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Chapter Nine

Moving into the Adult Social World: Socioemotional Development in Adolescence

Introduction

How do teenagers form their own self-identity?

What are some characteristics of a typical teenage relationship?

What role do part-time jobs play in development?

What negative consequences do teenagers face when they engage in drug use?

9.1 Identity and Self-Esteem

Learning Objectives

How do adolescents achieve an identity?

What are the stages and results of acquiring an ethnic identity?

How does self-esteem change in adolescence?

The Search for Identity, Part 1

According to Erikson, adolescents face the crisis between identity and role confusion

Teenagers use experimentation to form their own identities

Envision themselves as rock stars, famous writers, etc.

Adolescents often progress through different stages on their path to forming their identities (see Table 9.1 on next slide)

The Search for Identity, Part 2

■TABLE 9.1 Identity Statuses

Status	Definition	Example
Diffusion	The individual is overwhelmed by the task of achieving an identity and does little to accomplish the task.	Larry hates the idea of deciding what to do with his future, so he spends most of his free time playing video games.
Foreclosure	The individual has a status determined by adults rather than by personal exploration.	For as long as she can remember, Sakura’s parents have told her that she should be an attorney and join the family law firm. She plans to study prelaw in college, although she’s never given the matter that much thought.
Moratorium	The individual is examining different alternatives but has yet to find one that’s satisfactory.	Brad enjoys most of his high school classes. Some days he thinks it would be fun to be a chemist, some days he wants to be a novelist, and some days he’d like to be an elementary school teacher. He thinks it a little weird to change his mind so often, but he also enjoys thinking about different jobs.
Achievement	The individual has explored alternatives and has deliberately chosen a specific identity.	Throughout middle school, Efrat wanted to play in the WNBA. During 9th and 10th grades, she thought it would be cool to be a physician. In 11th grade, she took a computing course and everything finally “clicked”- she’d found her niche. She knew that she wanted to study computer science in college.

The Search for Identity, Part 3

Characteristic ways of thinking during identity search:

Adolescent egocentrism: a teen’s focus on her own feelings and experiences

Often characterized by an imaginary audience: the belief that their peers are constantly watching them

Personal fable: belief that their own experiences and feelings are unique and no one has ever felt like this before

Illusion of invulnerability: belief that misfortune only happens to others

The Search for Identity, Part 4

As adolescents form their identities, egocentric thinking begins to vanish

Who helps teens form identities?

Parents, especially when they are open to discussion and allow their children to explore different options

Peers, especially close, trustworthy friends

Broader social context: limitations of poverty

Personality, especially agreeability and openness to experience

Ethnic Identity, Part 1

One-third of adolescents/young adults in the U.S. are members of ethnic minority groups

Typically develop an ethnic identity: become part of the group and learn its culture and traditions

Typically three phases in achieving an ethnic identity:

Initially, no examination of ethnic roots

Explore the personal impact of one’s cultural heritage

Achieve a distinct ethnic self-concept

Ethnic Identity, Part 2

Benefits of a strong ethnic identity:

Higher self-esteem

More enjoyable interactions with family and friends

Better performance in school and more likely to attend college

Self-Esteem in Adolescents

Self-esteem usually stabilizes in early adolescence

Sometimes tends to drop as children adjust to new schools and a new social circle

Self-esteem becomes more differentiated in adolescence

Different levels of self-esteem for academics, social interactions, and physical challenges

Social component even more complex and differentiated

Influences on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem

What contributes to adolescents’ self-esteem?

Self-confidence higher in areas of interest and ones in which they do well

Parents

Warm and affectionate parents best for fostering high self-esteem

Moderate level of discipline and openness for discussing rules

Peers’ opinions

Self-esteem is high when peers have a favorable view of the teen

The Myth of Storm and Stress

Is adolescence really a time of stress and rebellion?

Most teens have positive relationships with their parents

Teens’ growing independence does change the parent-child relationship

Spend less time together; show less affection

Parents tend to mildly argue with teens over clothing, personal freedoms, hairstyles, etc.

Approx. 25% experience more serious conflicts

9.2 Romantic Relationships and Sexuality

Learning Objectives

Why do teenagers date?

Why are some adolescents sexually active? Why do so few use contraceptives?

What determines an adolescent’s sexual orientation?

What circumstances make dating violence especially likely?

Romantic Relationships

Romantic relationships build on friendships

Usually between people similar in popularity and physical attractiveness

Trust and compassion become more important in relationships as teenagers develop

Adolescents in a relationship tend to be more self-confident

Healthy adolescent relationships associated with satisfying adult relationships

More emotional conflict in teens’ relationships

Sexual Behavior, Part 1

Two-thirds of U.S. teens will have had intercourse by the end of high school

Parental permissiveness, peer approval, having peers who are also having sex, and alcohol use are contributing factors

Boys tend to see sex as more recreational; girls tend to view it as an expression of love and romance

Sexual Behavior, Part 2

Approx. one in six American teen girls that has intercourse becomes pregnant

Approx. 10% of sexually active teens do not use contraception

Many use ineffective methods of contraception

Feelings of invulnerability, not having access to contraception, and romanticizing the idea of having a baby contribute to teens’ low use of contraceptives

Sexual Behavior, Part 3

How can teenage sexual behavior and pregnancy be reduced?

Comprehensive sex education programs

Incorporate biology and emphasize responsibility

Use role-playing to get teens to feel comfortable saying “no”

Little evidence that abstinence-only programs or just offering contraceptives works

Sexual Orientation

Approx. 15% of teens question their sexual and emotional attraction at some period

Approx. 5% end up identifying as gay or lesbian

For males, identifying as gay usually emerges after “feeling different” during childhood

Females often don’t identify as lesbians until later-adolescence or even later in life

Gay and lesbian youth often have mental health problems and engage in substance use

Social changes are helping to prevent this

Dating Violence

Approx. 25% of teens experience physical, emotional, and/or sexual violence while dating:

Can result in academic and behavioral problems

What are some risk factors?

Parent behavior, peer behavior and attitudes, and personality

Programs that help prevent dating violence have been effective

9.3 The World of Work

Learning Objectives:

How do adolescents select an occupation?

What is the impact of part-time employment on adolescents?

Career Development, Part 1

Identity is a primary force in an adolescent’s choice of career (Donald Super)

Crystallization: teens use their emerging identities to form ideas about careers

Occurs at 13 or 14 years of age

Specification: learn more about specific lines of work and begin training

Begins at around 18 years of age

Implementation: enter workforce and learn first-hand from jobs

Career Development, Part 2

In the specification stage of career development, adolescents try to learn more about different careers, sometimes by serving as an apprentice.

Career Development, Part 3

Super’s theory does not explain why people are attracted to certain kinds of work

Personality-type theory: work is fulfilling when the features of a job fit with a person’s personality

Devised by John Holland

Most people are a blend of six personality types (see Table 9.3 on next slide)

Career Development, Part 4

■TABLE 9.2 Personality Types in Holland’s Theory

Personality Type	Description	Careers
Realistic	Individuals enjoy physical labor and working with their hands; they like to solve concrete problems.	Mechanic, truck driver, construction worker
Investigative	Individuals are task-oriented and enjoy thinking about abstract relations.	Scientist, technical writer
Social	Individuals are skilled verbally and interpersonally; they enjoy solving problems using these skills.	Teacher, counselor, social worker
Conventional	Individuals have verbal and quantitative skills that they like to apply to structured, well-defined tasks assigned to them by others.	Bank teller, payroll clerk, traffic manager
Enterprising	Individuals enjoy using their verbal skills in positions of power, status, and leadership.	Business executive, television producer, real estate agent
Artistic	Individuals enjoy expressing themselves through unstructured tasks	Poet, musician, actor

Career Development, Part 5

Employees tend to be productive and have stable careers when their jobs match their personalities

Other factors contribute to satisfaction as well

Pay, workplace stress, work-family balance, etc.

Part-Time Employment, Part 1

Approx. 75% of high school seniors have a part-time job

Part-time work can be harmful:

School performance suffers

More than 20 hours per week

Mental health and behavioral problems

Repetitive, stressful jobs undermine self-esteem and create anxiety

Misleading affluence

Most teens spend money on themselves

Part-Time Employment, Part 2

Teens should avoid working long hours

5-10 hours per week usually does not cause stress

Jobs that value the teen’s skills can enhance self-esteem

Spending money on necessities or saving can improve parent-child relationships

Summer employment is a good alternative to part-time employment

9.4 The Dark Side

Learning Objectives

Why do teenagers drink and use drugs?

What leads some adolescents to become depressed? How can depression be treated?

What are the causes of juvenile delinquency?

Drug Use, Part 1

Most teenagers admit to having used alcohol

What causes some teens to drink?

Alcohol is an important part of their parents’ social lives

Parents are uninvolved or set unrealistic expectations

Experience of life stresses

Peers who also drink

Programs and therapy tailored to the cause of drinking can be effective interventions

Drug Use, Part 2

One-third of teens experiment with smoking cigarettes

Supportive parents make teens less likely to smoke

Having peers who smoke is a risk factor

School-based programs have been created to teach about the consequences of smoking and show ways to resist peer pressure

Depression, Part 1

Depression: a disorder characterized by pervasive feelings of sadness, irritability, and low self-esteem

15% of adolescents are depressed; more common in girls

Depression is often triggered by a serious loss or failure

Examples: death of a family member or a terrible date

Depression, Part 2

Why do only some teens become depressed?

Temperament: trouble with regulating emotions can lead to depression

A belief system that internalizes failure

Emotionally distant or overly punitive parents / stressful family life

African American and Hispanic American teens experience both poverty and depression at higher rates

Heredity: lower levels of neurotransmitters

Depression, Part 3

Antidepressant drugs only work for some adolescents (not a permanent solution)

Psychotherapy is better for teens

Emphasizes cognitive and social skills

Shown to be effective

Untreated depression in teens:

Can lead to decreased school performance, troubled social relationships, and depression in adulthood

Depression, Part 4

Depression often precedes suicide

Approx. 10% of teens report making a suicide attempt

Most suicides are preceded by warning signs

Threats, preoccupation with death, etc.

Teens who exhibit symptoms should not be left alone

Therapy is essential to treating symptoms of depression and hopelessness

Delinquency, Part 1

Two types of delinquent behavior:

Adolescent-limited antisocial behavior: relatively minor criminal acts by adolescents who aren’t consistently antisocial

Life-course persistent antisocial behavior: antisocial behavior that begins at an early age and persists throughout life

5% of youth exhibit this; cause of most adolescent criminal behavior

Delinquency, Part 2

Aggressive teens see the world as a hostile place and typically respond aggressively by default.

Delinquency, Part 3

What causes delinquent/criminal behavior?

Heredity: levels of physical aggression

Cognitive skills

Respond aggressively when intentions are unknown

Impulsivity

Parents who are overly permissive or punitive

Living in poverty

Intervention programs and parent training can be effective