participants were healthy, full-term infants. Within

each age group, the infants were assigned in equal numbers (n 5

16) to the four testing conditions (Caucasian, African, Middle

Eastern, and Chinese). The infants were recruited from the

maternity wingof the Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield,

United Kingdom. In each age group, we tested additional infants

who were excluded from the final analysis. Twenty-two 3-month-

old infants were excluded because of failure to habituate (n 5 4),

side bias during testing (> 95% looking time to one side; n 5

15), or fussiness (n 5 3); sixteen 6-month-old infants were ex-

cluded because of failure to habituate (n 5 7), side bias during

testing (n 5 3), parental interference (n 5 2), or fussiness (n 5

4); and eleven 9-month-old infants were excluded because of a

failure to habituate (n 5 3) or fussiness (n 5 8).

Stimuli

The stimuli were 24 color images of male and female adult faces

(age range 5 23–27 years) from four different ethnic groups

(African, Asian, Middle Eastern, and Caucasian). All faces had

dark hair and dark eyes so that the infants would be unable to

demonstrate recognition on the basis of these features. The

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images were photos of students. The Africans were members of

the African and Caribbean Society at the University of Sheffield;

the Asians were Han Chinese students from Zhejiang Sci-Tech

University, Hangzhou, China; the Middle Easterners were

members of the Pakistan Society at the University of Sheffield;

and the Caucasians were psychology students at the University

of Sheffield.

For each ethnic group, we tested male and female faces

in separate conditions. The images for each combination of

ethnic group and gender consisted of a habituation face and

two test faces, a novel face and the familiar face in a new ori-

entation. The two faces in the test phase were always in the

same orientation, and this orientation differed from the orien-

tation of the face seen during habituation. In one orientation

condition, infants were habituated to full-view faces and

saw test faces in 3/4-profile views; in the other orientation

condition, the views were reversed. Equal numbers of infants

were assigned to the two orientation conditions. Figure 1 dis-

plays examples of the stimuli.

All photos were taken with a Canon S50 digital camera and

subsequently cropped using Adobe Photoshop to remove the

neck and background details. All individual pictures were then

mounted on a uniform dark-gray background, and the stimuli

were resized to the same dimensions to ensure uniformity.

Sixteen independent observers rated a pool of 32 faces for

attractiveness and distinctiveness, using a scale from 1 to 10,

and the final set of 24 faces was selected so as to match gender,

attractiveness, and distinctiveness within each face pair.

Procedure

All infants were tested in a quiet room at the department of

psychology at the University of Sheffield. They were seated on

their mother’s lap, approximately 60 cm from a screen onto

which the images were projected. Each infant was randomly

assigned to one of the four ethnic-group conditions (African,

Asian, Middle Eastern, or Caucasian). Within each of these four

conditions, infants were tested with either male or female faces;

testing was counterbalanced appropriately, with half the infants

assigned to the male-faces condition and half the infants as-

signed to the female-faces condition. Equal numbers of infants

were tested in the male and female conditions. Before the ses-

sion started, all mothers were instructed to fixate centrally above

the screen and to remain as quiet as possible during testing.

Habituation Phase

Each infant was first presented with a single face projected onto

a screen measuring 45 cm � 30 cm. The face measured 18 cm � 18 cm (141 visual angle). The experimenter observed the infant’s eye movements on a control monitor from a black-and-white

closed-circuit television camera (specialized for low-light con-

ditions) that was positioned above the screen. Time was recorded

and displayed on the control monitor using a Horita (Mission

Viejo, CA) II TG-50 time coder; video was recorded at 25 frames

per second.

The experimenter recorded the infant’s attention to the face by

holding down the ‘‘z’’ key on a keyboard whenever the infant

fixated on the image. When the infant looked away from the

image, the experimenter released the key. If the infant’s atten-

tion was averted for more than 2 s, the image disappeared from

the screen. The experimenter then presented the image again

and repeated the procedure. The habituation phase ended when

the infant’s looking time on a presentation was equal to or less

than 50% of the average looking time from the infant’s first two

presentations. Thus, our measure of looking time was the sum

of looking time across all presentations until the habituation

criterion was reached.

Test Phase

The test phase consisted of two trials. First, two face images

(novel and familiar), each measuring 18 cm � 18 cm (141 visual Fig. 1. Sample stimuli from the Chinese male and Middle Eastern female conditions. The habituation face is shown at the top of each triad. The test faces (novel and familiar) are shown underneath.

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angle), were presented on the screen. The images were separated

by a 9-cm gap and appeared in the bottom left and bottom

right corners of the screen. When the infant first looked at the

images, the experimenter pressed a key to begin a 5-s count-

down. At the end of the 5 s, the images disappeared from the

screen. The faces then appeared with their left/right position on

the screen reversed. As soon as the infant looked at the images,

another 5-s countdown was initiated. Eye movements were

recorded throughout, and the film was digitized for frame-

by-frame analysis by two independent observers who used

specialized computer software to code looking time to each of

the two faces. The observers were blind to both gender and

ethnic-group condition and to the screen positions of the faces

being viewed by the infants. The average level of interobserver

agreement was high (Pearson r 5 .93). Recognition was inferred

from a preference for the novel face stimulus across the two

5-s test trials.

RESULTS

Habituation Trials

A preliminary analysis revealed no significant gender differ-

ences for stimuli or participants, so data were collapsed across

stimulus gender and participant’s gender in subsequent anal-

yses. Habituation time (total looking time across trials) was

analyzed in a 3 (age: 3, 6, or 9 months) � 4 (face ethnicity: African, Middle Eastern, Chinese, or Caucasian) � 2 (face orien- tation: full face or 3/4 profile) between-subjects analysis of var-

iance (ANOVA). The ANOVA yielded only a significant effect of

age, F(2, 189) 5 73.193, p < .0001, Z2 5 .535. Post hoc Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) tests revealed that the

habituation times of 6- and 9-month-old infants did not differ

significantly, but both 6-month-old (M 5 42.67 s) and 9-month-

old (M 5 38.88 s) infants habituated significantly more quickly

(p < .0001) than 3-month-old infants (M 5 70.74 s). There were

no main effects of face ethnicity or face orientation, nor were

there any interactions.

Test Trials

Again, a preliminary analysis yielded no significant gender

differences for stimuli or participants, so data were collapsed

across stimulus gender and participant’s gender in subsequent

analyses. Percentage of time spent looking at the novel stimulus,

combined from both trials of the test phase, was analyzed in a 3

(age: 3, 6, or 9 months) � 4 (face ethnicity: African, Middle Eastern, Chinese, or Caucasian) � 2 (face orientation: full face or 3/4 view) between-subjects ANOVA. The ANOVA yielded a

significant effect of age, F(2, 189) 5 5.133, p < .007, Z2 5 .058. Post hoc Tukey’s HSD tests revealed that 3-month-olds (M 5

60.15%) showed significantly greater preference for the novel

face (p < .003) than did 9-month-olds (M 5 53.19%). There

were no main effects of face ethnicity or face orientation.

To investigate novelty preferences within each age group, we

conducted one-way between-groups ANOVAs on the percentage

of time spent looking at the novel stimuli in the four face-eth-

nicity conditions. A significant effect of face ethnicity was found

for 9-month-old infants, F(3, 60) 5 3.105, p < .033, Z2 5 .134, but not for 3- or 6-month-old infants. These results suggest that

novelty preferences differed between face-ethnicity conditions

only within the group of 9-month-old infants.

To further investigate novelty preferences within each age

group, we conducted a series of two-tailed t tests to determine

whether the time spent looking at novel stimuli differed from the

TABLE 1

Results of the Novelty-Preference Test, by Age Group and Face Ethnicity

Age and face ethnicity

Mean time looking at the novel face (%) t(15) p prep

3 months

African 60.88 (16.52) 2.635 .019n .942

Middle Eastern 57.31 (11.37) 2.572 .021n .937

Chinese 58.72 (14.07) 2.479 .026n .929

Caucasian 63.71 (13.47) 4.072 .001n .988

6 months

African 55.35 (11.40) 1.880 > .05 .840 Middle Eastern 56.70 (12.89) 2.079 > .05 .871 Chinese 56.42 (7.79) 3.295 .005n .965

Caucasian 58.27 (8.88) 3.725 .002n .979

9 months

African 51.33 (10.53) 0.505 > .05 .414 Middle Eastern 53.51 (8.47) 1.658 > .05 .799 Chinese 48.23 (13.31) 0.530 > .05 .642 Caucasian 59.70 (11.16) 3.476 .003n .971

Note. Standard deviations are given in parentheses. Asterisks highlight conditions in which the infants viewed novel faces significantly more often than predicted by chance.

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chance level of 50% (see Table 1). The results showed that

3-month-old infants demonstrated significant novelty prefer-

ences in all four face-ethnicity conditions, 6-month-old infants

demonstrated significant novelty preferences in two of the four

conditions (Chinese and Caucasian), and 9-month-old infants

demonstrated a novelty preference for Caucasian faces only.

DISCUSSION

The aim of the current study was to investigate the onset of the

ORE during the first months of life, following up on previous

findings that 3-month-olds already show a preference for own-

race faces (Bar-Haim et al., 2006; Kelly et al., 2005, 2007). The

results reported here do not provide evidence for the ORE (as

measured by differential recognition capabilities for own- and

other-race faces) in 3-month-old infants, but they do indicate

that the ORE emerges at age 6 months and is fully present at age

9 months.

Our results are consistent with the notion of general percep-

tual narrowing during infancy (e.g., Nelson, 2001). Our findings

are also consistent with those of Pascalis et al. (2002), further

demonstrating that the face-processing system undergoes a

period of refinement within the 1st year of life. Collectively,

these findings lend weight to the concept of a tuning period

between 6 and 9 months of age. However, differences between

the present study and the work by Pascalis et al. should be noted.

For example, there is the obvious difference that Pascalis et al.

found between-species effects, and our study focused on within-

species effects. It should not be assumed that identical mech-

anisms necessarily underlie the reductions in recognition ac-

curacy observed in the two cases. In addition, once the ability to

discriminate between nonhuman primate faces has diminished,

it apparently cannot be recovered easily (Dufour, Coleman,

Campbell, Petit, & Pascalis, 2004; Pascalis et al., 2002),

whereas the ORE is evidently modifiable through exposure to

other-race populations (Sangrigoli et al., 2005) or simple

training with other-race faces (Elliott, Wills, & Goldstein, 1973;

Goldstein & Chance, 1985; Lavrakas, Buri, & Mayzner, 1976).

Furthermore, event-related potential (ERP) studies have shown

that in 6-month-olds, the putative infant N170 (a face-selective

ERP component elicited in occipital regions) is sensitive to

inversion for both human and monkey faces, whereas the N170

recorded in adults is sensitive to inversion only for human faces

(de Haan, Pascalis, & Johnson, 2002). An adultlike N170 re-

sponse is not observed in subjects until they are 12 months of

age (Halit, de Haan, & Johnson, 2003). The ERP response for

other-race faces has not yet been investigated during infancy,

but studies with adults have revealed no differences in the N170

response to own- and other-race faces (Caldara et al., 2003;

Caldara, Rossion, Bovet, & Hauert, 2004).

Our findings differ from those reported by Sangrigoli and de

Schonen (2004b) in the only other study to have investigated the

emergence of the ORE during infancy. In their initial experi-

ment, Sangrigoli and de Schonen found that 3-month-old infants

discriminated own-race faces, but not other-race faces, as

measured by the VPC task. However, numerous methodological

differences between our study and theirs (e.g., color stimuli in

our study vs. gray-scale stimuli in theirs) could have contributed

to these contrasting results. Furthermore, Sangrigoli and de

Schonen were able to eliminate the ORE with only a few trials of

exposure to multiple exemplars, which suggests that even if the

ORE is already present in 3-month-olds, it is weak and re-

versible. Between Sangrigoli and de Schonen’s work and our

own, there are now three VPC experiments (one here, two in

Sangrigoli & de Schonen) 1 that have been conducted with 3-

month-old infants, yet only one has yielded evidence for the

ORE. The weight of the evidence thus suggests that a strong and

sustainable ORE may not be present at 3 months of age, but

rather develops later.

One might ask whether the ORE arises from differences in the

variability of faces from different ethnic groups. However, the

available evidence indicates that no category of faces has

greater homogeneity than any other (Goldstein, 1979a, 1979b).

Moreover, the data suggest that the ORE does not exclusively

reflect a deficit for non-Caucasian faces: Individuals from many

ethnic groups demonstrate poorer recognition of other-race than

own-race faces (Meissner & Brigham, 2001). Evidently, a full

account of the ORE will involve factors other than heterogeneity.

We have argued elsewhere (Kelly et al., 2007) that the ORE

may develop through the following processes: First, predomi-

nant exposure to faces from one’s own racial group induces fa-

miliarity with and a visual preference for such faces. Second, a

preference for faces within one’s racial group produces greater

visual attention to such faces, even when faces from other racial

groups are present in the visual environment. Third, superior

recognition abilities develop for faces within one’s racial group,

but not for faces from groups that are infrequently encountered.

Although supporting evidence for the first two processes has

been obtained previously (Bar-Haim et al., 2006; Kelly et al.,

2005, 2007), the data reported here provide the first direct ev-

idence for the third. According to our account, the ORE can be

explained by a modifiable face prototype (Valentine, 1991). If

each person’s face prototype is an average of all faces that per-

son has encoded during his or her lifetime, then one may as-

sume that it will resemble the race of the faces most commonly

encountered. Furthermore, one would expect that individuating

dimensions will be optimized for recognition of own-race

faces, but not other-race faces.

An alternative to the single-prototype account is that people

may possess multiple face-spaces that represent different

face categories (e.g., gender, race) separately within a global

space. In this contrasting scheme, rather than individuating

1 But note that in a recent study using morphed stimuli, Hayden, Bhatt, Jo-

seph, and Tanaka (2007) demonstrated that 3.5-month-old infants showed greater sensitivity to structural changes in own-race faces than in other-race faces.

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dimensions being unsuitable for recognition of other-race faces,

a face-space for other-race faces (e.g., Chinese faces) either does

not exist or is insufficiently formed because of a general lack of

exposure to those face categories. In both accounts, recognition

capabilities improve through exposure to other-race faces. In the

case of the single-prototype account, individuating dimensions

acquire properties of newly encountered other-race faces that

facilitate recognition. Alternatively, in the multiple-face-spaces

account, a relevant space for other-race faces develops through

similar exposure.

In summary, this is the first study to investigate the emergence

of the ORE during infancy by comparing three different age

groups’ ability to recognize faces from their own race and a range

of other races. The data reported here support the idea that very

young infants have a broad face-processing system that is

capable of processing faces from different ethnic groups.

Between 3 and 9 months of age, this system gradually becomes

more sensitive to faces from an infant’s own ethnic group as a

consequence of greater exposure to such faces than to faces from

other racial groups. This shift in sensitivity is reflected in the

emergence of a deficit in recognition accuracy for faces from

unfamiliar groups. Future research should address whether

the pattern of results we obtained with Caucasian infants is

universal, or whether the ORE emerges at different ages in other

populations.

Acknowledgments—This work was supported by National

Institutes of Health Grants HD-46526 and HD-42451 and by an

Economic and Social Research Council studentship awarded to

David J. Kelly.

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