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K–12 Classroom TeaChing

A Primer for New Professionals

F i F t h E d i t i o n

Andrea M. Guillaume California State University, Fullerton

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Guillaume, Andrea M. K-12 classroom teaching : a primer for new professionals / Andrea M. Guillaume, California State University, Fullerton.—Fifth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-398559-7 (alk. paper)—ISBN 0-13-398559-8 (alk. paper) 1. First year teachers—United States. 2. Teaching—United States. I. Title. LB2844.1.N4G85 2016 371.102—dc23 2014037622

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ISBN-10: 0-13-398559-8 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-398559-7

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Andrea Guillaume began her career in education as a public middle school teacher. She spe- cializes in pedagogy, particularly in active teaching and content methods. She has written several textbooks and a number of articles related to instruction and teacher development. At California State University, Fullerton, she works with teachers in several courses at both the preservice and graduate levels. She leads an arts-rich credential cohort, and she works with the univer- sity’s faculty to enhance instruction and student learning. She also enjoys working with teachers new to their career in a local induction program. Andrea presents widely—often to international audiences—and has written numerous texts and articles related to teaching.

about the author

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For Beverly.

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vi

ChAPTEr 1 The Nature of Teaching 1

ChAPTEr 2 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 20

ChAPTEr 3 Students and Families: Teambuilding 38

ChAPTEr 4 Providing Inclusive and responsive Instruction 58

ChAPTEr 5 Planning for Instruction 82

ChAPTEr 6 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 111

ChAPTEr 7 Instructional Models and Strategies 135

ChAPTEr 8 Student Assessment 170

ChAPTEr 9 Managing the Learning Environment 196

ChAPTEr 10 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 223

ChAPTEr 11 Growing in Your Profession 254

Glossary 266

references 272

Index 294

Brief Contents

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vii

Preface xii

ChAPTEr 1 The Nature of Teaching 1

Teaching Looks Easy . . . from the Outside 2

Every Teacher Is Part of a System 3 Teachers and the Law 3 Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century 6 Local Influences on Teaching Today 8 Circles of Influence: Opportunities and Challenges 8

Teaching Is Goal Driven 10

Teaching Is More than Telling 11

There Is Agreement on What Teachers Need to Know and Be Able to Do 13

Teachers Can Be Effective and Yet Not Just Alike 16

Parting Words 17

ChAPTEr 2 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 20

Three Curricula 22

Considering the Questions of Education 24

Conceptions of Education Found in Practice 25

Developing Your Stance 27 What Is the Good? Who Is the Good Person Living in the Good Society? 28 What Is the Purpose of Education? 28 What Should Everyone Learn? Why? 29 What Is the Nature of Learning? 30 What Is (Excellent) Teaching? 30 What Does School Do? 31

Using Your Stance 31

Parting Words 32

ChAPTEr 3 Students and Families: Teambuilding 38

The (Nonexistent) Generic U.S. Classroom 39

Rough Terrain Ahead: Gaps and Inequities 40

Cultural Competence 42

Getting to Know Your Students and Families 42 Questioning Assumptions 43 Gathering Information about Students and Families 44

Working with Families 50 What We Know about Families and Schools 50 Start Now to Involve Families 52

Parting Words 55

Contents

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viii Contents

ChAPTEr 4 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 58

Use Positive, Strength-Based Approaches 59

Treat Students as Individuals 60

Plan for All Students with Universal Design 60

Differentiate Instruction 61 Content 62 Process 62 Product 62

Use Varied Student Groupings 63 Grouping Decisions 64 Mixing It Up with Student Groups 66

Address Students’ Special Educational Needs 66 Some Statistics and Laws Related to Students with Identified Needs 66 Serving Students with Special Needs 68 Accommodate and Modify 68 Use Assistive Technology to Accommodate and Modify 69 Use Response to Intervention 70

Shelter English Instruction for English Language Learners 71 Language Acquisition 72 Teaching English Learners 72 Sheltered English Instruction 73

Challenge Gifted and Advanced Learners 75 Giftedness and Programs for Serving Gifted Learners 75 Meeting the Needs of Advanced and Gifted Learners 75

Foster Gender Equity 76

Create Safe Spaces 78 Parting Words 79

ChAPTEr 5 Planning for Instruction 82

Standards-Based Planning 83 The Basics of Standards-Based Instruction 83 Standards-Based Instruction: Lessons Learned during the First Decades 83 The Development of Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards 84 Current Status of the Common Core: Compliments, Criticisms, and Concerns 84

Planning Starts with the Students 86

Goals Drive Planning 87 Kinds of Goals 88 Goals versus Objectives 90 Determining Goals 91

Planning to Use Instructional Resources 91 Textbooks 91 Rich Instructional Resources 93

Long-Range Planning 94 Yearlong Planning 96 Unit Planning 97 Weekly and Daily Schedules 100

Lesson Planning 100 Writing Objectives 103 Lesson Structure 104 Elements of a Lesson Plan 107

Parting Words 109

ChAPTEr 6 Advice on Instruction: ComE IN 111

Connect 112 Connecting People 112 Connecting Ideas 114

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Contents ix

Connecting with Text 114 Connecting to the Outside World and Its Important Ideas 115 Connecting to Action 116

Organize Your Instruction 117 Organizing Content 118 Organizing Times and Tasks 119

Model 120

Enrich 122

Interact 123 Active Participation: Engagement and Progress Monitoring 125 Structured Interaction for Language Development 129 Physical Movement during Classroom Instruction 130

Consider Human Nature and Student Needs 130 Parting Words 131

ChAPTEr 7 Instructional models and Strategies 135

Classroom Questioning 136

Direct Instruction 139 Description of the Direct Instruction Model 139 Stages of the Direct Instruction Model 139 Strengths and Criticisms of Direct Instruction 140

Learning Cycle 142 Description of the Learning Cycle Model 143 Stages of the Learning Cycle Model 143 A Sample Learning Cycle Lesson 143

Concept Formation 146 Description of the Concept Formation Model 146 Stages of the Concept Formation Model 146 A Sample Concept Formation Lesson 146 Strengths and Criticisms of Inductive Strategies 148

Content Conversations 149 Description of the Content Conversation Model 149 Stages of the Content Conversation Model 150 Strengths and Criticisms of Content Conversations 153

Cooperative Learning 153 Description of the Cooperative Learning Model 153 Stages of the Cooperative Learning Model 154 A Sample Cooperative Learning Lesson 155 Strengths and Criticisms of the Cooperative Learning Model 155

Project-Based Learning 158 Description of the Project-Based Learning Model 158 Stages of the Project-Based Learning Model 159 A Sample Project-Based Learning Experience 160 Strengths and Criticisms of Project-Based Learning 161

Parting Words 163

ChAPTEr 8 Student Assessment 170

Principles of Assessment 171 Using the Principles of Assessment in Your Grading 172

Assessment Basics 173 Different Assessments for Different Purposes 173 Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Assessments 174 Standardized and Local Assessments 174 Formative and Summative Assessments 174

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x Contents

The Assessment Landscape 175 International Assessment Landscape 175 National- and State-Level Assessment Landscape 176 The School-Level Assessment Landscape 177

Classroom Assessment Step by Step 177 1. Choose Your Assessment Targets 178 2. Choose Your Assessment Strategies 180 3. Include Your Students 183 4. Employ Your Assessments and Analyze the Data 187 5. Use What You Learn 190

A Sampler of Assessments 190 Traditional Tests 190 Attitude Surveys 191 Products 191 Portfolios 191 Journals 191 Performance-Based Assessments 192 Teacher Observations 192 Interviews 192 Drawings and Diagrams 192 Graphic Organizers 192

Parting Words 193

ChAPTEr 9 managing the Learning Environment 196

Creating Community: Managing Classroom Ambience 197 Know Thyself 198 E Pluribus . . . 198 . . . Unum 199 Creating Community Using a Range of Strategies 199

Managing the Physical Space 201 Is It Productive? 202 Is It Efficient? 202

Managing Resources: The Stuff of Teaching 205 Information Flow 205 Digital Equipment 205 Communications 207

Managing Time 207 Maximizing Academic Learning Time 207 Noninstructional Routines 209 Instructional Management and Routines 211

Your Own Management Plan 214 Parting Words 220

ChAPTEr 10 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 223

Classroom Discipline as One Piece of the Puzzle 224

Physician, Heal Thyself: Discipline Starts with You 224 How Understanding Yourself Helps You as a Disciplinarian 225 Finding Emotional Control in an Emotional Endeavor 225 Choosing Your Authority Base 226

The Goal Is Self-Discipline 227

Establishing a Climate That Promotes Independence 228 Addressing Behavior in Ways That Encourage Self-Control 228

The Key: A Structured, Consistent, Supportive Environment 232 1. Structure 232 2. High Expectations 232 3. Support 233

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Contents xi

4. Caring Communication 233 5. Clear Limits 233 6. Consistency 234

Relationships as Central 234 Establishing a Climate of Dignity and Respect 235 Responding to Behavior 236

Prevention, Not Reaction 237 1. Meaningful Curriculum and High Engagement 238 2. Motivation and Development 238 3. Anticipation 239 4. Positive Approach 240 5. Strong Presence and Nonverbal Communication 241

A Systems Approach 242 Group Size 243 Overlapping 243 Intensity of Response 244 Motivation for Misbehavior 246 Short-Term and Long-Term Redirection 247

Your Own Classroom Discipline Plan 248 Parting Words 251

ChAPTEr 11 Growing in Your Profession 254

Engaging in the Professional Community 255 Becoming an Effective Staff Member 255 Growing from Feedback on Your Teaching 257 Pursuing Professional Development 258

Using Professional Ethics as Your Guide 260

Some Advice from the Heart 262

Glossary 266

References 272

Index 294

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xii

Preface

By learning you will teach; by teaching you will learn. —Latin Proverb

K–12 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals is a core text for elementary and secondary preservice teachers who are taking introduction to teaching courses, field experience courses, or general methods courses. It is also a quick but thorough core text for inservice teach- ers who are gaining certification at the same time they are beginning to teach. Instructors of specialized methods courses or foundations of education courses will find this primer a useful supplemental text.

K–12 Classroom Teaching presents research-based yet practical points of view that can provide meaning and direction behind new teachers’ actions related to a number of central educational issues. It uses clear, reader-friendly language to concisely explore key aspects of classroom teaching, including 21st-century teaching and learning, strategies for learning about students and their families, educational stances, planning and assessment, inclusive and respon- sive instruction, instructional models and strategies, classroom management and discipline, and professional growth. Chapters include a balance of up-to-date discussions of educational issues, research findings, and practical advice. The selection and presentation of topics is guided by a conceptual approach that emphasizes the active nature of learning to teach.

new to This edition The fifth edition of K–12 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals responds to the dynamic conditions teachers face today. A number of updates enhance the text:

New features support readers in making meaning. New features include outcomes for each chapter—all aligned with major headings—and quick check items (with correct responses and explanations of those responses) for each chapter outcome. Also new is the Watch and Think feature, which includes links to videos and guiding questions, to explore and expand content in every chapter.

The research and literature base has been thoroughly updated, and hundreds of new citations have been added. Included are recent trends such as national demographic shifts, international and national assessment practices and results, Positive Behavior Interventions and Support, bullying, and issues surrounding GLBTQ students and students with GLBTQ families. Research on effective instruction (instruction that is associated with achievement; found throughout as in Chapters 1 and 6), instructional strategies and models (Chapter 7), discipline (Chapter 9), and classroom management (in Chapter 10) are additional examples of the updated research base. The focus on inclusive and responsive instruction—already clear in the fourth edition—has been sharpened and deepened for today’s educational context. Prevalent examples include treatment of student diversity including an exploration of del- eterious practices such as segregation of schools and the differential experiences of students based on positionalities such as race, ethnicity, special education status, and socioeconomic status (Chapter 3). Also in Chapter 3 is more extensive treatment of cultural competence and of teambuilding with students and families. Similarly, Chapter 4 includes treatment of strength-based approaches in contrast to deficit-based thinking. Other examples are found in

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Preface xiii

Chapter 9, which invites readers to link aspects of their own cultures to classroom manage- ment, and in Chapter 10, which explores the role that student factors play in some teachers’ expectations and disciplinary approaches. Chapter 7 includes instructional models that are responsive to today’s contexts. These include content conversations—or discussion—and Project Based Learning.

The nature and implications of a rapidly changing digital world are captured throughout this edition. For example Chapter 1 gives global trends about internet penetration and national trends about how we use our technologies. It also addresses some of the legal implications con- nected with teaching and learning with technology. Research on the effectiveness of varied digi- tal teaching aids such as e-books and ubiquitous computing is found throughout the text, such as in Chapter 5. The text and tip boxes both include updated technologies such as emergent Web 2.0 tools and social media. Examples are found throughout the text, such as in Chapter 3’s Teaching for Tomorrow Tip: “Using the Web to Stay in Touch” and Chapter 4’s tip, “Increasing Accessibility Using Your Own Machine.” Promising directions in digital learning are addressed across the text, including Chapter 6’s treatment of computer gaming.

Finally, recent and pressing changes to standards-based instruction and assessment have been captured in this edition. Chapter 1 addresses the current status of No Child Left Behind and its effects. Chapter 5 shares information on the development of the common core state standards and the current status of implementation. Practical advice for incorporating the common core into planning and practice is found throughout. For example, given the common core emphasis on argumentation from text, Chapter 6 includes a section on “Connecting to Text,” along with an illustrative figure. Dispositions, or ways of thinking, which are central to 21st century demands such as the 4cs and the common core, are also addressed in this edition. One example is the tip in Chapter 5 that guides learners in developing their own list of dispositions: Define Your Habits of Mind.

Conceptual approach K–12 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals is based on the premise that teach- ing is goal directed, interactional, and mindful of the local setting in its efforts to encourage learners’ growth. Two core convictions are that classroom teaching is complex and that today’s teachers face special difficulties given current demands and events at home and abroad. It takes the conceptual approach that in the face of these challenging conditions, teachers at their best are guided by:

• A commitment to understanding their particular students and placing students at the center of every decision.

• A clear sense of what they hope to accomplish. • An understanding of the context and of what research shows to be effective. • A set of professional knowledge and skills. • A sense of ethics concerning what is right. • A sense of responsibility to value and enhance the learning of every student.

Building these dispositions, commitments, and understandings is hard work, so this text approaches the process of learning to teach (and of learning in general) as an active, social one. Through its content and through its approach, the text encourages readers to reflect on past experience, to question assumptions, to consider multiple sources of information, and to commit to enacting well-defined notions of good practice that address learners’ diverse needs and honor the dignity of the human experience.

organization of the Text Chapters are arranged topically, and content of later chapters draws from the work the reader accomplishes in earlier chapters.

• In Chapter 1, the text begins with an exploration of the distinct character of classroom teaching. Chapter 1 explores this character through six propositions of teaching that lay a

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xiv Preface

foundation for the entire text through their content and their implications for each chapter’s presentation of information. These propositions include:

1. Teaching looks easy . . . from the outside. 2. Every teacher is part of a system. 3. Teaching is goal driven. 4. Teaching is more than telling. 5. There is agreement on what teachers need to know and be able to do. 6. Teachers can be effective and yet not just alike.

• Chapter 2 stresses the importance of understanding the philosophical bases found in educational practice and of developing one’s own stance toward education. Subsequent chapters ask readers to use their stance to guide their decisions related to the chapters’ content.

• Chapter 3 explores the growing range of strengths and needs exhibited by students in U.S. schools and urges new teachers to use knowledge of specific students and families as the starting point for their instructional decisions. It encourages readers to begin teambuilding with students and families immediately and to sustain their family-school partnerships as an effort central to student success.

• Chapter 4 argues that, because students are the basis of our decisions, instruction must be inclusive and responsive to the very wide range of student needs and interests we find in ev- ery classroom. The chapter explores approaches that can respond to issues such as gender, special educational needs, and English acquisition.

• Chapter 5 addresses instructional planning both in the long range and in the short term. It guides teachers in making decisions about resources and student groupings and presents a variety of unit planning approaches and standards-based lesson planning.

• Chapter 6 introduces six pieces of general advice for instruction using the mnemonic device COME IN: Connect, Organize, Model, Enrich, Interact, and consider Nature and Needs. The chapter argues that this advice can encourage rigorous learning through rich and purposeful instruction.

• Chapter 7 shares instructional models and strategies and discusses the strengths and poten- tial drawbacks of models such as questioning, direct instruction, and inquiry.

• Chapter 8 explores principles of assessment and offers a variety of assessment strategies in keeping with those principles. It includes international and national perspectives and results of student assessments.

• Chapter 9 addresses classroom management. It focuses on the importance of productive relationships, structure, and proactive decision making.

• Chapter 10 focuses on classroom discipline and encouraging appropriate student behavior in ways that respect students, prevent misbehavior, and encourage self-control.

• Finally, Chapter 11 addresses issues of professional involvement and growth for new teachers.

Features of the Text Readers and reviewers of earlier editions of K–12 Classroom Teaching commented positively on a variety of the text’s characteristics, and those have been retained in the fifth edition. They include the text’s condensed format, its readable style, its useful ideas, and its personal approach.

In keeping with the text’s active approach to learning, a number of special features can also be found throughout the text.

Warm-Up Exercises. Because past experience influences present learning, chapters begin with warm-up activities that help readers access their thinking related to major points about to be explored.

Chapter Outcomes. To support readers’ mastery of the content, each chapter begins with a list of outcomes that should guide work with the chapter.

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Preface xv

Quick Assessment Checks*. Each chapter contains objective questions that allow readers to self-assess their mastery of chapter outcomes as they read.

Presentation of Information. Key concepts are presented in clear language. Figures are often used to present information in a succinct format.

Watch and Think*. Chapters all include a set of video links along with guiding questions. Interspersed throughout each chapter, the brief videos illustrate chapter content and ex- tend thinking about current topics.

Teaching Tips. Plentiful practical classroom suggestions are placed in boxes throughout each of the chapters. Readers find three types of tips: generic teaching tips, inclusive and responsive teaching tips, and 21st-century teaching and learning tips.

Words from Teachers. The voices of previous readers, now teachers, offer advice and writing samples that are presented in many chapters. Examples include advice for build- ing community, encouraging student participation, structuring a productive learning en- vironment, and pursuing financial literacy.

Parting Words. Rather than concluding with a traditional summary, chapters conclude with some final words of advice related to the issues at hand.

Opportunities to Practice. Application exercises follow the content of each chapter. The exercises are meant to extend readers’ connections with the content in a variety of ways that directly relate to the world of the classroom.

Blank Forms. Opportunities to Practice exercises, along with many figures throughout the text, provide for structured practice and application of the chapters’ key ideas. Examples in- clude blank observation guides, lesson plan forms, and assessment and management plans.

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms. Chapters close with web sites related to the chapter’s content. Sites and search terms provide connections to professional or- ganizations and instructionally related resources and materials. They provide ways for readers—new professionals—to join the grand conversation of education.

supplements An electronic instructor’s resource manual is available at www.pearsonhighered.com on the Instructor’s Resource Center without cost to instructors using K–12 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals as part of their courses. The comprehensive instructor’s resource manual includes the following components:

Chapter overview and key outcomes. An at-a-glance preview of the chapter and a listing of some outcomes students should be able to demonstrate after reading the chapter.

Chapter outline and graphic organizer. Two different presentations of the chapter’s key points.

Sample class activities. Activities that can be used to access readers’ prior knowledge, connect the text’s main points to their lives and practice, and extend their practice.

Test bank items. Assessment tasks and traditional test items.

acknowledgments I am grateful to my colleagues at California State University, Fullerton, and the surrounding schools for their expertise and assistance in the development of this edition.

• Thanks to Kelly Donovan for developing graphic data displays, and thanks to Barbara Finnell for her assistance with reviewing the research and developing quick check assess- ment items.

*eText enhancements such as the Quick Assessment Checks and video clips are only available in the enhanced Pearson eText, and not other third-party eTexts (such as CourseSmart and Kindle). To learn more about the enhanced Pearson eText, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/etextbooks.

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xvi Preface

• Thanks to colleagues who are current and former students—Anonymous, Philip Campos, Veronica Chiarini, Brittany Even, David Garcia, Robin Mackie, Rhonda Morgenstern, Dionne Sincire, and Dan Otter—for their willing contributions and insights into teaching and learning.

• Thanks to Gail Luera at the University of Michigan, Dearborn for your review and feedback of the fourth edition.

Thanks, too, to family members:

• My mom, LuAnn Berthel, who whose patience and friendship I value beyond measure. • My boys—husband and sons—for friendship, support, and all they teach me. Thanks, too,

go to my sons for their contributions of art and for allowing me to tell stories.

Finally, thanks to my colleagues in the wider profession of education for their perspectives and for the wisdom that continues to shape the evolution of this text.

• I appreciate the leadership of Meredith Fossel in understanding the culture of US education today. Thanks go to Maria Feliberty, Susan Hannahs, and Cynthia DeRocco at Pearson for their humanity and personal touch and production expertise.

• Thanks are in order, too, to the production team at Lumina Datamatics Ltd. I appreciate Doug Bell and Murugesh Rajkumar Namasivayam, who were positive and supportive from start to finish.

Note: The pronouns she, he, her, and his are used variously throughout the text to represent either teacher or student.

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1

Before You Begin Reading Learning is an active process. Your current beliefs, motivations, and goals will shape what you learn as you interact with this text. Before you read, complete the following chart. What are your core con- victions about teaching right now? For example, do you believe teachers make all the difference in learning? Next, record your goals as an educator. Why have you selected teaching? What do you hope to accomplish? Learning is a process not only of adding to our knowledge stores but of also modifying or discarding notions when necessary. Revise your work as you continue learning about your profession.

Warm-Up ExErcisE for thE NatUrE of tEachiNg

my core convictions about teaching and Learning

my goals as a teacher

The Nature of Teaching

LEarNiNg oUtcomEs

By the time you finish studying this chapter you should be able to do six things using the propositions on teaching:

1. Explain why teaching is harder than popular perceptions might suggest.

2. Give a current legislative or societal example of how it is that teachers are part of a system.

3. Explain the major goal of teaching.

4. Argue that teaching is more than telling.

5. Give at least one source that defines good practice in teaching and one thing we know about good teaching, according to that source.

6. Compare and contrast two effective teachers.

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2 Chapter 1

Children play school, spend many years as students in classrooms, and encounter countless media images of teachers. As a result, by the time we reach adulthood, it is tempting to believe that we know all there is to know about teaching. However, our earlier experiences with teach- ing may not provide accurate information that helps us to teach well. What is teaching? How is it different from other things people do? How does one teach well? The following six proposi- tions help to distinguish teaching from other activities, combat common misconceptions about teaching, and guide us on the journey of learning to teach well.

1. Teaching looks easy . . . from the outside. 2. Every teacher is part of a system. 3. Teaching is goal driven. 4. Teaching is more than telling. 5. There is agreement on what teachers need to know and be able to do. 6. Teachers can be effective and yet not just alike.

Teaching Looks Easy . . . from the Outside The prevailing perception is that teaching is simple (Good, 2014). The movies suggest that nearly anyone can teach, and earning a teaching credential somehow doesn’t sound as daunt- ing as the sleepless nights of a medical school residency. Also, current accountability demands wrongly imply that improving schools and raising student achievement should be a straightfor- ward matter (Berliner, 2013; Cochran-Smith, 2003; Good, 2014). In reality, the relationships among factors like teaching, learning, and testing are often very complicated (Labaree, 2000). Further, “Success at learning requires a combination of circumstances well beyond the actions of a teacher” (Fenstermacher & Richardson, 2005, p. 191). Not until we examine the myriad of factors that influence student learning, and not until we step in front of a classroom ourselves, might we realize how difficult teaching can be. Perhaps it is for this reason that some student teachers and interns become temporarily disillusioned when they begin their field experiences (Goldstein, 2005).

Teaching is difficult partly because classrooms are complex (Douglas, 2009; Doyle, 1986). First, teachers are required to serve in several roles. They need to serve as advocate (Kaplan, 2003), instructor, observer, evaluator, coach, activities director, supply master, tech support,

Source: Brenda Carson/Fotolia

Teaching looks easy from the outside

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 1.1

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The Nature of Teaching 3

and confidante, for instance. In their varied roles, teachers make many decisions about different kinds of issues. Teachers make hundreds of decisions per day (Danielson, 1996). They need to think about students’ safety, their learning, and their other needs simultaneously, all while they also consider their own personal and professional issues.

Second, the number and rapidity of events make classrooms complex. Many things happen at once, they happen quickly, and they tend to overlap (Good, 2014). Classroom teachers must make quick judgments without time to reflect or weigh the consequences of their actions. Third, although classrooms have common elements, every learning situation is different. Individual learners’ experiences and needs affect the nature of the class. Students start the year in different places academically and socially, have different interests and preferences, and go home to differ- ent circumstances. The physical, sociocultural, and historical setting of the class varies as well. Consequently, as teachers and their students spend time together, they build a shared and unique history. Perhaps you have noticed this yourself if you and your classmates have laughed at an inside joke, one that only the people in your particular class could appreciate.

A fourth way in which classrooms are complex is that, because people affect each other, the act of teaching is inherently uncertain (Helsing, 2007; Labaree, 2000). It is difficult for even an expe- rienced teacher to predict with certainty how a class will respond to a lesson. Classrooms are also unpredictable because as teachers we may pursue goals that are unclear, our base of authority may be in question, and we are usually unsure of the outcomes of our efforts, especially long-range out- comes (Jackson, 1986). Although the desire to touch the future is a strong draw for many teachers (Eisner, 2006), we are often left uncertain about the effects of our efforts (Good, 2014). What hap- pens to students after they leave us? What did they learn? Did they learn because of us or in spite of us? The Teaching Tip gives a quick strategy to discover what students learn from day to day.

Finally, teaching is complex because it reaches into time both before and after face-to- face interaction with students. It requires preparation, and it requires reflection and revision. As a result, many teachers feel like their work is never finished (Lindqvist & Nordänger, 2006). Because classrooms are complex, it takes years to master the craft of teaching (Berliner, 2004; Cuban, 2010). Both careful study and reflective experience are necessary.

Though public attention on teaching and on student performance is high, few people wit- ness the day-to-day conditions under which teachers are expected to encourage learning and to manage the complexity of the classroom. Further, classroom complexity is compounded because classrooms exist as part of a larger system.

Every Teacher Is Part of a System No teacher is an island. Closing the classroom door does not seal away outside influences. Instead, a teacher serves at the center of a set of nested circles of influence, as shown in Figure 1.1. Imagine an archery target. You, the teacher, are in the bull’s-eye, and the outermost ring contains society in the broadest sense. What happens in your society and in the world affects your classroom daily. Let’s explore a couple of societal expectations and influences that affect teachers and students—the demands of the where and the when of teaching and learning today.

Teachers and the Law As a teacher, you are expected to act in ways that are consistent with the rules and goals of the place you live: your society. In addition to the rules that guide our actions as citizens, laws gov- ern many aspects of your behavior and professional practice as a teacher. Many laws affecting

Exit Cards

Use exit cards to quickly discover some things about what your students learn during your lessons. At the close of a lesson, period, or day, distribute index cards or slips of paper and ask students to respond to one or two brief prompts such as, “List one thing you learned today,” “Solve for x,” or “What question do you still have after today’s lesson?” Students leave the cards in a container by the door as their ticket out. Study the cards quickly and start the next lesson by addressing the exit card results. If your students have mobile devices, they can leave their virtual cards on a board like one created through Padlet, a free Web 2.0 tool.

TEaChINg TIP

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teachers are summarized in Figure 1.2. In our increasingly digital world, it is important to note that legal principles that hold true in face-to-face settings also hold true for many online issues. Examples include freedom of speech and restrictions upon it, adequate supervision, and due process (Conn, 2002).

A sweeping example of legislative action on classroom practice is the federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001. A reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Educa- tion Act, NCLB was motivated by persistent disparities in student achievement—achievement gaps—between the performance of U.S. students overall and subgroups of the population such as minority students, students with disabilities, and students whose families face poverty. The act sought to improve student achievement and increase school accountability for that achieve- ment. Its major requirements include:

• Development by all states of student content standards • Annual assessment of students in grades 3 through 8 (and once in high school) to determine

proficiency in mathematics and reading in line with content standards • Measurement of all school districts for adequate yearly progress (AYP) and continuous

improvement based on this AYP benchmark • Meeting of AYP for each of nine student subgroups (based on factors such as ethnicity,

physical disability, and poverty) • Requirement for all schools to have highly qualified teachers

NCLB has changed our classrooms dramatically, and its effects are hotly debated. Some benefits include (Center on Education Policy, 2006):

• Concerted efforts to align content standards (goals), instruction, and assessment • Better use of student assessment data to plan instruction and meet student needs • Increased student achievement on state tests, including the achievement for students with

disabilities (Aarons, 2009) and increased transparency for the progress of students placed at risk (Duncan, 2013).

Figure 1.1  Circles of influence that affect classroom teachers.

You

Your Classroom of Learners

Teaching and Learning

Interactions

Broadest Setting: • Laws? • Cultural expectations? • Prized attributes? • Professional

recommendations? • Current events?

State and District: • Expectations for teachers? • State standards? • Prized knowledge, skills, and

abilities?

Local Setting: • Learner characteristics? • Family experiences and

goals? • Community issues?

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The Nature of Teaching 5

Figure 1.2  Teachers and the law.

Sources: Alexander & Alexander (2005); Conn (2002); Fischer, Schimmel, & Kelly (1999); McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, & Thomas (2014); McDaniel (1979); Schimmel, Stellman, & Fischer (2010); and Underwood & Webb (2006).

1. Public schools must not promote worship. Schools may teach about religion if the intent is not to worship. If a public school allows some groups to meet there, it must provide equal access and allow religious- based groups (such as religious clubs) to meet there as well. The groups cannot be school sponsored (Alexander & Alexander, 2005).

Students cannot be required to salute the flag if their religious con victions or matters of conscience (in some states) prohibit it (Fischer, Schimmel, & Kelly, 1999).

2. Academic freedom has limits. Education is a marketplace of ideas (Alexander & Alexander, 2005). Teachers are permitted to address contro versial topics and use controversial methods if they are educationally defensible, appropriate for the students, and are not disruptive. School boards have authority to set curriculum and methods.

3. Teachers’ private activities must not impair their teaching effectiveness. Although teachers hold the same rights as other citizens, their conduct is held to a higher standard. When teachers’ private lives weaken their classroom effectiveness, it is possible that they may be dismissed. Sexual relationships with students are cause for dismissal (Fischer et al., 1999).

4. Students have rights to due process. Teachers’ and schools’ rules and procedures must be fair and reasonable, and justice must be administered even handedly. Due process is important for such issues as search and seizure, suspension, and expulsion (McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, & Thomas, 1998). Families of students with disabilities have additional due process procedures related to special education services (Fischer et al., 1999).

5. Teachers must not use academic penalties to punish behavior. Students’ academic grades cannot be lowered as a result of disciplinary infractions. Students must be allowed to make up work that accumulates during suspensions or other disciplinary periods (McCarthy et al., 1998).

6. Corporal punishment must not be misused. Fewer than half the states allow corporal—or physical— punishment (Underwood & Webb, 2006). In states where it is allowed, corporal punishment must be delivered while the teacher is not in a state of anger, it must fit the crime and the student’s age and condition, and it must not lead to permanent injury or run the risk of such (McCarthy et al., 1998). Disciplinary actions that serve to humiliate a child may be illegal too.

7. Teachers must protect children’s safety. Teachers must act in place of the parents (Alexander & Alexander, 2005), providing prudent, reasonable supervision to protect children from har m. They can be held negligent if they do not do so.

Teachers and schools can protect children’s safety by establishing and enforcing rules pertaining to safety and by providing prudent, reasonable care in their supervision (Fischer et al., 1999).

8. Teachers must not slander or libel their students. Teachers must say and write only things about students that they know objectively to be true. Even confidential files must not contain statements that demean a student’s character, background, or home life. Statements should be based on relevant observable behavior (Fischer et al., 1999). Teachers must share information only with personnel who have a right to such information.

9. Teachers must copy instructional materials in accordance with copyright laws. The reproduction without the author’s permission of copyrighted instructional materials, including print sources, visual images, videos, and computer software, is restricted to conditions of fair use. Conn (2002) states that “fair use” is determined based on the totality of four factors: brevity, spontaneity, limited in cumulative effect, and inclusion of copyright notice. Teachers may not make copies to replace collected works, nor may they make copies of consumable materials. Teachers should consider materials found on the World Wide Web to be copyright protected, unless the materials state that they are public domain.

10. Teachers must report suspected child abuse. All states require teachers to report suspected physical or sexual abuse, and no state requires cer tainty, only reasonable cause to believe that abuse is present (Fischer et al., 1999). If the state requires teachers to report suspected abuse to an agency, then a teacher’s report to a principal or district does not satisfy the agency requirement; the teacher must also report to the agency (Underwood & Webb, 2006).

11. Teachers need to know the law. Ignorance is no excuse.

12. Teachers should be aware of emerging legal issues. One is educational malpractice, which can be either instructional (wherein students fail to learn) or professional (wherein school personnel misdiagnose, pr where students receive inappropriate placement in instructional programs such as those pertaining to special education (McCarthy, et al., 2014).

ovide improper placements, or misadvise students) (Underwood & Webb, 2006). Placement negligence,

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A growing number of analyses (e.g., Berliner, 2013; National Research Council, 2011), however, do not support a lessening of achievement differences. The National Assessment of Education Progress, or NAEP, assesses student progress across the fifty states. Study scores by searching “NAEP ” at the Nation’s Report Card site and viewing the long-term trend data. There you will see, for instance, that mathematics scores for 17-year-olds have varied by only three points between 1992 and 2012 (National Assessment Education Progress, 2012). And nearly one half of the nation’s schools failed to make adequate yearly progress (AYP) in 2010–2011 ( Center on Educational Policy, 2012). Critics of NCLB condemn its assumptions (Rose, 2004), and many point to deleterious practices and effects associated with NCLB such as the following:

• The narrowing of the school curriculum—namely, to reading/language arts and mathemat- ics (Berliner, 2009; Beveridge, 2010).

• A restriction of recess time, despite its cognitive, social, and health benefits (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005).

• A lack of attention to students whose performance is perceived as less crucial for attain- ing targeted percentages of students deemed proficient. Such groups may include high- achieving students (Fordham Institute, 2008) and students whose performance is so low that they are unlikely to meet proficiency requirements even with academic interventions (Booher-Jennings, 2006).

• “Gaming” practices wherein personnel focus on meeting achievement targets rather than on fostering student learning (Booher-Jennings, 2006; Rose, 2004).

• Lower teacher morale (Roller, n.d.), particularly in schools deemed high poverty ( Byrd-Blake, Afolayan, Hunt, Fabunmi, Pryor, & Leander, 2010).

In fact, some researchers now conclude that incentive programs based on high-stakes test- ing, like NCLB, are failed policy (Berliner, 2013; National Research Council, 2011). In 2011, the Obama administration provided relief to certain accountability provisions of the NCLB Act in order to reenergize districts aiming to improve schools at the local level, through adoption of innovations such as college- and career-ready standards (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). Forty-five states and entities requested waivers (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). Through NCLB and other laws and expectations, society influences classrooms deeply.

Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century The when of teaching—the historical context—also shapes classrooms. Events change us. Imag- ine for a moment how different life is for Americans since the horrific events of September 11, 2001, or of the school-based acts of violence such as the appalling 2012 shootings at Sandy Hook Elementary School. Though rare, these events have shaped policies and procedures in schools, and they have affected the outlooks of many students and their families. We are a differ- ent people now.

Trends, too, matter. Our century—the 21st century—is one of globalization, regional econo- mies, and connectivity. We have shifted from an industry-based society to an information-based one. Some telling examples of technology usage include such bits as:

• Thirty-four percent of the world’s population has access to the Internet. That’s a 566 per- cent increase from 2010 to 2012 (Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2014).

• Africa has the most dramatic recent increase in Internet penetration: a 3,607 percent growth between 2010 and 2012. That means that nearly 16 percent of Africans are online. Second in growth in Internet penetration is the Middle East; 40 percent of people in the Middle East had the Internet as of 2012 (Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2014).

• Americans’ use of social networking services, such as Twitter, has doubled in recent years (to 69 percent of the Internet crowd), and there is a sharp increase of social networking for political or social purposes (Smith, 2013).

Indeed, we live technology-soaked lives. More than three-quarters of people in the United States have access to the Internet at home (Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2014; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). According to a Pew survey, three-quarters of our teens have cell phones, and one- quarter of them own smartphones (Lenhart, 2012). Teens use those phones to send an average of sixty text messages per day. Not to be outdone, the average preschooler spends approximately

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The Nature of Teaching 7

fifty minutes on a home computer each day (Vandewater, Rideout, Wartella, Huang, Lee, & Shim, 2007). Today’s students are thus often considered digital natives (Prensky 2001, 2005–2006) who have grown up wired.

The influence of technology in our society is indeed fierce and pervasive, and some foresee that the rate of change fueled by technology will continue to increase and result in an unpredict- able future. Such a future requires that our students possess a broad range of flexible skills. For example, a national organization, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009, p. 5) states, “People in the 21st century live in a technology and media-suffused environment, marked by various characteristics, including: 1) access to an abundance of information, 2) rapid changes in technology tools, and 3) the ability to collaborate and make individual contributions on an unprecedented scale. To be effective in the 21st century, citizens and workers must be able to exhibit a range of functional and critical thinking skills related to information, media and tech- nology.” See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip for more on 21st-century outcomes.

Do schools have the technology tools to meet 21st-century challenges? Basic compo- nents seem to be in place. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2010a), in 2009 virtually all public schools had computers with Internet access in their classrooms, and the ratio of students to computers was 3.1 to 1. Current concerns now focus on the avail- ability of high-speed broadband and wireless Internet connections and on the mobile devices that can make use of these connections (Cohen & Livingston, 2013). Further, students who attend the lowest-income schools continue to be less likely to have appropriate access to digital tools and the Internet, according to a survey of their teachers (Purcell, Heaps, Buchanan, & Friedrich, 2013).

One-to-one computing programs, where every student uses a laptop computer or tab- let regularly, show potential for many positive outcomes (Holcomb, 2009). Some critics do, though, remain skeptical about expenses and effects of 1:1 computing (Cuban, 2006). Students are increasingly drawn to online instruction, which offers flexible scheduling and connects them with learners from all over the world. In 2013, twenty-seven states had virtual schools for K–12 students, and one state (Florida) offered online learning opportunities to all of its students (Watson, Murin, Vashaw, Gemin, & Rapp, 2013). Clearly, the 21st century and its ubiquitous technology affect who we teach, what we teach, and how we teach today, with more change in sight.

21st-Century Learning Outcomes

Some organizations have specified standards for 21st-century learners. For one set, search for the Partnership for 21st Century Learning and read their ideas about essential skills for the 21st century. Familiarize yourself with the framework, exploring the four major student outcomes (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009):

1. Core subjects (such as mathematics) and 21st-century themes (such as global awareness and health literacy) 2. Learning and innovation skills 3. Information, media, and technology skills 4. Life and career skills

After the release of the Partnership for 21st Century Learning’s framework, core ideas were distilled to outcomes that best embody 21st-century learning. The result is the four c’s: critical thinking, communication, creativity, and collaboration (National Education Association, n.d.) Visit NEA’s site to download their guide for implementing the four c’s. Which “c’s” would you add to the list? Some suggest “curiosity” or “compassion.”

According to the American Association of School Librarians’ (2007, p. 3) Standards for the 21st Century Learner, “Learners use skills, resources, and tools to:

1. Inquire, think critically, and gain knowledge. 2. Draw conclusions, make informed decisions, apply knowledge to new situations, and create new knowledge. 3. Share knowledge and participate ethically and productively as members of our democratic society. 4. Pursue personal and aesthetic growth.”

Visit these standards at the Association’s Web site.

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Local Influences on Teaching Today By moving toward the center of the target in Figure 1.1, you travel through rings that represent increasingly local and specific settings. The settings found in these rings often have narrower and more explicitly defined purposes and expectations. For example, states—or state collaboratives in the case of the Common Core State Standards and the Next Generation Science Standards— develop content standards across the curriculum, and these standards influence state and local textbook adoptions, professional development activities for teachers, and learning opportunities for students. Community conditions, traditions, and events provide more local influences.

People, too, offer a variety of local influences. One integral group of people is the family. Effective teachers respond to the values and dreams of the families they serve and make use of the resources offered by families and their communities (Farmer-Hinton, Lewis, Patton, & Riv- ers, 2013; Gonzalez, Andrade, Civil, & Moll, 2001; Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005). In fact, research consistently links effective family involvement programs with increased student achieve- ment and other positive outcomes (e.g., Jeynes, 2005; Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). Others who affect new teachers include their colleagues, administrators, and the experienced educators— mentors—who supervise their growth and represent the interests and values of the profession.

Circles of Influence: Opportunities and Challenges The relationships among circles of influence (Figure 1.1) are dynamic and often riddled with tension and dilemma. Throughout history, the interactions among rings have frequently been emotionally, culturally, and politically charged. Which influences should receive priority? How do we as teachers manage demands and priorities from different sources and levels, especially when they compete? What are the opportunities and constraints offered by the many sources of influence? Questions such as these require us to consider—and reconsider—carefully the role of schooling in our society.

Sources of influence in the various rings offer many opportunities: The United States is a wealthy nation and has an estimated literacy rate of 99 percent (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). We are leaders in fields such as technology and medical innovations. These are potentially positive sources of influence. However, sources of influence also offer constraints. Although the United States is a wealthy nation, we find huge disparities in wealth—some say the largest dis- parities in the Western world (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2010)—and opportunities to learn (Reardon, 2011). Berliner (2006) indicates that students who face poverty face more severe health issues, lower academic achievement, and diminished life chances. Kozol’s work (1991, 2000, 2005) documents the experiences of students who experience institutionalized racism in unsafe and understocked urban schools. Students in many urban and less affluent suburban schools, Kozol reports, can expect funding rates half those of nearby affluent schools. Less than fully quali- fied teachers still disproportionately inhabit high-poverty, high-minority schools (Akiba, LeTen- dre, & Scribner, 2010; National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality, 2009). Students from low-income families continue to have diminished opportunities to learn (Camburn & Han, 2011), and reports (e.g., Fordham Foundation, 2006) suggest that current reform efforts have done little to raise achievement for the students who need us most. Paige and Witty (2010), in that vein, argue that the black-white achievement gap is the greatest civil rights issue of our time.

As another example of disparity, despite the prevalence of technology in our society at large, some of our students view each other across a digital divide. In the first decade of the 21st cen- tury, white students were more likely to use the Internet at home than were African- Americans or Latinos, and families with higher incomes and educational attainments were also more likely to use technology (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). Latino immigrants were the least likely to have computer access (Fairlie, London, Rosner, & Pastor, 2006). Recent research indicates that digi- tal disparities are shrinking, but these gaps still exist (e.g., File, 2013). Digital disparities are found in public schools as well. For example, a Florida study shows that students who attend low-socioeconomic schools have significantly less access to digital resources in every regard (Hohlfeld, Ritzhaupt, Barron, & Kemker, 2008). A recent survey of teachers indicates that U.S. students of low-income families continue to have less access to fast Internet and digital tools at school (Purcell, Heaps, Buchanan, & Friedrich, 2013). In sum, even though the United States is a rich country, patterns of inequity exist, and those patterns affect what happens in classrooms and in the lives of our students—in and out of school.

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The Nature of Teaching 9

It may appear that the general direction of influence for the rings or sources of influence is inward: Each of the concentric layers present daunting circumstances as well as opportuni- ties that press teachers to act in certain ways and to accomplish certain ends. Fortunately, the schools and the people who work within them can push back. They can act to lessen inequities in order to improve life and learning. For instance, in a set of schools studied by Reeves (2003), 90 percent or more of the students are from ethnic minorities, 90 percent or more are eligible for free or reduced lunch, and 90 percent or more achieve high academic standards. Clearly poverty need not be linked to low academic achievement; committed, caring, ardent individuals make a measurable difference daily. In the case of the digital divide, schools often also serve as an equalizing factor by providing access to technology that may not be available in students’ homes (DeBell & Chapman, 2006).

Our students themselves also offer huge potential for shaping life within the classroom. A large body of literature on democratic classrooms and education for democratic purposes urges us to mold classrooms that reflect each student as a caring, autonomous member of the class and society (e.g., Banks, 2009; Education Commission of the States, 2000; Morrison, 2008; Rush, 2006; Van Meeteren, 2013). In democratic classrooms, students learn to care for each other and participate in decision making as they take responsibility for their behavior and learning. Democratic practices are especially important in diverse classrooms because they equalize status differences that may arise given student differences. See Inclusive and Respon- sive Teaching Tip for some ideas for encouraging democratic processes.

Students’ influence can extend beyond the classroom walls. As students examine local conditions, challenge existing practices, and participate in social

action or service learning projects (e.g., Allen, 2003; Darling-Hammond, French, & Garcia- Lopez, 2002), they shape their communities and their world. Search the Internet for opportu- nities for your students to get involved in their world. Examples include The World We Want Foundation and the National Service-Learning Clearinghouse. Or start with a search of your own community: What local issue might your students tackle?

In sum, as a teacher you are expected to teach not only toward your own ideals and aims but also toward the goals of the nested groups—rings on the target—to which you belong. A major theme of this text is that your teaching must start with the students; you must be inclusive of and responsive to your students and their families. You also have the responsibil- ity to consider your outward influences as well. No doubt you will have opportunities to wit- ness and manage tensions that result from the competing goals found in different rings. Part of

Read another example of students exerting influence.

Source: Syda Productions/Fotolia

Differences in achievement or educational experience based on gender, race, or socioeconomic status may be exacerbated by the digital divide, or disparities in access to high-quality technology, the Internet, and effective computer-assisted instruction (Lazarus & Mora, 2000)

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10 Chapter 1

your job will be to negotiate at least temporary solutions for the dilemmas found in competing goals. Take a few minutes to consider the goals and expectations of the circles of influence that envelop you. What influence do you hope to have in each of the rings? Try jotting your notes on Figure 1.1.

Teaching Is goal Driven Why are you here? Look back at your chart from the beginning of this chapter. Many teach- ers select education as a profession because of the desire to help “light the candle” or watch the “lightbulbs click on” as they help students learn. Others hope to help students realize the power of an education to improve life. If so, you are not alone; teaching is driven by the goal of student improvement. Students should come to know more, to know more deeply, or to have enhanced skills, abilities, or attitudes because of their time with you. Although cer- tainly teachers are affected by their learners, and effective teachers all continue to grow over time, instructor improvement is not the universal goal of teaching. The goal of teaching is change for the learner. What changes are expected? Who creates the change? Which methods are used? The answers to these questions vary, but always we expect that learners will leave the setting different from when they entered it. Teachers strive for positive differences in learners’ lives.

Teaching becomes complicated by the fact that teachers usually pursue many—and some- times conflicting—goals. For instance, although a teacher may strive to help learners become more independent, she also needs to encourage order, and she may do so by praising confor- mity (“I like the way that Sung is sitting so nicely!”). Learners also pursue their own agendas (Labaree, 2000). Here’s an example of a student agenda from my son Alex. When his first-grade teacher stepped into the hall for a brief conversation, Alex immediately seized the moment and leapt onto his chair. Fists and face raised to the sky, he screamed, “Let’s party!” In the face of many—sometimes competing-agendas, effective teachers are driven by the urgent goal of foster- ing change for the learners.

Do teachers in fact make a difference for learners? Research indicates that enhanced teacher preparation is associated with improved student learning (e.g., Darling-Hammond, 2000; Laczko-Kerr & Berliner, 2002, 2003), and research reported by Berliner (2004) finds that expert teachers have greater student achievement gains. Further, reviews of the research

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

Democratic classroom practices

Democratic classrooms work toward three themes: liberty and freedom, justice and fairness, and equity and equal participation (Pryor, 2004). Try some of these ideas to build democratic class- rooms:

• Ask students what they want from school. You may hear, as did Stansbury (2011), that students value choice, mentorship, innovative instruction, interactive technology, and opportuni- ties to apply their learning. Look for opportunities to build students’ priorities into your room.

• Increase student responsibility for organizing and running the classroom.

• Teach through discussion and help students take critical perspectives of existing practices (Petrone & Gibney, 2005).

• Have students help make the rules for classroom behavior via collaborative rule making (Effrat & Schimmel, 2003).

• Hold an appreciation circle. Instruct students in how to express appreciation to a peer who recently did something that was helpful or noteworthy. Teach students, also, to receive compli- ments. Pass an item from speaker to listener. (I recently used a foam rock, and students started their appreciations with, “You rock because . . .”) Caution: Set up your circles to ensure that every person receives an appreciation within one or two sessions.

• Use learning contracts or other self-selected learning plans to encourage students to direct their own study. Provide support along the way.

• Allow students to conduct self-critiques of their work and resubmit after revision.

• Use learning activities where the expertise of every class mem- ber is necessary, regardless of students’ status. For instance, you may give each member of a small group just one bit of information. Each group member must rely on the others’ information to accomplish the goal.

Watch and think 1.1 Josh Anderson, 2011 Teacher of the Year, shares his goals in this brief clip. He has a strong sense of his answer to the question, “Why teach?” How might this strong drive influ- ence his daily professional decisions?

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The Nature of Teaching 11

(e.g., Bumgardner, 2010; U.S. Department of Education, 2003) present compelling evidence that individual teachers can, indeed, have a powerful effect on student learning. In a first-grade study, the teacher was five times more predictive of students’ mathematics achievement than was fam- ily socioeconomic status (Croninger, Rice, Rathbun, & Nishio, 2007). In sum, research over the past decades resoundingly concludes that, of the in-school factors that influence achievement, the teacher is the most important (e.g., Camburn & Han, 2011; Hattie, 2002) and that teacher effects persist over time (Konstantopoulos, 2011; Konstantopoulos, & Chung, 2011). Although researchers like Hattie (2009) and Good (2014) caution us that not every teacher makes an equally positive difference every year with each student, the research linking teaching and learn- ing points clearly to the potential power of teachers at their best.

Teaching is goal driven: Effective teachers set high expectations for students and then warmly demand that students meet those expectations (Goodwin & Hubbell, 2013; Kleinfeld, 1975). Warm demanders build authentic relationships with their diverse students, insist that they achieve, and give them the support necessary to do so (Bondy & Ross, 2008; Irvine & Fraser, 1998; Ross, Bondy, Gallingane, & Hambacher, 2008). Overall, you—the teacher—can be the single most influential in-school contributor to student learning.

Teaching Is more than Telling Part of the perception that teaching is easy stems from the mistaken notion that teaching and telling are the same thing: If a teacher says it, students will know it. Hear, if you will, that com- mon though misguided teacher lament: “Come on, class! We went over this!” Certainly a good lecture can be a powerful learning tool, but knowledge does not travel directly from the mouth of the teacher to the mind of the learner. Knowledge is constructed as learners filter and operate on new information using their own perspectives and experiences. Teachers need to help students connect new information to the known and to their own lives. Factors such as teachers’ experi- ence and expectations affect student learning, and so do many factors such as students’ culture, physical characteristics, preferences, and prior experiences.

Because classrooms are interactive and dynamic, “teaching as telling” does not capitalize on the learners’ goals or on the power of their experiences. It also does not draw directly from cur- rent theories on how children learn. Figure 1.3 summarizes current views on how people learn.

One trend that emerges from these views on how people learn is that learning seems not to be a simple matter of reception. Instead, it appears to be about active engagement, about ques- tioning, and about facing misunderstandings and building better understandings by organizing information in meaningful ways (Bransford, 2000; Gagnon & Collay, 2001; Marlowe & Page, 1998; National Research Council, 2000). Thus, teaching is more than telling because it neces- sarily includes ensuring that students get feedback on their learning efforts. Teaching as purely telling also short-circuits learning by ignoring the large variety of strategies that teachers can use to help encourage growth. Skilled teachers have rich repertoires of instructional strategies. For example, research identifies teaching practices such as problem-based learning as supporting student achievement (Hattie, 2009). Teachers can also foster learning by encouraging students to learn via texts, by themselves via experiences, and from each other through discussion and inquiry (Finkel, 2000).

Teaching is more than telling, too, because it involves listening (Mosher, 2001; Schultz, 2003). When people learn, they try to figure things out, to make sense of new information. One effective way to help learners understand things is to listen to their musings and questions. Lis- tening is an important strategy that teachers can employ to slow down the presentation of new information, to give learners an opportunity to sort things out, and to help learners discover what they think. Also, because teaching is interactional, listening is an informal assessment strategy; it gives us information about the learners’ reasoning that can be used to guide our instructional decisions. Finally, listening to students’ perspectives can help us to improve instruction (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2010; NEA Foundation, 2013). The Teaching Tip gives suggestions to help you-and your students—practice active listening. The fact that teaching is more than telling is reflected in the agreement on what teachers need to know and be able to do.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 1.4

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12 Chapter 1

Figure 1.3  Influential views on how people learn.

Behaviorist Approaches

• Hold that learning occurs continuously and can be intentional or unintentional.

• Focus on observable behaviors and shaping them through rewards and punishments, or consequences.

• Reinforcers include grades, praise, and tangible items. Punishment can take the form of time-outs, detentions, and names on the board for misbehavior.

• Theorists include Skinner (1971), and, more recently, Bandura.

Information Processing Approaches

• Focus on how information is selectively perceived, stored in memory, and retrieved.

• Liken the brain to a computer, a system with limited capacity that processes information according to logic and rules. Information is received through the senses and then is perceived by the mind. It enters short-term memory either from the process of sensation or from long-ter m memory. Concepts are stored through schemata (systems of linked concepts).

• Teachers should be systematic in their instruction to enhance learning. Some important activities are gaining students’ attention, accessing background knowledge, focusing on organization of ideas, providing feedback, and supplying meaningful practice.

• Theorists include Gagne (1985) and Miller (Miller, 1956; Miller, Galanter, & Pribam, 1960).

Constructivist Approaches

• Focus on processes by which students build knowledge rather than receive it.

• Hold that we continually check new information against our mental rules in order to internalize and act on information.

• Purport that learning is social, and “disequilibration,” or cognitively unsettling experiences, cause learners to reorganize cognition at higher levels.

• Students should confront their current thinking by actively testing and refining their ideas. Heterogeneous groups provide opportunities for students to challenge and support each other’s thinking.

• Theorists and researchers include Bruner (1986), Driver (1989a, 1989b), Piaget (1952), and Vygotsky (1978).

Multiple Intelligence Theory

• Challenges the notion that intelligence is a single construct and suggests instead that people can be smart in many different ways.

• Holds that intelligences are many and currently include (1) logical or mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) musical, (4) spatial, (5) bodily or kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, (7) intrapersonal, and (8) naturalist intelligences.

• Urges schools and teachers to broaden the kinds of experiences offered to children.

• Practitioners find the theory powerful for questioning the assumption that a certain level of performance in one area is necessarily associated with a similar level of performance in another area.

• Developed by Howard Gardner, first in 1983, and explored more fully in recent wor ks (including Gardner, 1999, 2006).

Brain-Based Research

• Draws from neuroscience and suggests that the brain functions holistically, processing many kinds of information (such as emotions and facts) at once.

• Holds that the search for meaning and pattern making is innate.

• School experiences should be directly guided by how the brain functions by providing numerous complex and concrete experiences that are rich in sensory stimulation and embedded within human contexts.

• Some writers (Bruer, 1997), including proponents (Jensen, 2000), caution against making large inferential leaps to classroom contexts. Although research is increasing in both basic studies of the brain and of classroom applications, we are encouraged to be cautious in our interpretations. Many are hopeful about the future of brain-based classroom practices (e.g., Varma, McCandliss, & Schwartz, 2008).

• Popular proponents include Caine and Caine (1994; Caine, Caine, McClintic & Klimek, 2008) and Jensen (2005; 2012).

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The Nature of Teaching 13

There is agreement on what Teachers Need to Know and Be able to Do Despite the perception that most people who have attended school understand teaching, and al- though some individuals may appear to be “born teachers,” there is a body of knowledge, attitudes, and skills that teachers can acquire. National and state panels codify the domains that teachers con- sider in their work. One of the most influential boards that has considered what it means to be an excellent teacher is the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (search “NBPTS”). The NBPTS sets forth five propositions of effective practice, and these domains are assessed as experienced teachers pursue National Board certification. Domains of competence are assessed also for prospective and beginning teachers. Danielson’s (1996) framework for teaching, for in- stance, explores domains of practice for new teachers and forms the basis for the content assessed by the Praxis examination Educational Testing Service (ETS). Many states also publish their own standards for the teaching profession. Figure 1.4 synthesizes general conclusions about excellent teaching, drawn from the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2002), the Praxis domains (Educational Testing Service, 2002), and various state standards for teaching.

Teaching is more than telling

Active Listening

Try some of these ways to encourage active listening in your classroom—for you and the students.

• Use and teach listening behaviors such as SLANT: Sit up, Lean forward, Ask questions, Nod, Track the speaker.

• Use and teach active listening strategies such as paraphrasing: “So what I hear you saying is . . .” • Wait a bit—at least three seconds—after asking a question, and again before responding. Teach

students to do the same. • Call on multiple students to comment on any one question. Require students to link their

comments to the previous student’s comments. • Have students toss a ball made of something soft to each other as they comment. Only the person

holding the ball speaks. • If a student’s comments go unheard, don’t repeat the student’s comments for those who were not listen-

ing. Instead say, “I know your peers want to hear that. Wait just a second until . . . Okay, try again.”

TEaChINg TIP

Source: 2xSamara.com/Fotolia

Watch and think 1.2 In this clip, two principals share their views on ideal teachers. How do these two principals’ views of good teaching align with teaching standards and with research on teaching? What are the critical com- monalties for you?

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 1.5

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14 Chapter 1

Figure 1.4  Domains of teacher expertise.

Subject-Matter • Understanding human learning and the many factors (e.g., culture and Knowledge context) that affect it

• Holding rich, organized understanding of the content and how it is used • Using specialized knowledge to help students build accurate and deep

understandings of the content

Planning • Assessing and using students’ background knowledge and incorporating it into instruction

• Setting and communicating clear learning goals • Creating and selecting learning experiences appropriate for students and goals • Creating and selecting a rich variety of resources to enrich learning

Instruction • Committing to students and their ability to lear n • Providing instruction aligned with communicated goals • Building connections with previous learning • Making content understandable for all students • Teaching for meaning, critical thinking, problem solving, and creative thinking • Monitoring student responses and adjusting instruction

Assessment • Creating or selecting assessment strategies consistent with learning goals and student needs

• Measuring learning for groups and individuals • Using multiple measures to assess growth

Classroom Management • Creating safe climates that promote fairness, autonomy, and respect and Discipline • Setting norms for social interaction

• Establishing and maintaining standards of student behavior • Using routines, procedures, and time effectively

Professional Growth • Modeling traits of an educated person • Reflecting on goals and practice • Building professional relationships • Working with families, communities, and the profession

In general, effective teachers

• Create productive and humane learning environments. • Understand their subject matter, human development, diversity, and learning. • Use their knowledge to plan meaningful instruction. • Teach in ways that help students learn deeply. • Assess students’ growth carefully and use results to modify their instruction. • Engage in their profession by working with families, communities, and other educators to

reflect on and improve teaching and learning.

Large bodies of research examine schooling practices, both to capture the experiences of teachers and learners and to determine promising teaching practices. Decades of research have provided some insights into how students and teachers make sense of the schooling experience, and this research provides many directions for practice (e.g., Berliner, 1984; Goodwin & Hub- bell, 2013; Hattie, 2009; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001; Reynolds, 1992; Richardson, 2001; Stronge, 2002). Many of the conclusions from research coincide with the domains given in Figure 1.4.

This text distills past research and my own stance in urging you to become a successful teacher, an inclusive and responsive teacher. Figure 1.5 summarizes the vision of inclusive and responsive teaching developed throughout this text.

The questionnaire in Figure 1.6 presents an entry-level self-assessment that you can use to consider your current knowledge and skills. Mark areas that may figure prominently in a plan for your professional growth. If you like, formulate questions to capture these areas and record goals on your chart from the beginning of the chapter. You may also wish to flip ahead to chapters that will address your questions.

Read more about the research on effective teaching and its effects on learning.

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The Nature of Teaching 15

Figure 1.5  Inclusive and responsive teaching.

1. Pursue understanding and continuous learning

Inclusive and responsive teachers . . .

• Recognize their own biases and the limits of their knowledge

• Gather, analyze, and use data to replace assumptions and ignorance

• Focus learning efforts on self, students, families, and the profession

2. Display attitudes and build relationships of acceptance, trust, support, and high expectations

• Incorporate unfolding knowledge of students and families

• View differences as normal

• Build authentic relationships of warmth and trust

• Set and communicate high expectations, pushing students to succeed

• Do what it takes to support student success

3. Use inclusive and responsive instructional and assessment approaches

• Incorporate unfolding understanding of students

• Use a full range of resources to meet student needs

• Use recognized approaches and strategies for meeting student needs

• Include student choice and meaning-based approaches

4. Use inclusive and responsive management approaches

• Maximize learning through a task-focused, structured environment

• Focus on community building and authentic relationships

• Employ democratic practices

• Work toward self control

Figure 1.6  Questionnaire for self-analysis of teaching.

Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

1. I can explain how people learn. 1 2 3 4

2. I know my subject matter. 1 2 3 4

3. I can list some ways to find out who my students are and what they know. 1 2 3 4

4. I can plan a lesson related to a content standard. 1 2 3 4

5. I can demonstrate more than one instructional strategy or technique that helps make the content clear to students with varying needs.

1 2 3 4

6. I can assess students’ learning based on traditional tests and at least one other measure.

1 2 3 4

7. I can modify my instruction based on what I discover about students’ learning students treat.

1 2 3 4

8. I know how to help students treat each other and me respectfully during class. 1 2 3 4

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16 Chapter 1

Teachers Can Be Effective and Yet Not Just alike Although there are documented domains of teaching expertise, few prescriptions hold in every circumstance. Teaching is uncertain and interactional. Part of teaching well is using a combination of one’s own talents, insights, skills, and professional judgments to encourage students’ learning and development.

Cicero’s sentiment underscores the personal and giving nature of teaching: When we teach, we offer gifts to our students—gifts that depend on our traits and triumphs as givers. Think back to two teachers who had a powerful effect on your learning. What were their gifts? If you make lists of strengths for those two teachers (Figure 1.7), you may find areas of overlap; the teach- ers probably shared some common strengths and abilities. These instructors probably also made unique contributions to your learning. Your lists should contain both personal attributes and pro- fessional skills, attitudes, and abilities.

When asked to consider their memorable teachers, my students often find commonalities such as genuine regard for the learner, high expectations for student achievement, and passion for the subject matter. Indeed, research bears out these same teacher characteristics as important for other students (e.g., Davidson, Coats, & Xu, 2012). However, the idiosyncratic contributions that their teachers offered are many. Some mention humor, others reserve. Some mention competitive learn- ing activities, others mention collaborative ones. Teachers bring themselves and their abilities to their students. What do you bring to the classroom? Use Figure 1.8 to display your gifts.

What better or greater gift can we offer the republic than to teach and to instruct our young?

—Cicero

Watch and think 1.3 In this clip, Peggy discusses her reasons for becoming a teacher. What were the characteristics of the high school teacher who influ- enced Peggy? Is her story of inspiration by a teacher similar to your story of an inspirational teacher?

Figure 1.7  Characteristics of effective teachers I have known.

Personal Attributes Professional Skills, Attributes, and Abilities

Teacher One: ________________________________

Teacher Two: ________________________________

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 1.6

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The Nature of Teaching 17

Figure 1.8  Personal characteristics that I bring to learners.

My Personal Attributes My Professional Skills and Abilities

Parting words Common misconceptions hold that teachers work toward a single set of unquestioned goals, usually by standing in front of a calm classroom and talking. Instead, this chapter sug- gests that teaching is a far more complicated act. It argues that teachers must encourage learner growth of many kinds while weighing often-competing demands and carefully considering their learners and the local context. Despite the complexity of teaching, we find some agreement in the lit- erature about the kinds of things teachers should know and be able to do, and we know that there are many ways to practice

the craft of teaching well. One place to start is by forming an educational philosophy, a personal stance toward teaching, as is encouraged in Chapter 2.

Between here and Chapter 2 you will find two end-of- chapter features. “Opportunities to Practice” asks you to apply what you know and to connect chapter ideas with your own thoughts and practice. “Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms” provides an opportunity for you to join a larger community conversation about teaching.

Opportunities to Practice 1. You know that good readers check their own comprehension.

Without looking back through the text, jot down a list of important words from Chapter 1. Now compare your work with mine. Figure 1.9 is a word cloud of my selection of excerpts and important words from Chapter 1. Compare your important words list with my cloud. Any surprises?

2. Teachers and researchers alike use metaphor as a tool to exam- ine the nuances and varied roles of teaching. An Internet search using the linked terms “teacher as” and “metaphor” yielded the following analogies for what it means to teach. Place a check mark near the ones that compel you. Use them to think about your own metaphors for teaching. You may elect to conduct your own Web search related to the metaphors that make you curious.

Teacher as . . .

✓ Archetype of spirit

✓ Consciousness of the collective

✓ Container of anxiety

✓ Cultural broker

✓ DJ

✓ Executive

✓ Facilitator and authority

✓ Hero

✓ Leader

✓ Learner

✓ Rain dancer

✓ Shaman

3. Connect the work you did in Figures 1.1 and 1.6. In what ways have various sources of influence affected your perceived abilities as a teacher thus far? How might they influence your growth as a teacher in the future? Discuss the questionnaire in Figure 1.6 with a relatively new teacher and with an experi- enced one. You may wish to compare the value they place on the content of each question.

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18 Chapter 1

4. Observe two lessons, either online or face-to-face. As you view them, complete the chart below to consider how propositions of teaching play out in classroom interactions.

5. Search some sites and terms listed at the close of Chapter 1. First, find sources that influence what happens in classrooms. Add them to your work in Figure 1.1. Second, connect what you read on the Web sites with one or more of the six proposi- tions on teaching. Talk with an experienced colleague about recent history related to that issue.

6. Interview a nonteacher about her views on effective teaching. Consider speaking with a parent, a student, or a professional who works outside of education and has little contact with students or schools. What do good teachers do? What do students wish teachers knew? How closely do your interviewee’s insights match the propositions from the chapter?

Figure 1.9  Word cloud.

Using The Web to Create Word Clouds

I created the nature of teaching word cloud with a free Web 2.0 application called Tagxedo, but there are many others such as Wordle, Tagul, and Make Word Mosaic. Teachers and students are finding dozens of instructional uses for word clouds, including, for instance, teaching summarization and developing classroom norms. Talk with your students about how design elements such as size, font, and color affect overall meaning of a word cloud.

TEaChINg aND LEaRNINg TIP

Lesson 1 Lesson 2

1. What are the contextual features that seem to shape the lesson? (example: age of student, geographic region, physical resources) (Teachers are part of a system.)

2. What does the teacher appear to be trying to help the students learn? How is the teacher communicating high expectations and holding students to them? (Teaching is goal driven.)

3. What strategies (other than “teaching as telling”) does the teacher use to help the students learn? (Teaching is more than telling.)

4. What is one individual—perhaps contrasting—strength that each teacher displays? (Teachers can be effective and yet not just alike.)

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The Nature of Teaching 19

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms Education News. This site includes daily news related to education, updates on education law and policy, links to college and university newspapers, and links to education organiza- tions.

U.S. Department of Education. This site provides information on legislative and policy issues such as the Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The site has resources for students, parents, teachers, and administrators.

The Gateway to 21st Century Skills. This site is a consortium- run digital library that provides access to Internet-based instructional materials. Browse or search the catalog, or click on a term in the word cloud.

Global SchoolNet. This is the original virtual meeting place for those interested in education to collaborate. Its goal is to im- prove 21st-century learning through Web-based collaboration. Check the Projects Registry to find projects and partners.

Stateline. A public service funded by the Pew Charitable Trusts, Stateline.org publishes news and policy information every weekday. Choose a state or choose a topic, such as “education” or “technology.”

Although states are responsible for adopting their own aca- demic content standards, professional organizations and other groups are influential in developing and recommending subject- area standards. Most states have adopted the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics and for English Language Arts. View the standards and learn more about the Common Core State Standards Initiative by searching Common Core State Standards. Fewer states have adopted the newer Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). Study them by searching NGSS. Visit your state’s department of education site to examine the standards your state has adopted in various curriculum areas. Also view subject-based professional organizations and their recommended standards, including, for example, the following:

• American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance

• American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages

• International Society for Technology in Education

• National Council for the Social Studies

• National Coalition for Core Arts Standards

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Before You Begin Reading Warm-Up ExErcisE for DEvEloping YoUr stancE toWarD EDUcation Below are six images of U.S. children. If you were these children’s teacher, who would you like to help them become as adults? Your answer reflects your educational stance. Now study the captions. What privileges did these children have? What challenges did they face? How might knowing a bit more about them change your thinking about the education they should receive?

Developing Your Stance toward Education

2

lEarning oUtcomEs

By the time you finish studying this chapter you should be able to do five things:

1. Analyze an educational experience in terms of three curricula.

2. Recall enduring questions of education.

3. Connect current practices to historically prevalent stances.

4. Develop and defend your own stance.

5. Use your stance to guide short- and long-term professional decision making.

Child 1: 1860. Tad Lincoln, son of President Abraham Lincoln. Unknown photographer. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Reproduction number LC-USZ62-13677.

Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-13677]

Child 2: 1909. (Called “Bologna”) Tony Casale, 11 years old been selling 4 years. Sells until 10 P.M. sometimes. His paper boss told me the boy had shown him the marks on his arm where his father had bitten him for not selling more papers. He (the boy) said, “Drunken men say bad words to us.” Lewis Wickes Hine. From the records of the National Child Labor Committee (U.S.), Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress Reproduction number LC-DIG-nclc-05416.

Source: Lewis Wickes Hine, photographic print. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG-nclc-03293]

Children 3: 1934. Mexican girls, San Antonio, Texas. Alan Lomax. Part of the Lomax Collection, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Reproduction number LC-DIG—ppmsc-00276.

Source: Alan Lomax, photographic print. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-71615]

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 21

Child 4: 1935. Pea picker’s child. Dorothea Lange. Taken for the Resettlement Administration, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Reproduction number LC-USZ62-118706.

Source: Dorothea Lange, photographic print. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-118706]

Child 5: 1941. Adolescent boy dressed up for the Easter parade, Chicago, Illinois. Edwin Rosskam. Part of Farm Security Administration—Office of War Information Photograph Collection, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Reproduction number LC-DIG-fsa-8a15685.

Source: Edwin Rosskam. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG-fsa-8a15685]

Child 6: 1944. Children playing on the roof of the Lighthouse, an institution for the blind, at 111 East Fifty-ninth Street, New York, New York. Richard Boyer. Part of Farm Security Administration—Office of War Information Photograph Collection, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Reproduction number LC-DIG-fsa-8d34706.

Source: Richard Boyer. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG-fsa-8d34706]

“Now in teaching, as in several other things, it does not matter what your philosophy is or is not. It matters more whether you have a philosophy or not. And it matters very much whether you try to live up to your phi- losophy or not. The only principles of teaching which I thoroughly dislike are those to which people pay only lip service.”

—George Polya, Mathematical Discovery

Your philosophy, or stance, is a systematic, rational statement of your convictions about the ideals, purposes, and nature of education. It is your plan for teaching well. Bellamy and Goodlad (2008, p. 566) warn that the schools, “lack educational mission, both individually and collectively.” In the opening quote, why does Polya so emphasize the importance of having a plan and of trying very hard to follow that plan? It’s because if we do not have a plan, we may pursue the wrong goals, we might use methods that are unethical or unworthy, or we might judge our work by the wrong standards.

The importance of a plan has never been greater than it is today, when the context of accountability suggests to many (e.g., Keller & Bichelmeyer, 2004) that the mission of our schools has shrunk to the pursuit of test scores. Many teachers (e.g., Starnes, 2010) seem to have a growing sense of unease, fearing that we are aiming toward the wrong things—or at least are limiting our sights—and thus lowering the quality of our teaching. Quality teaching has two components: good teaching (that is, teaching that follows an appropriate plan with worthy aims and acceptable methods) and successful teaching (that is, effective teaching, or teaching that results in learning) (Fenstermacher & Richardson, 2005). Thus, to judge the quality of our teach- ing, we must look to student learning, yes, but not solely to student learning. We also have the responsibility to continuously reevaluate our work in terms of the quality of our plan, of goals we seek and the methods we employ. It is thus imperative that we teachers take guidance from a larger vision of what should be (Winch, 2011). Here are six more reasons that it is critical that you dream big and develop a stance toward education today:

1. Inclusive and responsive teachers are guided by clear knowledge of their own perspec- tives and commitments. Your stance tells you who are you and what you are hoping to accomplish.

2. Teaching today can be overwhelming, especially for the novice. So many decisions need to be made. So many needs must be considered. A stance toward education provides a com- pass for decision making.

3. Classrooms are so busy, and pressure for teacher and student performance is so high, that it is easy to lose sight of the long-term goals and consequences of our actions. A stance can

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22 Chapter 2

help you remember to maintain your focus on the big picture of what we hope our schools will accomplish and to reflect over your efforts.

4. Mandates, such as for what we teach and how we teach it, are nothing until actual teachers implement them. Your choices for how you interpret mandates and how you enact them with your particular students each minute of the day make you powerful indeed (Elmore, 1979–1980; Webb, 2002). Your vision of education provides you with guidance on how to breathe life into directives. Further, Winch (2011) argues that philosophy provides an indispensable conceptual toolbox for thinking about the problems of education.

5. Having your own stance and an understanding of the stances of others allows you to under- stand their perspectives and the kinds of criteria and evidence they accept. It can allow you to select the language you use in speaking about issues with someone who has a different stance.

6. Laws and policies have unintended consequences. Having a clear stance allows you to assess the unintended consequences that result (or not) from legislative and policy deci-

sions. This can help you in determining whether the benefits of our decisions are worth the inadvertent costs.

In sum, your teaching efforts will be richer and more cohesive when shaped by a thoughtful stance toward education, and this chapter supports you in developing such a stance.

As a teacher, you have the moral and ethical responsibility to say no when no is the right answer.

—Bobby Ann Starnes, 2010, p. 75.

Visual Literacy: Photo Analysis

The Before You Begin Reading exercise asked you to analyze visual media: photos. Visual literacy requires us to understand, analyze, and appreciate information that comes to us in the form of images. There are

many digital collections of images available to you and your students. The Library of Congress and the World Digital Library are examples. Also try search engines and sites such as Google, Yahoo, Flickr, Wikimedia Commons, and PicSearch to locate images. Check the sites for fair use rules. Teach your students to both comprehend images (“Who and what do you see?” “What do you know about the time period?”) and to analyze them as well (“What is the message conveyed?” “How might others interpret this image differently?” “What do you think is happening, and what in the image makes you think so?”).

TEaching foR TomoRRow Tip

Three curricula Let’s begin our work on developing a vision for practice by exploring the curricula that schools purposefully pursue and accidentally achieve. The term curriculum may appear at first glance to be straightforward, but it is actually a multifaceted, multilayered notion. Eisner (1979) argues convincingly that schools teach three kinds of curricula:

1. The explicit curriculum 2. The implicit curriculum 3. The null curriculum

The explicit curriculum is the content intentionally selected and addressed through instruction. Examples include traditional subject areas such as reading, mathematics, and physi- cal education. For English learners, English acquisition and content mastery are high priorities in the explicit curriculum. The explicit curriculum also includes skills or habits that teachers purposefully select and teach. Examples may include neatness, politeness, and cooperation. For some students with disabilities, the explicit curriculum might be a functional one where students learn self-care and life skills.

Content standards form the basis for many explicit curricula, including expectations for ICT (information and communication technology). For example, the International Society for Technology Education (ISTE, 2007) recommends six major outcomes for K–12 students in our digital and globally connected world. The ISTE Standards for Students focus on digital citizen- ship, knowledge related to how technological devices function, processes of gaining and evaluating information, collaboration, and upon critical and creative thinking . . . all in a digital environment. Visit the ISTE Standards for Students (ISTE Standards•S) at ISTE’s site and read the outcomes for

Watch and think 2.1 Watch this two-minute clip of co-teachers employing literature circles. What is the explicit content of the lesson? What else might students be learning about the process of read- ing? About how to treat others? These lessons can be considered the implicit curriculum.

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 23

students at your grade level, then think about the school experiences that will lead students to the outcomes; the school experiences are the explicit curriculum.

In contrast to the explicit curriculum, the implicit curriculum, or hidden curriculum, is not purposefully selected. Rather, it includes the lessons taught tacitly through actions and through unconsidered consequences. Some say that the hidden curriculum is “caught” rather than “taught,” and for this reason it tends to be highly memorable. Examples of the hidden cur- riculum may include competition and deference to authority.

The hidden curriculum is often a set of unintended consequences that results from our conscious long-range decisions and our spur-of-the-moment choices. Although the hidden cur- riculum is sometimes in conflict with the explicit curriculum, there are positive aspects of the implicit curriculum as well. These include outcomes such as kindness, respect, and the notion that people believe in one’s abilities to succeed.

One benefit of uncovering the hidden curriculum is that, once we expose it, we can deter- mine the extent to which we are teaching the lessons we intend, and we can address the harm- ful lessons students may be learning with us. Additionally, many of our students may need our assistance in understanding the tacit rules of behavior transmitted through the implicit curriculum. As an inclusive and responsive teacher, you will need to help make sure that what is “natural and normal” to some of your students (such as those whose home cultures match the school culture) is accessible to all of your students (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). Begin by trying the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip to analyze school culture.

What are these students learning through their interactions with their teacher?

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

Uncovering school culture

Part of the implicit curriculum is what students learn via their school’s culture. Teachers can begin to examine school culture by analyzing school documents, rules, ceremonies, rituals, and routines. Uncover school culture by examining questions such as the following (based on Wren, 1999):

• What are the messages of the school newspaper, student handbook, and yearbook?

• What are the messages of the documents available for faculty, students, families, and community members?

• What are the regular assemblies and competitions? • What are the school-year opening and closing activities? • What are the school’s mascot, motto, colors, and other

identifying symbols? • What are the avenues for regular recognition for outstanding

achievement? • What are the school policies, and how well known and

consistently enforced are they? • Which students participate in which school activities? • To what extent do different segments of the student population

experience the culture in the same ways? In different ways?

Read some unfortunate examples of the hidden curriculum from a New York Teacher of the Year.

Source: Andres Rodriguez/Fotolia

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24 Chapter 2

As another example of making the implicit explicit, students (such as those with Autism Spectrum Disorders) who struggle to understand social relationships can benefit from assis- tance in learning and using the rules by which people interact (Myles & Simpson, 2001; Tse, Strulovitch, Tagalakis, Meng, & Fombonne, 2007).

The third curriculum, the null curriculum, refers to what we learn because of the subject matter not taught. An example of what many students in the United States don’t learn in school is a world language. In most U.S. schools, it is not mandatory to study a language other than English, and most of us who do so wait until junior high or high school. This is in contrast to the requirement in many countries (such as within the European Union) that students study at least one other world language, usually beginning in the primary grades. From not learning another language, then, many Americans conclude that knowing English is enough. This conclusion appears to be increasingly called into question (e.g., Skorton & Altschuler, 2012).

Often, the force of history creates the null curriculum as it tramples one explicit curricu- lum into extinction and gives rise to new, more relevant content. For example, at her teacher’s college, my grandmother was graded on her penmanship. Neither of my children learned to write in cursive. In high school, I learned to type; my children learned keyboarding. Now we all add to keyboarding skills with different input devices such as texting and voice recognition. My children’s children will learn a different skill set as contextual and predictive software

improve and as new input devices such as eye and head tracking, imaginary inter- faces, and brain-computer interfaces (e.g., Anthony, 2013) are developed. Similarly, the childhoods of the children in the chapter opener spanned about a hundred years. Look at the technology in the backdrops in the photos. No doubt 1940’s Child 5 learned about things that were vastly different from those that 1860’s Child 1 could even imagine.

Eisner’s three curricula, the explicit, implicit, and null, warn that every action a teacher takes—or does not take—can teach. Think about the powerful things you learned in school that were probably not recorded in your teachers’ plan books. Even instantaneous decisions and fleeting behaviors convey our stance to our learners and to our communities, so a coherent stance will serve as a reminder to be intentional with words and actions. Let’s begin the important work of developing your stance by considering a set of enduring questions of education.

considering the Questions of Education Philosophical questions are different from scientific questions. In science, we rely on data to answer questions about the natural world. But philosophy addresses questions about esoteric things like beauty, logic, ethics, morality, the nature of reality, and the charac-

ter of knowledge. Such questions never go away; answering them just once isn’t enough. In education, questions such as “Should education prepare students for particular roles in society or for personal enlightenment?” and “Is a classical cur- riculum adequate for today’s students?” (Noddings, 1995) are deliberated daily. It’s through deliberation that we plan, individually and as groups, how to best educate our young.

An especially useful set of questions regarding education was proposed by the ancient Greeks and captured by Dillon (1987). These questions, which parallel the concerns of the famous 16th-century philosopher John Comenius (Sadler, 1966), ask the following:

1. What is the good? Who is the good person living in the good society? 2. What is the purpose of education? 3. What should everyone learn? Why? 4. What is the nature of learning? 5. What is (excellent) teaching? 6. What does school do?

It may be helpful for you to study the answers to these perennial questions found in existing conceptions of education as you develop your own answers to them.

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As with all great teachers, his cur- riculum was an insignificant part of what he communicated. From him you didn’t learn a subject but life . . . . Tolerance and justice, fearlessness and pride, reverence and pity are learned in a course on long division if the teacher has those qualities.

—William Alexander Percy (1941, p. 81)

Every science and every inquiry, and similarly every activity and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good.

—Aristotle

The role of the teacher remains the highest calling of a free people. To the teacher, America entrusts her most precious resource, her children; and asks that they be prepared . . . to face the rigors of individual participation in a democratic society.

—Shirley Hufstedler

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 25

conceptions of Education found in practice Education holds a special place in a democracy. In fact, Jefferson saw education as the foundation of a democracy; only well-informed citizens can be expected to govern themselves and throw off oppres- sion. Indeed, the more educated people are, the more likely they are to participate in political and civic life and to be tolerant and equity minded (Kingston, Hubbard, Lapp, Schroeder, & Wilson, 2003).

Curriculum researchers have traced U.S. views toward education, finding that visions of education are fluid and responsive to the contexts of the people who create them while they simultaneously address the perennial struggles of education in a democracy (Kliebard, 2002; Tyack, 2003; Tyack & Cuban, 1995). Events such as the race for space and globalization, for instance, influence the trajectory of the nation’s views of the purpose of the schools and education.

For example, look again at Child 2 in the photos at the chapter’s opening. As Tony sold his newspapers in the city, the United States was completing its transformation to an industrialized society. It struggled with massive urban population growth, and child labor was about to peak. Despite the fact that the National Child Labor Committee—which aggressively sought labor reform—was established five years prior to the date of this photo, boys 10 to 15 years old consti- tuted one-quarter of the labor force (and girls 6 percent) (Child Labor Public Education Project, n.d.; Whaples, 2005). Meanwhile, in Chicago, John Dewey’s progressive notions of education took hold in his newly formed Laboratory School and mirrored the progressive politics sweeping the nation. Tony lived in an era of social change—for children and for the nation at large.

Along with change over time, we also find similarities across stances; that is, stances can be grouped into families. Perhaps you have studied philosophies such as idealism, essentialism, and realism. Prakash and Waks (1985) provide another categorization of educational philosophies: the four broad families of conceptions of excellence shown in Figure 2.1 (technical, rational, personal, and social). As you study the figure, notice that each of the stances has distinct visions of what we should accomplish and how to go about accomplishing it.

Watch and think 2.2 Read this section and then watch a three-minute clip of an algebra class. Which conception of practice (technical, rational, per- sonal, or social) seems most obvious in these few brief minutes?

Figure 2.1 Prakash and Waks’s description of different conceptions of education.

What is What is the purpose What does the teacher do?the good? of education? What is learning?

Technical

Rational

Personal

Social

Provides information for rote acquisition

Presents ideas and concepts in a way that allows learners to see the structure of the subject

Leads discussions and projects

Acts as independent, aware individual

Provides resources and space for exploration

Provides choices for group projects and actions

Facilitates problem identification and solution

Provides leadership

Memorizing

Problem solving: applying facts to routines

Problem solving: higher-order creative and logical abilities

Building complex schema

Learning through own mistakes and experiences

Introspection

Being “centered” (in touch with self)

Interacting with a group

Thinking beyond “I” to “we”

Focusing on the disciplines only so far as they relate to relevant problems

To produce high achievement

To adjust productive means to measurable ends

To transmit values by involving students in worthwhile activities

Cognitive socialization of youth

To create opportunities so that individuals can develop along unique paths

To provide skills for competence in civic life

To teach the ability to identify and solve problems related to societal issues

To foster the dispositions needed to take action

Efficiency

Proficiency

Disciplined thinking

Initiation

Imagination

Self-actualization (reaching individual potential)

Individual development within the context of the common good

Social responsibility

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26 Chapter 2

The technical conception of education tends to be prevalent in K–12 public education, whereas the rational model tends to prevail in universities. The personal stance tends to occur more often in private, or independent, schools and in less traditional educational endeavors such as unschooling. However, some powerful public school reform efforts hold personalization as the key (Wolk, 2010; Zubrzycki, 2014). In personalized schools, students play a role in planning their own curricula and teachers act more as advisors, helping students to educate themselves.

The social stance also has vocal proponents. Bellamy and Goodlad (2008, p. 566) argue that the mission of the schools must include “providing students with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to become fully engaged participants in a democratic society.” Banks (2008) emphasizes that schools must prepare students for citizenship in a global age. And Grant (2012) criticizes the prevalent view that education should prepare students solely to compete in a global economy as limited. Grant instead argues that the purpose of education should be the cultivation of a flourishing life in a socially just, democratic society. Which stance is most prevalent in your area? Can you find exceptions to the technical conception?

What do these stances look like in individual teachers’ ideas? Figure 2.2 gives brief phrases from two teachers’ (Rae Anne and Jaime) conceptions of education. See if you can place Rae Anne’s and Jaime’s stances in one of the rows within Figure 2.1. They view their jobs as helping

Figure 2.2 Excerpts from two teachers’ philosophies.

Rae Anne Jaime

Who is the good person living in the good society?

What is the purpose of education?

What should everyone learn?

What is the nature of learning?

What is (excellent) teaching?

Considers actions before committing them

Lives harmoniously and gains knowledge from his or her surroundings in order to improve the present quality of life

create equal opportunities

provide the power to obtain one’s goals and dreams

broaden one’s thinking

build self-esteem and character

That which will create citizens who can contribute new ideas and understanding to society

Problem solving

Building on previous information through interaction

Asking questions

Understanding, not memorizing

Varies by person: doing, observing, reading

Reaches greatest number of students possible

Is flexible and willing to change methods to enrich students’ learning

Creates many alternate plans

Searches for new information and improvement as teacher

Recognizes cultural differences and takes pride in diversity

People work, socialize, mingle with kindness and respect

Actively participates in the life of the community

Passionately engages in the pursuit of knowledge

draw from the lives of participants

encourage social development

provide the opportunity to discover individual passions

prepare participants for active engagement in the community

encourage lifelong learning

Positive attitudes toward challenging subject matter

Real-world applications of the subject matter

That which will allow citizens to participate

Comparing new experiences with information from previous endeavors

Trial and error

Watching

Examining physical representations

Interacting in groups

Fostered by safe environment

Holds passion for education and children

Models actions and behaviors desired by the society

Commits to reaching every student and meeting the needs of all

Plans to incorporate different ways and rates of lear ning

Respects the dignity of the learner

Taps into background knowledge

To To

To

To

To

To

To

To

To

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 27

young people value each other and work well in groups. They see themselves as facilitators who will match their methods to students’ needs and help students take an active stance in solving im- portant problems. These positions are consistent with the social realm. Their stances are relatively conservative within the social school of thinking, however, because both Rae Anne and Jaime plan to teach core academic areas as a focus and to infuse problem solving within the schooling context. Some more radical proponents of the social stance suggest that we use schools to recon- struct society. Had they fallen within the technical stance, Rae Anne and Jaime would have placed greater emphasis on mastery of basic skills and far less emphasis on group dynamics. As you ex- amine the work of Jaime and Rae Anne, you may think about the consequences of the stances they hold. Prakash and Waks (1985) argue that there is no neutral philosophy. What are the benefits of the stance you see as most prevalent? What are the drawbacks? Who wins? Who loses?

The usefulness of examining current stances lies in the fact that stances expose very different answers to often-unexamined questions. We all say that we want what is best for the next genera- tion and for the nation. Examining stances helps us to realize that “best” is a matter requiring much deliberation. Bringing about the “best” requires even more. Our stances are not disembodied ideals but rather important matters that play out daily, with great implications for the nation’s children.

Developing Your Stance Do you recall the saying, “The last one to see the water is the fish”? Answering the seemingly simple questions of education may put you in the position of the fish, exploring the world that has been your home and thus has many aspects that may be invisible to you. Considering the questions of education means exposing some of your tacit notions about how the world is and should be. It also entails considering the fact that there are alternatives to your perspectives.

To address these questions, think solely about your own ideas—no need to quote famous people. Write no more than a page to answer each of the questions, taken in order.

1. What is the good? Who is the good person living in the good society? 2. What is the purpose of education? 3. What should everyone learn? Why? 4. What is the nature of learning? 5. What is (excellent) teaching? 6. What does school do?

You may stumble a bit in interpreting the questions. Interpret them any way you like, as long as they guide you in discovering what you think and capturing convictions that are central for you. Do not be tempted to include a little of every way of thinking; for instance, some ideas from the technical conception and some from the social conception. If you did, elements would probably contradict each other and would not provide guidance when you need it.

After you compose a first draft, check your answers for consistency from question to ques- tion. Revise so that answers are coherent. Take out extra words. Read your answers aloud to yourself and then to a friend to be sure that your answers truly communicate your convictions. You will know when you have finished when not a word can be cut and when each reading

Watch and think 2.3 Practicing teachers summarize their stances in this three-minute clip. How do they compare? Does one resonate with you more than the others? Capture the commitments that resonate with you; perhaps you will incorpo- rate them into your stance.

A Teacher’s Epitaph

An epitaph is the inscription on a person’s tomb, plaque, or gravestone, commemorating the life that passed. Epitaphs are typically brief and often wry. Poets often choose their own epitaphs, as do others. For example, Ludolph van Ceulen, the mathematician who dedicated his life to the task of calculating the value of pi to thirty-five places, had it inscribed on his headstone. Another mathematician, Paul Erdos, celebrated, “Finally I am becoming stupider no more” (Hoffman, 1998, p. 1). Search “literary and historical epitaphs” to enjoy some epitaphs online. Then write your own. Looking forward, what mark would you hope to leave on the world through your profession? Compose your own epitaph, and then attempt to live up to it.

TEaching Tip

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convinces you more fully of the soundness of your stance. The Teaching Tip offers the long, if not somewhat macabre, view in considering whether you have gotten your stance right. Here are suggestions related to the questions to get you started on composing your stance.

what is the good? who is the good person Living in the good Society? As you consider the questions of “What is the good? Who is the good person living in the good society?” consider your own upbringing. If you were raised as part of the dominant culture in the United States, or if you interacted with people who were part of that culture, you no doubt were exposed to American core values. Some macro culture U.S. ideals include (Banks, 2005; Pai, Adler, & Shadiow, 2006):

• Equality of opportunities • Achievement orientation (we should all try to achieve higher goals through hard work; suc-

cessful people work hard and unsuccessful people do not) • Individualism and its emphasis on self-reliance and originality (individual success is prized

above that of the family, community, and nation) • Future time orientation (saving for tomorrow) • Orientation toward materialism and exploitation of the natural environment

These values are not universal; other cultures, including nondominant U.S. groups, often hold alternative values. Here are three tips to get you thinking about your own values and con- victions regarding the good person in the good society:

1. Consider your own test of a “good” society. Many have said that a true test of society is how it treats its most vulnerable members. Do you agree? With a visual impairment, Child 6 in the chapter opening photographs spent time at the Lighthouse Institute in New York, 1944. The “house” had existed for three decades before Child 6 was photographed in the roof garden, much anticipated at its construction. President Taft laid the cornerstone (New York Times, 1911), and long before Child 6 played in the garden, personnel had opened a similar institution in France for soldiers blinded in World War I (New York Times, 1915). Personnel also had fought hard to have students with visual impairments permitted to enroll in New York public schools. Still, a common 1940’s attitude toward people with disabilities was pity and a desire to isolate them from society (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 2007). Child 6’s president, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, hid his own physical disability so the public would not see it as a weakness. It was not until 1975 that all Americans were granted the right to a free and public education, provided to the extent possible with typically developing (or nondisabled) peers (Public Law 94–142: Education of All Handicapped Children Act). What responsibilities do you see the good society as having to each of its members?

2. Look back at your work in Figure 1.1. It encouraged you to consider the system within which you teach. What expectations does your society hold for you? To what extent do those shape your view of what is possible in society?

3. List no more than ten core values or characteristics you think a good person or society must possess. It is tempting to make a much longer list, but that will be less useful in guiding your actions. Try making your own list, then compare it to the thinking of others.

Kinnier, Kernes, and Dautheribes (2000) reviewed a broad range of religious and secular documents and present a list of four universal values: Commitment to something greater than oneself; self-respect with humility and responsibility; respect and caring for others; and caring for other things and the environment.

What are eleven to universal values?

what is the purpose of Education? In thinking about the purpose of education, consider carefully how it is that society brings its people to “the good.” Look back at your list of values and convictions related to the good person and the good society. How is it that education serves as a vehicle to create “the good society”? Some focus on education as the full development of each individual citizen. For example, Martin

What are eleven to universal values?

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 29

Luther King, Jr. (1947) argued that development of intellect and character together comprised the highest purpose of education.

Others assert that the purpose of education is to transmit the best of our society to the next generation. For example, English essayist Chesterton wrote, “Education is simply the soul of a society as it passes from one generation to another.” Still others believe that, through education, we should transform society. One widely held belief is that school should prepare students for life. Eisner (2004) disagrees, arguing that, “Some of the most significant weaknesses of educa- tion policy stem from the belief that the aims and content of education can be justified on the basis of preparation . . . . From my perspective, we can best prepare students for the future by enabling them to deal effectively with the present” (pp. 7, 8). What’s your view? What can and should we accomplish through education?

Remember to think broadly about education. Education and school are not the same things. Think about all of the different mechanisms (such as family, clubs, and religious organizations) that educate and how those might work in concert (or not) to fulfill the purpose of education.

what Should Everyone Learn? why? Considering what everyone should learn and why gives you an opportunity to think about the subject matter that is important enough for each person in the society to learn. As you consider subject matter, remember that what is considered “basic” in one part of the world or at one time in history may be superfluous in another. For example, look at Children 3 in the chapter opening photographs. These children danced during the Great Depression (1934) in San Antonio, Texas, a city hard hit by the mass migrations of people displaced by lack of work in U.S. cities and by “repatriations” of people of Mexican descent (McKay, 2010). Schools were segregated—black, white, and Hispanic (Orozco, 2002)—and because of the Depression, many schools had closed or reduced their hours (Nelson, n.d.). Such dire conditions heighten the importance of careful decisions about what people should learn. Looking back, what content might have best helped all students (regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity) stretch toward becoming “the good person” and have a hand in contributing to or reshaping their society?

In your own stance, remember to think not just about what might be considered traditional content but issues of character, skills, values, and abilities as well. Theodore Roosevelt mused that “to educate a man in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society.” Be able to explain why people should learn what you suggest and not something else. Remember, too, that “everyone” means “every person”; this question addresses the common core of learning to be mastered in the society. Here are five tips to get you thinking:

1. Look back at your list of values, characteristics, knowledge, and skills of the good person. Do you believe the good person is “born good”? Probably not entirely. Instead, a person must attain (learn) at least some of those positive qualities. Look at your list of characteris- tics of the good person and good society and determine what knowledge, values, and skills people must learn in order to bring about the good. That is core subject matter.

2. Look beyond your own school experience; it is place-bound. What seems “basic” to you may not be basic at all in other schools or settings. Learning multiple languages, dance, a musical instrument, or geometry is considered basic in some places. Additionally, other countries tend to approach the “basics” differently than we do, with mathematics serving as an example (Schmidt, Wang, & McKnight, 2005). Whereas the U.S. curriculum tends to focus repeatedly over the years on topics that we see as basic (such as arithmetic), high- achieving countries tend to focus on their basics in set grade levels and then move on to other subjects. This fact was in part impetus for the changes we see in the Common Core Standards in Mathematics (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014).

3. Look beyond your own school experience; it is time-bound. You may believe that knowl- edge is unchanging and should remain constant over time. That is a defensible position, one held by many others. An alternative perspective states that as our world changes, so must the knowledge and skills we must gain to find our place in it. John Adams (1780) argued in a letter to his wife that “I must study politics and war that my sons may have liberty to study mathematics and philosophy.” A world that is constantly changing may require a changing core of knowledge for its citizens.

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4. Avoid suggesting that “all” subject matter is important. First, it is impossible to learn everything that is known. Second, “all” would include a body of knowledge that is odious (white supremacy doctrine?) or is now proven false (phrenology?).

5. Recall that we educate hugely diverse groups of students in the United States, and that which should be accomplished by all is a matter of ongoing and heated consideration. We wrestle with tensions such as holding high expectations for each of our learners while we simultaneously attend to vast individual differences. For instance, should your gifted stu- dents achieve the same curriculum as your students with developmental delays? As you consider such tensions, it may help to list the subjects or outcomes that are important to you and then consider whether they could in fact be grouped into categories such as things “everyone learns,” “some people learn,” and “a few people learn.”

In sum, think broadly about subject matter; it includes life’s lessons in addition to school subjects. Also remember to think about all learners.

what is the nature of Learning? The nature of learning includes the nature of knowledge, the nature of the learner, and the pro- cesses by which we learn.

As you regard the nature of knowledge, ask yourself: Is it unchanging or tentative? Is it objective, or is it constructed by people and thus inherently subjective? The branch of philoso- phy that examines the nature of knowledge is deemed epistemology. Your epistemological con- victions will influence your decisions about both what you teach and how you teach it. For example, the conviction that scientific knowledge changes with evidence brings the obliga- tion to teach students values such as a preference for evidence and skills such as the testing of hypotheses. Also important to consider here is your view of human intelligence. Is it fixed or fluid? Do you believe that everyone can learn to act in more intelligent ways? Can every- one learn, for example, to draw? Or to solve complex mathematics problems? Your view of intelligence has direct implications for the approaches you take in the classroom. For exam- ple, in Chapter 4, you’ll study strength-based approaches that draw upon students’ assets. Such approaches require educators to see all students as capable of growth.

As you regard the nature of the learner, ask: Are people inherently bad? Inherently good? What are your convictions about people in general? Will they usually do the right thing, or must they have an external motivation to do so? Again, your convictions related to human nature will permeate your classroom decisions related to factors such as how you manage your class- room and interact with your students. For example, Kohn (2006a) argues compellingly that most approaches to classroom discipline are predicated on pessimistic views of children, views that regard humans as power hungry, aggressive, and self-centered.

As you consider the nature of learning, ask: What are the processes by which all humans learn? How is that we take in information from the environment, make sense of it, and use it as our own? Within the larger framework of how humans learn, what are the relevant differences in learning preferences? One suggestion: It will not be useful for you to conclude that “everyone learns differently.” If we can draw no common threads through human learning, your attempts to address students’ needs will be random and most probably futile.

what is (Excellent) Teaching? You have begun to think about excellent teaching through your work in Chapter 1. That is, you have thought about how teaching is different from other endeavors, you have begun to examine the domains of professional expertise, and you have thought some about how excellent teachers might be different from each other. Perhaps these five sets of question will continue to fuel your thinking:

1. Is there a set of personal attributes required of excellent teachers? To what extent is an excellent teacher an example of “the good person”? What, if any, is the teacher’s special obligation to serve as a role model of a good person? For example, must he employ all the 21st-century skills that he expects his students to master? Must she be physically fit?

2. To what extent is an excellent teacher an integral part of “the good society”? To what extent do teachers actively shape that society?

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 31

3. Is it enough for an excellent teacher to be a good person? To what extent do you agree that teachers know and can do things that represent a unique set of professional skills? What, then, are the professional knowledge, skills, and abilities that excellent teachers have?

4. How important is it that an excellent teacher is a good learner? 5. What are an excellent teacher’s moral and ethical obligations?

what Does School Do? As you consider this question, keep in mind that “school” is just one of the educative institutions in a society. Efforts such as home schooling, unschooling (Holt, 2004), and anarchist pedagogy (Love, 2012) argue that education can and should occur outside of school. “The social curriculum” includes vehicles such as the media, the family, and the neighborhood, and institutions such as religion and youth groups (Cortes, 2000). What unique contribution does schooling provide? Try these questions:

1. What should schools do? What should be our mission? Should we pursue student achieve- ment in reading and mathematics as our sole aim?

2. What can be the school’s role in bringing about the good society? Berliner (2006) argues that schools continue to be asked to solve huge public problems while we as a society ignore root causes, such as poverty, that contribute to differential student achievement.

Because you are preparing for a career spent in schools, it is important that you consider— and continue to reconsider—what those schools do and can do.

In closing, when you reflect on your answers to the six questions as a set, you will have developed for yourself a stance toward education that can be a useful guide in selecting your priorities and making professional decisions.

Using Your Stance Your stance should be reflected in your yearlong plans, in your lessons, and in your minute-by- minute interactions and decisions. Further, a conception of education offers should statements to direct you. Questions such as “What should we teach?” and “How should we group students?” are answered in terms of both philosophy and empirical evidence (Fenstermacher’s and Rich- ardson’s good and successful teaching). Use what you know about findings from educational research to enrich your stance and guide your professional decisions.

Your stance can be a useful guide for short-term instructional decisions. I know a teacher who condenses her stance into a single sentence and then copies it onto an index card that she clips to her plan book. Before leaving school each evening, sometimes feeling harried and tired, she takes one last glance at that card. If she feels that she worked in some way toward the greater good listed in her stance, she goes home happy. My students find it useful, in fact, to condense their stances not into a single sentence but into a single word (see “Word Journal” in Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 2007) and then to think about how that single word guides their actions daily. Some examples include passion, care, cooperation, strive, and responsibility. Another teacher I know shares his stance with his students via a poster and in words and occasionally asks them to provide anonymous written feedback on the extent to which he is living his vision. Check the Teaching Tip for some other ideas on using your stance in these days of accountability.

Use your stance to guide your long-term instructional decisions, too. As you work with your colleagues in committees that address topics such as long-term planning or assessment, continue to raise gentle questions related to the big picture of what you as a team (and we as a profession) should be pursuing. As your colleagues speak, listen for their convictions about the purpose of education. Look for common ground. Remind yourself that when you choose one course of ac- tion, you necessarily reject others. For instance, if you include primarily small-group projects, students have fewer experiences in working on skills as individuals. Make sure your choices are in line with achieving excellence in the long view.

Finally, revise your stance. You are an adult with many years of life experience, so your stance may not change radically over time. On the other hand, it may. Thoughtful teachers engage in frequent reflection on their experiences and seek to improve their thinking as their

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experiences change. My own stance is an example of change over time. I have placed my convic- tions squarely within the “social” camp for three decades. However, in the past few years, I have become increasingly immersed in creating art and engaging in arts-based education with stu- dents of all ages. For me, these efforts have led to a greater focus on the realization of individual potential, an interest more closely aligned with a “personal” stance toward education. Now I’m interested in discovering how fulfillment of individual potential contributes to the greater good.

Using Your Stance in the Days of Accountability

Try some tips for using your stance to remain true to your ideal in the days of educational accountability:

1. Regardless of the importance of test scores, helping our students learn and use social skills should remain a top priority as we educate competent and caring citizens of tomorrow ( Garrett, 2006). Use your stance to help you focus on important social goals that must co-occur with academic goals. The National Association of School Psychologists (2002) places social skills into four helpful categories: • Survival skills (e.g., ignoring distractions and following directions) • Interpersonal skills (e.g., sharing, joining an activity) • Problem-solving skills (e.g., apologizing and accepting consequences) • Conflict resolution skills (e.g., dealing with teasing and peer pressure)

2. Consider state content mandates as a baseline rather than as the sole targets for what you are to teach. Good schools go beyond requirements to reach for a vision that exceeds the scope of narrow measures of learning (Keller & Bichelmeyer, 2004).

3. Use your stance as the organizing principle for your professional portfolio or Web site.

TEaching Tip

parting words Today’s demands upon teachers’ attention are great. Time is short, and priorities sometimes conflict. Maintaining a clear sense of focus about what you consider central to your work as a teacher can help you decide at the close of a hectic day whether you have contributed to the world through your efforts as a teacher. Having a well-formulated educational stance can help you to shape your participation in the school policies, instructional practices, committees, and co- curricular duties that are part of your professional responsibilities.

With the completion of these first two chapters, you will have built a foundation for understanding the nature of teach- ing and your own vision of education. This foundation will come to life in each of the dimensions of your professional decision making: planning, instruction, assessment, manage- ment, and—as the following chapter shows—basing deci- sions on a solid understanding of your students.

opportunities to practice 1. Check your progress in mastering Chapter 2’s outcomes by

analyzing this education issue: Financial Literacy: Given the recent U.S. recession, many

people, including educators, feel that financial literacy is important. However, only a handful of states require a  personal finance class for high school graduation. Funding and control over the content both seem to be issues for the inclusion of courses to increase financial literacy ( Education News, 2014).

a. Analyze this issue in terms of three curricula. b. To which of the enduring questions of education does this

issue speak?

c. How might educators from each of the historically prevalent stances vary in the content they chose for a  financial literacy course?

d. Given your stance on education, what content and teaching and learning approaches would you recommend in design- ing learning experiences in financial literacy?

2. Ask students with whom you work to help you find what is hidden: the implicit and null curriculum. Secondary students are often able to articulate their experience without much prompt- ing. For example, one secondary student told me that, through his school’s tracking practices, he has learned that some kids are valued as smarter than others by the school: different classes

click here to assess your mastery of chapter Learning outcome 2.5

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 33

for different kids, better teachers for more advanced students. Younger students may respond to more specific questions, such as, “How do you know whether you have done a good job at school? What behaviors do teachers like? What have you not learned in school that you would like to learn?” Do you find patterns in students’ responses? Is the news good?

3. Four imaginary teachers (each with a different conception of education) are being interviewed. Label each teacher with the appropriate stance from Figure 2.1: technical, rational, personal, or social.

a. In my classroom I try to include lots of . . .

Abigail: “opportunities for kids to choose their own activities. They need to be able to follow their own interests.”

Ben: “resources for kids to learn about current, real-life issues. Then they need experience in addressing those issues.”

Cara: “opportunities for kids to memorize important facts. These facts will help them all their lives!”

Diego: “chances for kids to think like experts in the field, like artists or scientists, for example.”

b. You will know children are solving problems in my class when . . .

Abigail: “they have a clearer view of them- selves and use that information to confront challenges. That’s problem solving!”

Ben: “they find something that is hap- pening right now in the real world and I see them actually show the heart and courage to do something about it!”

Cara: “children use their facts to solve more complex exercises. The light- bulbs just glow!”

Diego: “children use their creativity and logic to solve classical problems or to create something new. You should see what they come up with!”

c. Assessment of student learning . . .

Abigail: “ too often interferes with individual students’ dignity and sense of self.”

Ben: “is done in groups, with the criteria developed by the students.”

Cara: “is valid only when it is an objective measurement of children’s accuracy.”

Diego: “should include student portfolios, in which students display their own style and approach to the subject matter.”

d. As a teacher, I try hard to . . .

Abigail: “place the learner at the center of all of my choices. If an activity does not meet my students’ individual needs, we do not do it.”

Ben: “put my money where my mouth is. I show commitment to charitable causes.”

Cara: “make it fun for children to learn the skills from the book.”

Diego: “emphasize that the students and I embark on an exciting adventure together.”

e. My metaphor for teacher is “teacher as . . .

Abigail: “a lens through which students can better know themselves.”

Ben: “a spark who can ignite the fire of action for the common good.”

Cara: “a factory leader who uses resources efficiently for the best product possible.”

Diego: “a sage who helps students learn to judge performance.”

Were you drawn toward any one teacher’s cluster of responses from the first exercise? These imaginary state- ments may provide specific examples to help you pin down your own stance toward education.

Key: Technical: Cara; Rational: Diego; Personal: Abigail; Social: Ben.

4. Stretch your thinking by imagining the implications of differ- ent stances on some common issues in classroom teaching. Try to imagine how these different conceptions would play out for the elements listed in Figure 2.3. Note that your own stance provides the final entries in the table. Check back to your row in Figure 2.3 as you read subsequent chapters . . . you may already know the punch lines!

5. Analyze school mission statements, beginning with your own school’s statement. Go online and check your school’s Web site or School Accountability Report Card (SARC). Or, if you aren’t assigned to a school yet, go to the Inter- net and locate some using the search term “school mission statements.” Is it possible to place the statement in one of the families of educational thought from Chapter 2? Look for areas of agreement and disagreement with your own stance. Talk with experienced teachers about how mission statements are written and discuss issues such as group consensus, conceptual coherence, and enacting the mission statement.

6. The circumstances of classroom teaching sometimes present obstacles for enacting one’s teaching stance. For instance, you may want students to be the ultimate judges of their work, but you are required to give standardized tests. Use Figure 2.4 to help structure your thinking and to consider how to address  potential obstacles. Heads up: You will need this chart in Chapter 6.

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34 Chapter 2

Figure 2.3 Daily implications of conceptions of education.

Technical

Rational

Personal

Social

My own stance

Common Learning

Experiences

Prevalent Teaching Methods

Assessment Instruments

Homework Assignments

Expectations for Families

7. Create an alternative display of your stance, one that does not rely solely on linear text. Try one or more of these ideas:

• A word cloud • An art piece such as a collage or painting (Figure 2.5 gives

my word for the year, rendered in a mixed media collage) • A digital story (try Microsoft’s free Photo Story 3 for Win-

dows at Microsoft’s Web site, use iMovie for Macintosh, or try an app like Animoto)

• A six-word memoir: “Won’t teach how I was taught.” An- other: “I promise to never stop learning.” (Search “Teachers’ six word memoirs.” Try SMITH Magazine’s memoirs online and consider signing up for their Six-Word community.)

• A podcast (see Teaching for Tomorrow Tip on page 38)

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 35

Figure 2.4 Enacting my stance toward education.

A good society

What education (and school) should do

What everyone should learn

How I should teach

My Convictions Possible Obstacles Strategies to Consider

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36 Chapter 2

Podcasting: Your Stance and Your Students

• Podcasting is a way of sharing audio and media files on the Web. Not a direct download, a podcast has a news feed that allows it to be catalogued through programs like iTunes or Podcast Alley. Podcasts typically have many episodes, like a weekly show. You can listen to or view podcasts through a portable digital media player or through your Web browser.

• A podcast might be a great way to communicate your stance with students, families, colleagues, and potential employers. Follow these three steps to create an audio podcast of your stance. 1. Use a script and record your most important points, limiting your recording to a minute or two. Use a program like GarageBand

for Macintosh or the free Audacity, available as a download, or an app like Vocaroo. Even easier? Use the voice memo function in your phone or tablet.

2. Save your recording file, usually as an MP3 or MP4 file. 3. Publish your recording through a service such as the free PodOmatic.

• Students and teachers are finding great enjoyment in taking learning outside the classroom by listening to podcasts related to their content area (e.g., Putman & Kingsley, 2009). For instance, students studying world languages can listen to podcasts to hear a variety of native speakers and to hear content repeated multiple times. See what’s out there using online directories such as Podcast Alley.

• Even young students enjoy and benefit from creating podcasts. Podcasts give students the opportunity to use their learning for real purposes, like informing an actual audience about their content.

TEaching foR TomoRRow Tip

Figure 2.5 Andrea’s word of the year, in mixed media.

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Developing Your Stance toward Education 37

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms The Encyclopaedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory. This site includes an alphabetic listing of philosophers of education and relevant works. It also includes links to other Web sites that treat philosophy.

Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database. This site can help you think about your stance on what it means to learn by exploring fifty theories of learning and instruction.

The John Dewey Society. The society continues Dewey’s interest in considering the problems of education in criti- cal, reflective ways. There are links to the society’s journal, including online access to articles, and related resources.

Philosophy of Education Society. The society aims to improve instruction and consider the issues of education

with a philosophical approach. The site provides access to the society’s publications, and it includes links to other orga- nizations and resources addressing philosophy of education topics.

Teaching Tolerance. This Web site is a project of the Southern Poverty Law Center. If ideals such as tolerance, peace, or respect figure prominently in your stance, check this site’s array of Web-based and free print materials to help you enact your principles.

Use the search words “My Philosophy of Education” to search and view thousands of philosophies of education students from around the nation . . . and beyond. For some inspirational video examples, use that same search term at YouTube.

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Before You Begin Reading Warm-Up Exercise for Getting to Know Students and Families

Engage in a bit of personal introspection by writing an “I am from” poem. There is only one simple rule: Each line must begin with the words “I am from.” As you compose your poem, think about all the factors that make you who you are. You may wish to think about features such as your unique qualities, your values, your ethnic heritage, your family experiences, your spiritual identity, significant events, and about your favorites in life. There are no rules about length, rhyme, meter, or sharing it with an audience.

I Am From

Read it aloud. Now reflect on your poem. What new insights (if any) did you gain? Excerpts from some recently composed poems are found at the end of this chapter. As you read them over, look for themes: Who are we? What matters to us? Themes such as ethnic and national identity, conflict, the importance of family regardless of its structure, and a sense of growth seem to speak clearly. Now imagine a world where schools knew where we were from and embraced us.

Students and Families: Teambuilding

3

Learning OutcOmes

By the time you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe student diversity in U.S. classrooms.

2. Identify some of the gaps and inequities found in U.S. schools.

3. Explain the dimensions of cultural competence and their implications for you as you build relation- ships with students and families.

4. Name a variety of strategies to learn about students and their families.

5. Describe promising strategies for working with families.

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 39

Your students’ success depends on so many factors. One is quality teaching. Second, students must extend willingness and effort to learn. Third, student success requires opportunity to learn. Your students need access to rigorous content, effective instruction, time, and resources to learn. In fact, according to Good (2014, n.p.), “Opportunity to learn trumps everything.” Finally, student success requires a supportive surround, with factors such as caring families, peers, and effective social systems.

With so many things influencing success, it’s clear that your journey ahead is not one to be taken lightly, nor is it one to be taken alone. It will require you to work closely with whole teams—students, families, colleagues, and communities—on your students’ behalf. In fact, building and sustaining effective relationships lies at the core of successful teaching and learn- ing. It is only when people know, respect, and trust each other that the task at hand—student success—can come sharply into focus.

Inclusive and responsive teachers strive to be effective team members and leaders. In inclu- sive classrooms, all students feel valued, cared for, and respected for who they are, regardless of their particular shortcomings and strengths (McLeskey, Rosenberg, & Westling, 2010). In cultur- ally responsive classrooms, the cultural and other background experiences of all members are val- ued and connected to content and classroom life. Traditional ways of conducting classroom life are also reconsidered (Gay, 2002). An inclusive and responsive teacher communicates to students:

• I care about you. • You belong. • What you think matters. • Differences are normal. • I will see you for your strengths. • Your educational needs will be met. • I will push you to succeed. • I will do what it takes to help you succeed.

Further, inclusive and responsive teachers communicate attitudes of openness and a com- mitment to continuous learning and understanding:

• Your experiences are valuable and valued. • I know and understand some things about you, and I am committed to understanding better. • We all have the responsibility to see things from others’ viewpoints. • There may be a better way of doing things, and we can figure it out together.

Inclusive and responsive teachers communicate similar messages to students’ families. Chapter 3 supports you on your journey to becoming an inclusive and responsive teacher

with the first steps of building good teams: getting to know your students and their families.

The (Nonexistent) Generic U.S. Classroom Class sizes vary, but imagine that your class has twenty-eight students. Let’s say your students represent the nation’s student population at large. In your generic classroom of twenty-eight, you have

• Twenty-five students with at least one parent who has graduated from high school and nine with a parent who has completed a bachelor’s degree (National Center for Education Statis- tics, 2013a)

• Twenty-one students with broadband access to the Internet at home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013b)

• Eighteen students who live in married-couple families and ten in other family structures (ChildStats.gov, 2013)

• Eleven students who are identified as racial or ethnic minorities (including six Hispanics, four blacks, and one Asian/Pacific Islander) (Your classroom doesn’t have an American Indian or Alaskan Native; go two doors down to find one that does.) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013b)

• Six students living with poverty (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013c)

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40 Chapter 3

• Six students who speak a language other than English at home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013a) • Four students receiving special education services (including one or two with specific learn-

ing disabilities and one with a speech or language impairment) (National Center for Educa- tion Statistics, 2012a, 2014a)

• Three students who are designated as English language learners (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013d)

• Two students classified as gifted (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009)

Are you looking forward to the richness and challenges such a group of students will bring? Sorry, but there is no generic U.S. classroom. Although these statistics represent students across the nation, they won’t represent your classroom. Figures vary dramatically by region, state, and local area. For instance, all regions have increasing ethnic or racial diversity, but the numbers and patterns differ. In the West, “minority” student numbers exceed those of white students, with Hispanics predominating. In the South, black student numbers exceed those of Hispanics (although not by much, given recent population shifts). Poverty rates and numbers of students living in large cities or rural areas vary widely, too. Students in certain groups (such as English language learners) tend to be clustered within schools, and in fact within entire specific school districts (Holme & Finnigan, 2013). The patterns of distribution of students in schools and dis- tricts affect the makeup of your actual classroom. These patterns can lead both to opportunities and to inequities that present rough terrain as you and your students pursue success.

Rough Terrain Ahead: Gaps and Inequities Many students and teachers alike face rough educational terrain in our schools. Figure 3.1 dis- plays one such gap in student achievement, the gap based on parental education level. Recent research supports long-term findings in revealing the following inequities:

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 3.1

Figure 3.1 Parental education level–based achievement gap: 17-year-olds’ mathematics scores on the National Educational Assessment Program (NAEP) assessment, compared by parents’ level of educational attainment.

Source: Data drawn from National Center for Education Statistics, 2012b.

Note: Search to find the NAEP Web site and view other gaps and results, including your state’s results. Try comparing national results with your state test measures. Find your state test measures at your state’s department of education site, typically on a page called “testing.”

330

320

310

300

290

280

270

260

Year

S c a le

s c o

re

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Graduated college

Graduated high school

Did not finish high school

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 41

• More U.S. students attend high-poverty schools than in the past. Twenty percent of our students attended high-poverty schools in 2011, up from twelve percent a decade earlier (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013e).

• U.S. schools are segregated (Rothstein, 2013); some argue that schools are more segregated than they have been in forty years (Vaughan, 2013). That segregation leads to wider oppor- tunity and achievement disparities (Logan, Minca, & Adar, 2012).

• Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indian/Alaska Native students are more likely to attend high- poverty schools than are Asian/Pacific Islanders or whites. Whites are least likely. Limited English proficient students are also more likely to attend high-poverty schools ( National Center for Education Statistics, 2010c). This despite international data indicating that all students tend to do better in schools with low poverty (Berliner, 2013; Perry & McConney, 2010).

• Teachers without full certification, experience, or advanced degrees are more prevalent in high-poverty schools (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2010d).

• Minority students, particularly African-American students, have historically been overrep- resented in special education programs (Blanchett, 2006; Losen, Orfield, & Jeffords, 2002) and underrepresented in gifted programs (Frye & Vogt, 2010).

• Disadvantaged students tend to receive less effective instruction (National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, 2014). Students from poverty are more likely to be placed in lower tracks and have fewer opportunities to learn high-status knowledge (Oakes, 2005).

Adding more road hazards, classroom structures reflect the interests of the dominant culture, sometimes making classrooms unfriendly places for students from cultures other than the domi- nant culture (Ladson-Billings, 2003; Nieto, 2004; Welton, 2013). The gaps and inequities that present rough terrain in our pursuit of student success thus result from a combination of unequal schooling practices (Ladson-Billings, 2006) and larger societal disparities (Berliner, 2006, 2013; Dorsey, 2013). Vast changes at all levels will be necessary to pay off the “education debt,” or significant educational inequities (Ladson-Billings, 2006), that have been accruing throughout our nation’s history.

So what’s the good news? The good news is that we, as individual teachers and as a profes- sion, have many tools to navigate the tough road ahead. We have control over so many factors that contribute to student success. Schools can make a difference. Many studies find that student success is far more a factor of high-quality opportunities at school than features such as race or family socioeconomic status (Croninger, Rice, Rathbun, & Nishio, 2007; Darling-Hammond,

Source: Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

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42 Chapter 3

2007; Schmidt & Cogan, 2009). Schools can—and many do—take an active role to ensure that students have quality and equitable opportunities to learn (Borman & Dowling, 2010; Boykin & Noguera, 2011; Muller, Riegle-Crumb, Schiller, Wilkinson, & Frank, 2010). The even better news is that the factor over which you have the most control—yourself—makes a huge dif- ference. Teachers can contribute substantially not only to students’ learning outcomes but to their social and emotional development (Jennings & Greenberg, 2010; Rimm-Kaufman, 2014). Beyond learning, students’ motivation to learn is also directly influenced by the quality of their relationship with their teachers (Jennings & Greenberg, 2010; Lewis & Kim, 2008; Pawan, 2008). It all begins with respect for the student.

Cultural Competence Respectful, inclusive, and responsive teachers are committed to continuous learning, including efforts to increase our cultural competence. Sperry (2012) describes cultural competence as having four dimensions:

1. Cultural knowledge: Familiarity with a culture, including primarily factual knowledge. 2. Cultural awareness: Recognition of the impact that particular feelings, attitudes, or thoughts

have for members of a culture. The understanding of another’s worldview. 3. Cultural sensitivity: A genuine attitude of caring, welcoming, and acceptance regarding

another’s culture. 4. Cultural action: Putting one’s knowledge and sensitivity into practice by responding to oth-

ers with decisions and actions that foster well-being.

Cultural competence, then, involves not just gaining knowledge, but also building attitudes, stretching our capacity to take on others’ perspectives, and taking action in service of our stu- dents and families. Gaining proficiency in each of the dimensions of cultural competence is in part made necessary by limits of our own perspectives. For instance, if you are (as I am) one of the 83 percent of our nation’s teachers who are white (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013f), you might particularly struggle with cultural encapsulation, or a lack of identity related to your race given the pervasiveness of whiteness in our society (Dutro, Kazemi, Balf, & Lin, 2008; Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). Inclusive and responsive teachers realize that their own cultural background and life experiences create the filters through which they see their students and seek to first understand themselves. Indeed, Grant (2012) argues that deep understanding of our own values and beliefs is critical for us as teachers who seek to know our students and help them create flourishing lives. For this reason, you can start getting to know your students by getting to know a bit more about yourself. Developing your stance (Chapter 2) and composing the “I am from” poem as a warm-up to this chapter may provide some insights, and you can try the questions suggested in Figure 3.2 to explore some of your own values and perceptions, including working with students who are different from you. This search for deeper self-awareness can enhance each dimension of your professional practice, as you’ll see in future chapters; so will your knowledge about patterns and trends in our U.S. student population.

Getting to Know Your Students and Families This chapter has used many categories such as ethnicity, race, and poverty status to characterize groups of students. In reality, such categories provide only limited information about students; people are much more complex than any category. First, categories such as “race” are argued to be social and cultural constructs; they have meaning because people give them meaning, and those meanings shift (e.g., Howarth, Wagner, Magnusson, & Sammut, 2014). Second, each of us is a product of many sources of identity, and those sources combine differently for each of us. Race or ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, language, age, class, and more all coalesce in ways that make it impossible to describe any of us as members of solely one group. We each

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 3.2

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 3.3

Watch and think 3.1 Before you read the section called Cultural Competence, watch this three-minute clip of Gloria Ladson-Billings discussing practices she sees in the classrooms of culturally competent teachers. Con- nect the practices Ladson- Billings describes to the dimensions and practices noted in this section. Com- pose a sentence that cap- tures your meaning of the term “cultural competence.”

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Mgouex0WSJw

Watch and think 3.2 In this two-minute clip, a teacher discusses how one of her attempts to make a student feel valued and included went awry. In one sentence, what les- son do you take from her experience?

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 43

have commonalties that make us members of certain groups, but we also all have unique experi- ences that factor into who we are. Each of us is a dynamic product of the many painful and sweet experiences life has to offer.

The “categories by which we classify people are constantly evolving, overlapping, mixing” (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004, p. 30), so that identity formation is a process without end and any description of culture can be no more than an “approximation of reality” (Gay, 2000, p. 12). An example is the category English language learner. The category “English language learner” sounds homogenous. It’s composed of people who are working to master English, right? Yes, but English language learners can vary widely. They might include students from well- established linguistic groups such as native communities across the land (including, for example, those who speak Navajo or Zuni), French-speaking communities in the Northeast, or Spanish- speaking communities in the Southwest. You might also have English learners whose families are more recent arrivals. And within the group of recent arrivals, students may have studied some Eng- lish before arrival. Also, they may be literate in their home languages, or they may be new to school.

Thus, just as there is no generic classroom, there is no generic child. No child can serve as an ambassador for any culture, and we cannot rely on our assumptions or on our existing, limited knowledge of groups to know our particular students. There is no substitute for real information about the specific students before us. Inclusive and responsive teachers gather, analyze, and use data to make decisions that best serve their students. Learning about students and their families involves us in questioning our assumptions and gathering information that will direct us in our efforts to address student needs and foster success.

Questioning Assumptions Ronald, one of my middle school students, was struggling with medical and home-life issues, so I made a special point to make personal contact with him during class each day, to look him in the eye and converse with him about his life. At a conference a few months into the school year, his mother told me that Ronald hated my daily conversations. The shock and discom- fort I still feel in recounting Ronald’s episode reflects the extent of my surprise in discover- ing what a horrible job I had done in discovering my student’s actual needs and preferences. My assumptions about what I thought would be right for my student were deeply rooted and unquestioned: I assumed that my effort to engage him personally would be a good thing and

Figure 3.2 Inclusive and cultural self-assessment.

Sources: Many questions are influenced by Ford (2005, 2010); Ford and Kea (2009), and Montgomery (2001).

1. What are some of my favorite elements of my tangible culture? (art, food, clothing…) What are some aspects of my intangible culture? (Family rituals, dance, social knowledge)

2. How do I feel about working with students whose values and beliefs are different than mine? Do I have a color-blind philosophy?

3. Do I care if all of my students feel like they have a good relationship with me?

4. How do I work with students with different traditions and customs?

5. What stereotypes or biases do I have about people in other groups?

6. What are the sources of my perceptions?

7. How might these perceptions interfere with my teaching students well?

8. How much do I know about the cultures and histories of different groups? About my students’ physical and learning needs?

9. What do I need to do next to learn about groups and needs represented in my classroom?

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44 Chapter 3

that there was just one way to go about establishing contact: my way. In Ronald’s experience, my efforts were anything but helpful. Thanks, Ronald, for teaching me an important lesson: question assumptions.

Part of our human intelligence stems from our ability to draw inferences quickly from lim- ited information. Although they allow us to make sense of the world, our inferences can also get us into trouble. When our inferences about others are based on limited information, we run the risk of making faulty and counterproductive decisions. Instead, we need to realize that our as- sumptions may be incorrect and replace them with accurate information.

Perhaps the best synonym for “inclusive and responsive teacher” is “learner.” Rather than relying on assumptions, approach every situation as an opportunity to learn more about life for your stu- dents. See the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip for an exercise to help you avoid assumptions.

Sometimes life’s rapid pace does indeed require us to make assumptions. When those occa- sions present themselves, it is important that we draw the most helpful conclusions possible. As my colleague Pat Keig unfailingly urges, we can make the polite assumption. Making the polite assumption is more productive because it opens doors for further collaboration; making negative assumptions closes them. Further, making polite assumptions can help us see people in terms of their presumed strengths, the very foundation for the strength-based approaches presented in greater detail in Chapter 4. Gathering accurate information about our students also allows us to serve them well.

Gathering Information about Students and Families Teachers “must know how to communicate with all students’ families in positive ways that build mutual respect, trust, and appreciation of each other. Only in that way will all students have mul- tiple sources of support to succeed” (Epstein, 2013, p. 115). Epstein suggests that any efforts you take to gain knowledge and trust with your families will be in support of student success and must be part of your growing cultural competence. In getting to know families, you will seek both information and awareness and sensitivity that can lead you to action. Your awareness of others’ strengths, experiences, and perspectives will entail using a flexible, multifaceted approach for gathering information and supporting communication. For instance, many families respond well to written surveys; others may not (e.g., Gillanders, McKinney, & Ritchie, 2012). As a responsive teacher, if one effort to get to know and involve families fails, you’ll try another that might be more effective. Some strategies may entail you gaining new skills. Depending on contextual fac- tors such as the age, cultural communities, and educational needs of their students, teachers in the recent literature have found success with such varying communication strategies as the following:

• Blogs (Powell & McCauley, 2012) • Home/school partner journals (McGough, 2013) • Focus groups (Gillanders, McKinney, & Ritchie, 2012) • Artifacts based on solicited letters from home (DaRos-Voseles, Ede, & Fillmore, 2014) • Parent leadership programs (Bolívar & Chrispeels, 2011)

As did these authors, you will need to gather information about family lives both within and outside the classroom.

Learning about Students’ Lives A sixth-grade teacher, Frank (1999, p. 20) struggled to get to know her students until she found the key: “I thought I could learn about [the students’] culture by just having them in my classroom, but I now realize that when they’re in the classroom, they’re

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

think: What else?

Try this: When you are tempted to draw a conclusion, list for yourself several alternative explanations for what you see. Try asking students to do the same. It can help them learn to take other perspectives and draw conclusions based on evidence. Here

is one for practice: One-third of your middle school students had no family members attend Open House.

One conclusion: They don’t value education. What else? They forgot. What else? They work nights. What else? They work days, too. What else? They don’t feel welcome at school. What else? Their student begged them not to go. What else?

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 45

experiencing my culture, not theirs.” Kottler (1997) suggests that we teach as if we are anthro- pologists, focusing on people’s cultural practices, on the knowledge base they share with others in their group that guides their thoughts, feelings, and actions. We might ask ourselves, for ex- ample, to view people’s behaviors as sensible and explore their practices from that perspective, and we might think about how our own biases prevent us from understanding others.

Ethnographers, one branch of anthropologists, use naturalistic methods such as observa- tions and unstructured interviews to address questions such as those just noted. We can use these methods to gain insider information about our students’ ways of living. See the Teaching Tip for methods to get to know students using the lens of an ethnographer.

Some teachers visit students and families at home to reach out and honor the places stu- dents live and to build the trust that is essential in family/school relationships (Baeder, 2010; NEA Foundation, 2012). Home visits are an excellent means to learn more about students and families. Visits also shift the power balance in favor of the family, and they give teachers in- formation they can use to bridge the school curriculum to students’ lives. See Opportunities to Practice Exercise 2 at the close of this chapter if you’re ready to try home visits. Attending community happenings such as cultural or sporting events also places you on the students’ turf.

As you learn about families, it can be helpful to remind yourself: “If I don’t know, I won’t assume. I’ll ask!” One thread of research suggests that teachers’ assumptions about families are in- deed sometimes faulty. For example, in one study, teachers in high-poverty schools underestimated the technology available to families. As a result, they did not assign homework that involved com- puters (Warschauer, Knobel, & Stone, 2004). Had the teachers used a quick family survey (see the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip), they might have had data to combat their misperceptions and could have used homework opportunities to support the development of digital literacy as well.

Surveys are a quick and often effective way to get information from your families. Near the beginning of the year, students and family members alike can provide information about students’ general interests via attitude inventories, surveys, and brief questionnaires—delivered in the home language and either in hard copy, oral, or digital formats. Two examples of free online survey services are SurveyMonkey and SurveyPlanet. Your Web site or closed educational network site (like those by Edmodo) might also include a “choice” function that allows you to collect survey-type information. You might ask for information such as each student’s self-perceived strengths (search the Web for a “strengths test”), preferred learning experiences, possible on- going school-related struggles, and strategies for working successfully with the student. Have respondents answer only those prompts with which they feel comfortable.

Surveys are just one of a myriad of tools for getting to know your students and their fami- lies. Student-selected artifacts are another. You might ask students to share a family artifact that has personal meaning for them. They might provide an oral history as they discuss their choice, you might build a classroom display, or they might share electronically. The Teaching for Tomorrow Tip shares one strategy for creating displays of student-selected materials.

Getting to know Students Using the Lenses of an Ethnographer

Frank (1999) suggests a number of helpful methods for getting to know students using the lenses of an ethnographer.

1. Mapping: Get a neighborhood map and pinpoint each student’s home. Walk (or drive) to them all to physically see where each student lives.

2. Observation: Go to a location where students congregate after school. As unobtrusively as pos- sible, watch how they interact. If it is appropriate and they invite you, join in their activities with the goal of learning about their lives.

3. Interview: Lead a conversation with a student or family member that follows the topics impor- tant to your interviewee. Ask a combination of “grand tour” (or big picture) questions and more specific questions about topics such as space, time, events, people, activities, and objects.

4. Note taking and note making: During observations and interviews, take two-column notes. In the left column, record your observations. In the right, record your inferences, or the meanings you derive from your evidence.

5. Case study: Gather data about one particular student from a variety of sources and in multiple settings. Analyze data from across sources to find patterns related to the student’s perspectives and preferences.

TeAChING TIp

Read about a teacher who made a difference by supporting her students.

Which questions might you ask students and families?

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46 Chapter 3

Clearly, as you select appropriate strategies to get to know your students, families, and com- munities beyond the classroom door, you have many choices.

The time and effort you expend in getting to know students and families will reap huge rewards in your ongoing relationships, your classroom management, and student learning.

Learning about Life at School Students and family members can also provide information through- out the year to help you plan learning experiences. For example, some student teachers recently developed brief family surveys to determine how they could link science learning at school and home (Family Links). They delivered the survey in a manner that fit their class (e.g., trans- lated or delivered online). They (and their master teachers) were surprised at high response rates and by the families’ enthusiasm about having their voices heard. Student teachers found a wide variety of family members willing to act as guest speakers on topics such as anthropology, electricity, and heart disease. The student teachers also were able to send home inexpensive materi- als for science experiences and to recommend high-quality Web sites based on families’ feedback. A common sentiment was this: “I was inspired by how many parents appreciated that I asked their perspectives. Now I look for ways to involve all parents, including those who speak other languages at home, in their students’ science learning. Family connections should transcend language.”

This teacher’s happy surprise helped her develop high expectations for involvement of all families. Perhaps she will, in the future, follow Hattie’s (2009) advice to “Be prepared to be surprised” (p. 124) as she learns about her students and families and sets high expectations for her work with them.

Opportunities to Practice Exercise 2 invites you to try Family Links with your families. Many of the techniques noted for home and community use can be useful for getting to know stu- dents within the classroom context as well. You might map the classroom and observe students during breaks, for example. Also, the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip gives a classroom observation procedure intended to surface facets of a single student’s style and interactions. It may help you to gain information about a student whose particular strengths and struggles may otherwise go unnoticed. Keep your eyes open, too, for experienced teachers’ methods of getting to know students. Some use lunch with the students, and many learn much about students by simply listening to their stories and perspectives (e.g., Thorson, 2003). I have been impressed lately by how well I can get to know what matters to students and connect with them when they allow me to browse their learning journals.

Tech Survey

Send home a brief survey to discover the kinds of technology used regularly. Or have older students complete it in class. Results will allow you to build home–school connections and provide support. Here is a brief excerpt of a sample survey.

Dear Families,

Sometimes families own or use machines that can help students and teachers do a better job. I can plan to help your students better if I know which tools you have access to at home; check all that apply to you.

We have a device (or devices) that can:

Take still digital images (photographs) Take video Print documents or images Play back video (DVD or other _______)

We have regular access to:

Landline phone Cell phone Internet-enabled mobile device (such as a tablet) Desktop or laptop computer with Internet access Other (such as fax machine) ________________

Are there things that we, at school, could help you with regarding technology? What? Do you have special expertise with some form of technology that you could contribute to our class? Does anyone else at your home? If so, please write your contact information and expertise here. Thanks!

TeAChING FOR TOmORROw TIp

Try some additional ideas for getting to know your students, families, and communities.

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 47

Getting to know Students Through Digital Presentations

There are many Web-based tools that allow students to safely post and share information about themselves with you and their classmates. Schools increasingly have their own learning management systems that include Web pages for teachers, and safe social networking sites for educators and their students—like Edmodo—are popular. Or you might use a protected Google Docs presenta- tion, with each student completing one slide. Figure 3.3 shows a poster Zachary created using the free version of Glogster to share messages about himself. The Web 2.0 tool choices are endless. Remember that 75 percent of U.S. homes have broadband access to the Internet. Rather than assuming your students don’t have access, ask. If they don’t have home access, provide alternative Internet access such as through the public library or your classroom computers. As a last resort, go low-tech with paper versions of students’ self-presentations.

TeAChING FOR TOmORROw TIp

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

understanding a student through Observation

1. Select a student who does not immediately attract notice. This student may quietly pass the days without much de- mand for your attention.

2. Unobtrusively observe the student for a sustained period of time. Better yet, select varied times over the course of sev- eral days.

3. Take notes that describe the student’s behavior: a. What does this student care about? b. Does this student show discomfort or fear? Of what? c. Does the student have any skills or behaviors for

avoiding notice?

d. Does the student initiate contact with peers? Which ones? How do they respond?

e. How does the student interact with the content? Is he or she on task? What evidence is there that the student understands?

4. Analyze your observations: a. Would this student be learning more if he or she were

more actively engaged? b. What forms of active engagement can you use that might

show this student that you are teaching him or her as well as others?

c. In what ways is this student exceptional? d. What could you do to get to know the student better?

Other techniques for gathering information include some of the assessment strategies addressed in Chapter 8. Examples include:

• Attitude surveys (“Please rank these class activities in order of your preference.”) • Interviews (“Bring in an object that represents your favorite pastime and be ready to tell us

about it.”) • Journal entries (“What is the best thing that happened in class this week?”) • Drawings and diagrams (“Draw a picture of your face as you study biology.”) • Work samples (“Share a spread in your learning journal that shows an issue of importance

to you.”)

In summary, students and their families can provide unique information about their goals for the learning partnerships and students’ strengths, needs, and accomplishments over time, within the classroom, and beyond, and you’ll pick information-gathering strategies that work best for your context and families.

Learning about Students’ General Progress and Needs You also need to get to know students aca- demically. You might begin by checking on student records and past assessments. Look for information on students’ reading levels, English language levels, and special needs. Who has an individualized education program (IEP)? What special physical, emotional, social, and cogni- tive needs are present in your class? Once you discover your students’ needs, educate yourself. How much do you know, for example, about childhood diabetes? About specific learning dis- abilities? Today’s the day to start learning.

The amount of information available regarding students’ academic progress is impressive. For instance, most districts use data management systems with powerful analysis tools that you can use to create reports on your questions of interest. For instance, you might study your

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48 Chapter 3

Figure 3.3 Zach’s Glogster (Created at www.glogster.com).

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 49

students’ benchmark assessment data to determine their current areas of strength and need in a particular subject area such as writing or mathematics. Another way to manage numeric data that you collect so that it can inform instruction is to create a spreadsheet that lists current assess- ment information for each student. The benefit of a spreadsheet is that it can be easily re-sorted so that you can view students’ scores in a variety of ways. For instance, you might sort by one variable (such as English language level) to form heterogeneous groups and another variable (such as reading level) to view the range of students’ achievement. Imagine pasting re-sorted lists onto a clipboard to help you make student grouping and other planning decisions.

Learning Styles and Preferences Many teachers find gathering information on students’ learning styles appealing. A learning style is the combination of factors that together indicate how a person prefers to perceive information, interact with it, and respond to the learning environment. A famil- iar example divides learners’ sensory modalities: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. These divisions differentiate among students with preferences for learning by seeing, by hearing, and by doing.

Assessments of learning styles are usually made in one of two ways: student self-report or teacher observation. Common self-report measures are questionnaires that give agree/disagree statements such as, “I like to see models and make things” and “I like helping other people” (Gregory & Kuzmich, 2004, p. 33). Many free versions are available online, accessible through the search term “free learning style inventory.” Some of these give instructor options so that you can compile information for your class. Be cautious in your selection, however, because most inventories are meant to be informal and have not been carefully validated.

There is another, more pressing reason to be cautious in assessing and using learning styles. The notion is that if instruction matches our learning styles, we learn better. However, research does not clearly support that notion. The link between learning-style-based instruction and student achievement is tenuous at best (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004; Hattie, 2009; Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008). Some researchers are concerned that adherence to learning styles can actually perpetuate stereotypes and limited instructional practices (Scott, 2010). Still, assessing learning styles might spark some interesting conversations. Figure 3.4 suggests some ways to use learning styles thoughtfully in the classroom. In sum, there are many aspects of students and families that are important for you to learn about, and there are many tools at your disposal to achieve this objective. That information can help you work successfully with families.

Figure 3.4 Using learning styles thoughtfully in the classroom.

1. Create a “lexicon of learning” by teaching terms related to learning styles to open discussion about learning (Coffield et al., 2004).

2. Teach students to be aware of their own preferences, strengths, and struggles. Questions such as “What’s easy for you?” “What’s hard?” can help.

3. Students in control of their learning are powerful learners. Teach students to assess their goals, motivations, and learning strategies (Harrison, Andrews, & Saklofske, 2003). Also teach them to judge the environment and the demands of the task at hand.

4. Teach students learning strategies.

5. Flexible learners are powerful learners. Teach fl exibility by providing both instructional “matches” and “mismatches” for students’ learning preferences. Working within one’s style is comfortable and easy, but working in a mismatch encourages stretching and building new life skills.

6. Gather ongoing assessment information and adjust instruction to students’ progress. For eight excellent educators, teaching to learning styles meant teaching with a constant eye toward assessing learners’ success in the moment and adjusting instruction based on that success (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002).

7. Use students’ preferences as a starting point to re-envision practice. Studies of students with attention defi cit hyperactivity disorder found a distinct preference for afternoon (rather than morning) learning (Brand et al., 2002). How might that information affect scheduling decisions?

8. Be careful not to make it simple! People are complicated. Rather than using learning styles as one more way to label students, and thus limit possibilities, use learning styles as another set of variables that add to human complexity.

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50 Chapter 3

working with Families Strong family–school connections have incredible potential for fueling students’ success. This section explores the research on family involvement and suggests things you can do to build bridges with families.

what we Know about Families and Schools There is overwhelming evidence that family participation has positive effects on a number of stu- dent outcomes (Epstein, 2005; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Jeynes, 2005; Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). Positive outcomes associated with family involvement include student attendance, social skills and adaptation to school, enrollment in higher-level curricular programs, and achievement. Family par- ticipation is twice as predictive of student success as is family socioeconomic status. Also, parental involvement can counteract factors such as poverty that have a negative effect on students.

However, not all families feel welcomed by schools, and most families want more and bet- ter information from schools (Civic Enterprises, 2008; Epstein, 2008; Gillanders, McKinney, & Ritchie, 2012). Some discouraged teachers assume that parents—especially those of certain groups such as students of color—just do not care about their children’s progress. Don’t fall into that trap. First, it might be that those discouraged teachers have employed solely “schoolcentric” approaches to involve families. Schoolcentric approaches include only activities “designed to fulfill only the perceived mission of the school and are based on the belief system and lives of white middle class families” (Gillanders, McKinney, & Ritchie, 2012, p. 286). Indeed, school culture is usually what stands in our way when we fail to connect with parents (Mapp & Hong, 2010). Second, research indicates solidly that families in different ethnic groups do care about education and their students’ success (e.g., Martinez & Ulanoff, 2013; Valencia & Block, 2002). In a survey of high school par- ents, all ethnic groups valued education, including the importance of college (Civic Enterprises, 2008). Similarly, in a recent nationwide survey, parents of all ethnic or racial groups reported par- ticipating in general school meetings and parent conferences at the same levels (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013g). It is essential, then, that schools and teachers—that’s you!—take the initiative and reach out to build connections with families. Recent interest has shifted from educa- tors simply encouraging families to get involved in schools to the creation of collaborative home– school partnerships (Glueck & Reschly, 2014). When we build strong, collaborative family–school partnerships, we engage with families in creating an intellectual and social capital that can be mar- shaled to support all students’ success—academically and beyond (Bolívar & Chrispeels, 2011).

There are many examples of successful family–school partnerships (e.g., Black, 2010; Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007; Rodriguez-Brown, 2009; Christenson & Reschly, 2010). Common threads include:

1. Participants need to recognize that all of us are steeped in our own culture and values and be willing to explore those values and to accept that there are alternatives to them. This awareness allows each partner to be vigilant about remaining sensitive to others’ perspectives. The greater the mismatch between a family member’s experience and the culture of the school, the greater the likelihood that the family member will feel estranged from the schooling process, and the more trust and support in understanding this new culture the teacher may need to establish.

2. Partnerships need to be two-way and balanced. Both parties need to be seen as having valuable knowledge and perspectives. Effective family partnerships begin with the as- sumption that parents are knowledgeable, influential people who have contributions to make to students and their education (e.g., Martinez & Ulanoff, 2013). According to Mapp and Hong (2010), central to strong partnerships are the beliefs that all parents want the best for their children and that all families have the capacity to support their children’s learning.

3. The primary responsibility for establishing and sustaining strong partnerships is upon the schools (Mapp & Hong, 2010). There is mutual accommodation, in that teachers seek to learn about students’ communities and cultures and about how to communicate effectively with fami- lies. Parents new to the United States or the region may need teachers to serve as ambassadors, explaining aspects of the local education system such as expectations for family involvement

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 3.4

Watch and think 3.3 According to their Web site, the Parent Home Teacher Visit Project seeks to increase the success of students “one visit at a time.” Watch this three- minute clip in which a par- ent, Aquila Watson, shares significant changes in her local school/home partner- ship that have resulted from home visits. Listen for Watson’s view of the benefits from the parent’s and child’s perspective and from the community’s per- ception of the school.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=3xtC5Dgt5hA

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 51

(Rodriguez-Brown, 2009). This is especially important for family members participating in the IEP process (Sheehey, Ornelles, & Noonan, 2009). They partner with community organizations to meet family needs.

4. There are clear, frequent, and multifaceted attempts to communicate. The communication needs to be respectful, in the language of the home, and it needs to take many forms, including both written and oral messages. The Web offers enhanced opportunities for home-school communica- tion via social media, such as Twitter (Jackson, 2013). The Teaching for Tomorrow Tip includes Web 2.0 tools that can expand the range of how students, families, and teachers communicate.

5. Partnerships need to expand traditional options for family involvement. Epstein (2002, 2008) reminds us to broaden our views of family participation, which can exist through six kinds of activities:

• Parenting • Communicating • Volunteering • Learning at home • Decision making • Collaborating with the community

Examples include literacy programs where parents join school-based writing clubs and units of study that incorporate the funds of knowledge of the community. Funds of knowledge are the rich understandings and networks of support that community members develop and use in daily life. In expanding participation options, special effort must be given to draw in parents who speak a language other than English and those who are bicultural (Olivos, 2006). Think, too, about other families who may need special effort on your part to participate. One group might be families who live in homeless shelters (MacGillivray, Ardell, & Curwen, 2010). For example, such families may have restrictions on their time for school involvement and home- work completion.

6. Partnerships need to grow over time, and as trust builds, teachers can provide sugges- tions for how parents may support their students’ school success (Faltis, 2001).

As a new teacher, pay attention to the school’s efforts to collaborate with families via high- quality partnerships and check to see whether you might support the partnerships in your own efforts to involve families.

Source: Odua Images/Shutterstock

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52 Chapter 3

Start Now to Involve Families From the start, you can work toward effective family participation by encouraging family mem- bers to play an active role on the education team. Let parents know that you value their expertise about their children and that you can teach the student together much better than you could alone.

Act on your conviction that the world looks different from their perspective and that you can benefit by learning about those perspectives. Here’s an example. As a new and childless middle school teacher, I had little understanding of the stresses that my monthly book reports and thirty- minute nightly homework assignments added to families, especially when compounded with students’ assignments from other classes and the three or four weekly quizzes students took each Friday. The world looked very different later from my perspective as a parent of two teenagers. Research documents the stress that homework can bring to families (e.g., Solomon, Warrin, & Lewis, 2002). Further, it has questionable contributions to academic and nonacademic outcomes, particularly for students younger than high school age (Kohn, 2006b). Also, for homework to be effective—particularly in inclusive classrooms and classrooms where families differ in their subject-matter knowledge and availability—two-way communication between family and school is essential (Carr, 2013). As a teacher, I wish I had challenged my own assumption that the homework I assigned unquestionably supported our learning goals. I wish I had invited fami- lies to sit and talk with their students about the content rather than assigning another page from the text. I wish I had asked a few more questions.

Using the Web to Stay in Touch

The Web is nearly ubiquitous. Use it to stay in contact with your families.

• Keep your district’s online data management system up to date with students’ academic progress information. Include homework information and individual comments on student progress.

• Determine whether your district houses faculty Web pages. If so, create one and keep it current. • Use a free tool to create a Web page. Examples are Weebly and Google Sites. Keep your site closed, and be careful of the infor-

mation and images you post. • Try a Twitter feed (Jackson, 2013). • Explore apps that might be appropriate for your family communications. Many teachers use the free app ClassDojo to share

information about students’ behavior during the day. Sixth-grade teacher Dionne Sincere uses Remind101 to send frequent text messages to families, sharing videos, assignments, classroom presentations, and blog posts, with the click of just a couple buttons.

TeAChING FOR TOmORROw TIp

Source: Pearson Education

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 53

Use concrete strategies to welcome family input and to communicate openly. Capitalize on the power that “back-to-school night” and other formal meetings have to establish partnerships, especially since formal meetings are one of the most common avenues for family participation. The Teaching Tip gives a to-do list for back-to-school night; items on the list are meant to help you build bridges with families from the start (Guillaume, Yopp, & Twardos, 2006).

Use a variety of forms of communication as well. For instance, if appropriate, send a letter home during the first week of school asking families about students’ experiences and families’ hopes and wishes for their children’s education. Call or send home a note, written in the home language, during the first month of school to share each student’s success. Use a newsletter, blog, Web site, or social media app (see Opportunities to Practice Exercise 4) to keep families abreast of classroom events. E-mail is a widely available tool for families, and many teachers continue to use the telephone. Sometimes standing in front of the school after dismissal allows teachers to talk with parents or other caregivers.

It is essential that you find different ways for families to be involved in education. For those who can volunteer in your classroom, arrange for activities such as small-group tutoring and materials preparation. Send projects home for parents to complete with their students. Include a range of involvement opportunities so that all families can experience success with their students. For example, parents may have the option of listening to their student recount an event from the day or participating in an interview about family experiences related to the day’s story.

Additionally, Jeynes (2010) reminds us to expand our view of “family participation.” Some of the more subtle aspects of parental involvement may be among the most effective in support- ing student achievement. Indeed, Fan and Chen (2001) find that, of family involvement factors, parental aspirations and expectations have the strongest relationships with student achievement. Jeynes recommends that we educate parents that their high expectations and clear communica- tion without a doubt affect student achievement. Next we should help parents to act on those subtle aspects of parental involvement to enhance students’ success.

Establishing effective partnerships is long, hard work. Most teachers (73 percent in a recent survey; Markow, Macia, & Lee, 2013) feel that engaging parents and the community in improving education is a challenge. Despite your positive intent and best efforts, you may occasionally grumble about an obstinate parent or wonder what a parent is possibly thinking. At that moment, please keep in mind that parenting is a difficult job, and the parents I know report that they, like me, appreciate being educated in the things we don’t know about supporting our children.

There may also be times when your job feels more difficult because of actively engaged parents. During those times, it may help to remember that parents are experts on their students. Most have spent years tending these young lives. They know some things about their students that teachers may never understand. They also have a right to make some choices about what they perceive as best for their students. Work to separate your own feelings from a parent’s emotional demands. Whether or not you agree with the course of action suggested by the parent, consider the possibility that the parent is motivated by his or her ideas of what is best for the student. Welcome input and retain your stance as an instructional leader. Figure 3.5 shares some strategies for communicating effectively with family members.

Another motivation to consider is that parents’ egos and protection defenses can be deeply involved. For many parents, nurturing a child is an act without comparison. Many of us discover

Back-to-School Night to-Do List

• Dress to convey respect. • Use nonverbal communication that is welcoming and conveys your competence. Smile. Stand up.

Don’t put physical barriers between you and families. • Tell why you are a teacher. Make sure your reasons include students. • Explain the important things students will learn and be able to do as a result of this year. • Show your passion for the subject matter. • Show why your classroom is a good place to be. • Build the family–school team. • Address agenda topics required by your school.

TeAChING TIp

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54 Chapter 3

Figure 3.5 Suggestions for communicating with family members.

1. Set a warm and supportive tone for your conversation.

Establish yourself as an authority figure.

Use nonverbal communication.

Celebrate and suffer.

Actively listen.

Keep things positive. Use laughter.

2. State your concerns fairly and without evoking defensiveness.

Use a strength refresher.

Use I-messages to communicate your concerns.

Address the behavior, not the person.

3. Work on addressing issues as a team.

Ask for family insights.

Establish clear expectations.

Offer choices and respect decisions.

Follow through.

Talk about addressing issues in many ways and on different levels.

Use genuine concern for students and your expert knowledge base to build trust with families. You may be new, but you are a professional.

Be certain that the care you feel for each of your students is reflected in your words and actions.

Communicate your concern for students by choosing a collegial location for conferences (not, for instance, you behind an imposing desk). Share your care and enthusiasm in your handshake, your posture, and your facial expression.

Appreciate—don’t evaluate—families’ successes and struggles with their children. It’s hard work to be a parent. Remember, your work with the students stops every day. Families are in for the long haul.

Use body language to indicate that you are fully attenti ve.

Paraphrase your understanding of what parents say. Show that you understand the parents’ concerns.

Keep the tone of your conference hopeful and assertive: This is an effective team! Express shared commitment and communicate your sense of certainty that together you and the family can help the student. Use humor appropriately to keep a sense of perspective.

Begin with a statement of the student’s tremendous strengths. Use that as a context for what you can work on next. We can all improve.

You can lessen parents’ defensiveness by not placing blame. Not: “You aren’t checking that homework is done” but “When Joey does not complete homework, I worry that he won’t master these fundamental concepts.”

Talk in specific terms about what you see the student doing and saying. Then talk about the consequences. Steer clear of phrases that label. Provide specific evidence, including work samples and grade-book marks, to illustrate the student’s strengths and struggles.

Draw on families’ considerable years of experience: “What has been effective in the past?” Talk frankly about what seems effective and ineffective in your own efforts.

Give parents clear guidelines of things they can do to help. Share professional literature. Give lists of suggestions. Especially if parents are feeling ineffective, you’ll need to give concrete suggestions for things to try. Remember, you need a license to be a teacher, but parents typically have no training for their role. We all can use some friendly suggestions, especially when shared by someone we trust and respect.

Suggest for parents some specific options for strategies to help their students. When parents make a choice, respect it instead of suggesting others.

Do what you say you’ll do. Check to see that the parents do the same. If they don’t, talk about changing the system to make it more manageable for them.

Discuss possible motivations for misbehavior. For example, are things going well for the student at home? In Scouts? In day care? Make a plan to address issues in the short run and in the longer range. Be certain the plan includes both home and school aspects.

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 55

the depths of love when we become parents. That deep love—and some ego—can color the way parents interact with teachers and other professionals. Please be gentle with parents who defend their children in the face of a perceived threat or criticism or who live through the accomplish- ments of their children.

Parenting can be stressful, and some students are more difficult to parent than others (Dy- son, 2010). If you feel frustrated when it appears that parents are falling short of your expecta- tions, it can be helpful to make the polite assumption. Instead of assuming that family members do not care about their child or they would ensure that daily homework is completed, think about what other things might account for the fact that homework is not getting finished: Do the par- ents perceive that the student needs to take sole responsibility? Do the parents view it as outside the scope of their authority so that it would be an affront to your professionalism if they were to step in? Is there a tough softball schedule? Is the student caring for younger siblings? When you assume that families do not care, you close the door on your chances of working with them on behalf of the student. Assume the best.

Figure 3.5 (Continued)

4. Avoid ugliness.

Model emotional control.

Use anger shields.

ven if parents express emotions inappropriately, you need to remain calm and professional.

If parents have difficulty collecting themselves, use a supportive statement that recognizes their right to feel strongly.

E

You may want to suggest that you talk another time.

Do the same if you are no longer in control: “I care so much about this issue that I’m having trouble remaining calm. I’d like to excuse myself. W e can talk again tomorrow evening.”

Occasionally parents become so emotional that they can no longer behave with the best interests of their children in mind.

Don’t talk to a parent who angrily interrupts your instruction. Instead suggest that the parent stop by the office and make an appointment to see you after school or during your conference period.

If a conference takes a hostile turn, stand up and excuse yourself: “I see you care deeply about your student. However, this conversation is no longer professional. I’ll be glad to talk to you at another time when the principal is able to join us.”

parting words If we are to teach students well, we must make genuine ef- forts to understand their strengths, needs, perspectives, and experiences. We must also establish effective partnerships with their families. To close, some core suggestions for work- ing with families include:

1. Work hard to see the world from families’ perspectives; keep learning.

2. Use a flexible, evolving approach to building relation- ships, communicating, and partnering with your fami- lies. Change what doesn’t work.

3. Draw on families’ broad and long history with their children.

4. Make the most helpful assumptions possible. 5. Include families as essential team members. Use inclu-

sive language and plan for solutions together. 6. Provide different ways for families to be involved.

Remember the powerful role you play in forming effec- tive home–school teams and in leading learning. Teachers who think that they can make a difference do.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 3.5

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56 Chapter 3

Opportunities to practice 1. Home visits are a powerful way to build bridges. Try just one

visit to get started. Here’s a checklist.

✓ Clear the visit with your administration or university.

✓ Research at least one Web site on home visits (try “teacher home visits” as your search term).

✓ Establish a purpose for the visit. Common purposes include establishing rapport and communication, learning about fam- ily strengths, and learning about student interests and con- cerns.

✓ Schedule the visit. Use the phone, e-mail, or a note, depend- ing on family preferences.

✓ Arrange for a translator if necessary.

✓ Limit your visit to thirty minutes. Consider bringing some- thing to share with the family, but let them lead the visit. Take notes of their concerns and desires.

2. Create, administer, and analyze a family survey regarding an upcoming unit. Then build a Family Links choice board based on your results.

Sample Survey Questions for Science Participation

a. We would enjoy having our student bring home science activities to share with us.

b. We would enjoy receiving information about incorporating science activities into our family life (i.e., places to visit, projects, online activities).

c. We have frequent access to the Internet.

Sample Elementary Family Link Activities for a Unit on Weather (Families chose three items from a longer list)

a. Look online and record the weather conditions of two dif- ferent locations for one day. Practice math skills and have your student find the difference between the two tempera- tures and analyze the results.

b. Writing Together: Reminisce with your student about a time the weather played a role in a family experience or vacation. Write a story and draw a picture to recapture this memory.

“I Am From” Poems (excerpts of poems from prospective teachers)

All excerpts used with permission.

I am from a Midwestern family, I am from a black and white TV, shag carpet, and gold appliances, I am from a German lineage, born in San Diego, I am from a pleasant neighborhood with kind people and chirping birds, I am from a place where honesty is highly valued, I am from a place of comfort, mine and others, I am from a love of family and God.

—Rhonda Morgenstern

I am from a family who cares but prefers not to show it. I am from a journey of a small town girl trying to fit in the Cali lifestyle. I am from a childhood of confusion. I am from an uphill battle against the obsession. I am from a past of turning away from innate talents to live in self-destruction. I am from nature and all its beauty. I am from the need to be free.

—Anonymous by request

I am from a culture of enchiladas and one of corned beef and cabbage I am from parents who supported me no matter my decision I am from a childhood of conformity I am from teenage years of searching I am from a university that helped me discover diversity and individuality I am from a belief in having faith in whichever god you believe in I am from equality for black, white, yellow, brown, or green I am from a desire to help others excel and realize their true potential I am from a goal of supporting the disadvantaged I am from a love for things that grow I am from a philosophy of choosing the path less traveled I am from the belief that one should live everyday like it is their last I am from this melting pot that has allowed me to learn, think, and live all of the above

—David Garcia

I am from a mother and father who have taught me how to stand on my own. I am from a love that continuously grows with laughter. I am from groups of friends who have always made me feel important. I am from a family that speaks in English but loves in Greek. I am from them and they are from me.

—Veronica Chiarini

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Students and Families: Teambuilding 57

c. Take-Home Bag: Use the thermometer and cup in this bag. Take the temperature of a glass of water at room tempera- ture. Then put it in the sun or under a lamp. Let it sit for a while and then take the temperature again. The sun warm- ing the oceans makes a big difference in our weather!

3. Use one of the tools, tips, or activities in the chapter and share your results with a peer.

4. Do a Web search of “apps for parent teacher communication” and read about one app that might work for you and your fami- lies. How about BuzzMob or Collaborize Classroom?

5. If you are currently working with students, choose two at random. Contact their families and let them know something specific that each has done well this week. Next week, choose two more. Or choose a student who may not frequently hear great news from school and contact that family with some good news.

6. Remember that most students with identified special needs spend at least half their day in the general education classroom. Spend some time learning about the IEP process and special education services by trying one or more of these ideas:

a. Find the IEP form your district uses and ask to see a sample.

b. If this is not possible, go online and use the search term “sample IEP.” Try narrowing the search by also adding the name of your state, district, or county. You will see that the IEP components are very similar, despite some local dif- ferences.

c. Shadow a special education specialist for a day. d. Ask if you can attend an IEP or BIP (Behavior Intervention

Plan) meeting. If you are a student teacher, you are often considered part of the professional team for whom meeting attendance is appropriate, but family (and staff) permission is important.

Collect materials such as agendas and samples and take care- ful notes to document your discoveries. Compare your find- ings with those of a peer who might be working in a different setting.

7. Delpit (1995) finds that schools may devalue students’ home language and thus decrease students’ commitment to school. If your home language was not English and you attended an English-speaking school, compare your experiences to Delpit’s finding. Otherwise, interview a person who spoke a language in addition to English as a young student. Analyze your school’s culture in terms of the acceptance of languages other than English.

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms Center on School, Family, and Community Partnership. The Center encourages schools and communities to work together to organize and sustain programs for family and community involvement. Check the Success Stories for inspiration for lo- cal action, and see Teachers Involving Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) for interactive homework.

Harvard Family Research Project. This site includes research and resources such as teaching cases to help families and schools work together.

The Teacher Parent Collaboration section of Teacher Vision Web. This section of the Teacher Vision site offers practical sug- gestions for working with parents, including questionnaires and handouts that can be used for parent education.

United States Census Bureau. The Bureau’s site includes an incredible wealth of demographic information about the United States and its people. A quick start: In the site’s search line (or in Quick Facts), type your city or county. You’ll get quick facts about people, businesses, and geography, and you can compare your locale to the nation’s statistics.

Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Dis- order. This organization provides information and assistance related to ADHD. Especially useful is the link to its National Resource Center on ADHD, which includes information for families and teachers to help children with ADHD.

Council for Exceptional Children. Try the “Policy & Advo- cacy” and “Resources” sections in this international profes- sional organization’s site.

LDOnline. LDOnline is an educational program service of public television station WETA in Washington, D.C. It includes numerous helpful and easy-to-find resources for teachers and parents relating to learning disabilities and ADHD.

National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE). The NABE organization is one of a kind at the national level. It includes links to its state affiliates and research and other resources related to bilingual education.

National Association for Gifted Children. Check contacts for gifted education in your state at “Gifted by State,” and view the many informative resources at the “Educators” tab.

National Association for Multicultural Education. This organi- zation advocates for social justice. Join the listserv or check out the Resource Center.

National Center for Learning Disabilities. This site gives factual information and policy and advocacy information con- cerning learning disabilities. It provides helpful information for people with learning disabilities and their teachers. For example, teens can learn tips for getting organized and building social skills.

National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition & Language Instructional Educational Programs. This site shares information about language instruction educational programs for English learners, and it includes a wealth of data regarding English learners and related demographics. Take a look at the Resource Library and Webinars.

National Opportunity to Learn Campaign. The coalition aims to increase equity by improving U.S. students’ access to high- quality education. Read about core opportunity-to-learn issues and check your state’s updates.

Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA). This site contains information on federal and state initiatives for English learners. It has helpful resources under the Teachers tab, in- cluding lesson ideas and tools.

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Before You Begin Reading Congratulations! You got the job! A photo of your classroom is below. Study the photo as you think about the range of needs and interests your students are likely to present. Quick! What are the five most important things you need to check or do right now to ensure that your room is accessible and inclusive of each of your students?

The Top Five Things i need To CheCk or do To Make My rooM aCCessible and inClusive

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Hints: Think about factors like students’ physical abilities, cultures (home and pop), interests, strengths, academic needs, English language levels, and about your technology priorities.

Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction

4

learning ouTCoMes

By studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Contrast strength-based thinking with deficit thinking.

2. Argue against treating students the same.

3. State the premise of Universal Design.

4. Give two examples of ways to differentiate instruction.

5. Explain how you will make decisions for grouping students.

6. Describe major approaches for meeting students’ special educational needs.

7. List the major components of sheltering instruction for English language learners.

8. Give a strategy for challenging advanced and gifted learners.

9. Recount current issues in fostering gender equity.

10. Describe your responsibility in creating safe spaces.

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 59

The rich variety of individual differences that are central to who we are as a people is alive in our classrooms, and our responsibility as educators is to embrace our students and their differ- ences while we encourage each to flourish in a strong community. Thus, responsive instruction involves mutual accommodation (Nieto, 1996). Students must meet exacting standards, adjust to the culture of schooling, and become participating members of our democracy (Goodlad, 1997). However, teachers and schools must also adjust; we must accommodate students’ perspectives, cultures, and needs to help them succeed. We must continually ask ourselves, “What can I do better to help this student learn?” and “How can I learn more to foster success?”

Chapter 3 addressed the importance of and strategies for getting to know your individual students and their families and for beginning to build relationships and a classroom community. This chapter introduces you to a variety of student needs and characteristics and gives ten gen- eral approaches for meeting the diverse needs of students in our classrooms. Although presented individually, the approaches are often used in concert (e.g., Walker-Dalhouse et al., 2009).

Use Positive, Strength-Based Approaches The starting point of your inclusive and responsive instruction should be the supportive, trusting relationships you build and the related positive approaches you take employ. This text has ar- gued repeatedly for the power of healthy relationships. As Cummins (1996, p. 1) states, “Human relationships are the heart of schooling. The interactions that take place between students and teachers and among students are more central to student success than any method of teaching lit- eracy, or science, or math.” Hattie (2009) concludes that teacher-student relationships do indeed have a strong effect on all student outcomes. And studies suggest that children who overcome adversity usually have at least one adult who sees them for their strengths and believes that they can succeed (Brooks & Goldstein, 2001).

Strength-based approaches start with viewing all students for their assets, for the great things they bring to our world. Strength-based approaches are the opposite of deficit thinking, where

“Democracy is a small hard core of common agreement, surrounded by a rich variety of individual differences.”

—James B. Conant

Watch and Think 4.1 Watch this three-minute clip of junior high school principal Don Barbor dis- cussing the perspectives of strength-based teachers. What are the characteristics displayed by strength- based teachers? How do they think about teacher- student relationships?

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=UC-L5T8gs9c

Source: Xy/Fotolia

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60 Chapter 4

people are viewed primarily for what they cannot do, as lacking something or, in some way, needing to be fixed. For example, Armstrong (2012) and others see conditions such as ADHD, au- tism, learning disabilities, and emotional disorders as the result of normal human variation rather than as disease, disorder, or dysfunction. Armstrong argues that seeing such conditions as part of the normal range of human diversity—as a manifestation of “neurodiversity”—positions us to see our students more holistically and optimistically. Such a view does not mean that we ignore or romanticize difficulties; it means that we paint richer, more detailed portraits of our students. Stu- dents with specific disabilities in reading, for example, must indeed master a skill that is difficult for them (reading), but they simultaneously bring strengths that also deserve attention.

Recognizing the constellation of students’ strengths serves two critical functions. First, it supports the teachers in helping students learn challenging new skills by drawing from things they can do well. Secondly, it helps the students learn to leverage their strengths in order to face difficulties with a wider repertoire of knowledge, skills, and abilities. In sum, providing instruc- tion that is responsive and inclusive is based upon holistic, asset-based thinking about students.

Treat Students as Individuals Once we see students for their strengths, we act on our views by treating them as individuals. Though this may seem obvious, some teachers proudly proclaim that their goal is to treat every- one the same. One motivation is teachers’ desire for fairness, for instance when students with disabilities are included in the general education classroom (Wiebe Berry, 2008). Such a desire is also found in the color-blind perspective (Schofield, 2005), whereby educators aim to treat students as if their group affiliations (such as ethnicity) and prior experiences have no instruc- tional implication. Grant (1995, p. 10) urges: “The individual diversity and humanness that each and every student brings to school must be accepted and affirmed. Those who tend to see (or want to see) every group, and every member of that group, as the same, miss or deny the beauty of human diversity and variety.”

Although all students deserve high expectations and deserve to be treated fairly and with respect, different students need different things. Treating each student the same can be inher- ently unfair. Nonetheless, teachers’ emphasis on sameness often translates to their classroom practice. In many general education classrooms, students are indeed treated the same. In 1995, Cole wrote, “Instead of being presented in a variety of modes, instruction in U.S. schools tends to be abstract, barren of application, overly sequential, and redundant” (p. 12). The narrowed curricular and instructional practices of the first decade of this century did little to alleviate such practices. Fortunately, many forces in education, such as strong interest in 21st-century skills, push educational practice toward more meaningful and personalized processes and outcomes.

There are many ways you can treat students as individuals in your classroom. You can listen to their stories and incorporate their interests in your lessons. You can use democratic classroom management, a variety of instructional strategies, an enriched learning environment, and student choice, all based on ongoing assessments of each student’s progress. To meet the needs of your students, you must accomplish both big things that take much time (for instance, developing a range of assignments and activities for a single outcome, learning new instructional strategies, setting long-range goals, or changing your interactional style for particular students) and smaller things that can be implemented quickly (for instance, shortening homework assignments for those who take more time or moving a student toward a helpful peer). Universal Design is one approach that can help you provide instruction that is responsive to your students as individuals.

Plan for All Students with Universal Design Universal Design for Learning (UDL) seeks to provide instruction that is built from the start— rather than modified later—to address varying needs, interests, and preferences. It arose from in- terests in the promise of personal computing that emerged in the 1980s in accessible architecture

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.1

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.2

Which strengths might accompany reading disabilities?

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 61

(Meyer, Rose, & Gordon, 2014). Rather than designing a house that must later be modified to meet the needs of occupants (perhaps by cutting curbs, widening doorways, or adjusting counter heights), Universal Design suggests that the house be designed from the ground up to address the needs of a variety of people who might live there. Ramps, for instance, would not only help people using wheelchairs, but would also help those pushing strollers, using walkers, or carrying heavy or bulky items. So it is with Universal Design for Learning: Instruction should be planned from the ground up to address innate human variability.

Just as strength-based perspectives hold that “the person is not the problem; the problem is the problem” (Hammond & Zimmerman, 2012, p. 3), UDL principles hold that a characteristic or behavior that may be problematic in one setting may not be problematic in another. Meyer, Rose, and Gordon (2014) state that, in developing UDL, their initial focus on disabilities of individuals shifted to the disabilities of schools, or the aspects of equipment, materials, and curricular prac- tices that present barriers to learners. Incorporating an understanding of brain networks, the goal of UDL is not solely to help students master content; it is to help them master the act of learning. Expert learners “are a) strategic, skillful and goal directed; b) knowledgeable, and c) purposeful and motivated to learn more” (National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2013a, n.p.) As you plan your units and lessons, principles of UDL (National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2013b) recommend that you accomplish three tasks by providing multiple means of . . .

• Representation—To help students transform information into usable knowledge, we must provide options for how ideas are represented. We must include information in a variety of formats so that it is perceptible to all students. For example, we might need to provide printed text, digital text, and audio recordings of a work. We must provide information in a variety of forms (such as vocabulary terms, graphs, images), and we must ensure the clarity of that information. Finally, we need to provide options to ensure comprehension.

• Action and Expression—To allow students to demonstrate what they know, we need to pro- vide options regarding physical movement and expression and for students’ use of execu- tive functions such as goal setting and progress monitoring.

• Engagement—We need to use a variety of options in how we build student interest, support students’ ongoing effort and persistence, and for regulating their own learning.

The National Center on Universal Design for Learning provides guidelines and checkpoints for each principle, along with rich educator resources. The principles of Universal Design pro- vide an important criterion by which you can judge the quality of your instruction: How well do your lessons provide information in accessible ways that foster comprehension and encourage each of your students to engage in instruction, acquire information, express what they know, and become better learners? A related approach is differentiated instruction.

Differentiate Instruction In all its manifestations, differentiated instruction helps you address your students’ different levels of readiness, interests, and learning profiles. Key elements of differentiated instruction are a sharp focus on essential learning, student choice, flexibility, and ongoing assessment. Research on the effectiveness of differentiated instruction is limited, but available evidence suggests that differentiated instruction can be effective for encouraging success across the student spectra (e.g., Huebner, 2010; Reis, McCoach, Muller, Little, & Burcu Kaniskan, 2011).

Differentiation begins when teachers gather information about their students’ readiness (current progress), interests, and learning profiles. Next, according to Tomlinson (2001), teach- ers use that information to differentiate their plans in response to information about students in three ways:

• Content—what students learn or how we give them access to it • Process—the activities students pursue to make sense of, or process, the content • Product—the longer-term endeavors students create to display their learning

Here are examples of how teachers have planned differentiated instruction for these three categories.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.3

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62 Chapter 4

Content • Spread (Rock, Gregg, Ellis, & Gable, 2008): To determine the extent to which they need to

differentiate learning goals, teachers examine the spread of student achievement on a given assessment: How far is it between the top and bottom scores? How does the rest of the dis- tribution fall out?

• Reading Choices (Knowles, 2009): Students have plentiful opportunities to read widely from good literature of their choice and document their reading on a log.

• Levels of Support (Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2009): Teachers observe students to determine what level and kind of support they will need. For independent reading, for example, teach- ers observe students to place them on the independent reading continuum (from fake read- ers to bookworms) and provide differential support to stretch all readers. Fake readers, for instance, need close monitoring and special assistance in selecting interesting books.

• Running Assignments (Nunley, 2006): Students pursue ongoing assignments of their choice during independent work times throughout the semester. An example is an inquiry into a topic of the student’s choosing.

Process • Input Choices: Students explore information using varied sources such as different kinds

of text, expert interviews (face-to-face or through tools such as chat, e-mail, or discussion boards), audio recordings, and multimedia recordings.

• Blogs (Colombo & Colombo, 2007): To expand learning time outside of the classroom, teachers create content-based blogs that contain rich resources like video and audio files and strategy instruction. Students with different needs focus on the parts of the blogs that meet their immediate needs. For example, a reader who struggles might listen to an audio file of the teacher describing strategies for reading the textbook. There are plenty of free audiobooks online; Storynory has examples for younger students, and Open Culture has many works of classic literature.

• Choice Boards (Anderson, 2007): Students receive individual listings of learning options and select from among them. Only the teacher knows that options vary by students based on readiness.

Product • Product Option Contracts (Anderson, 2007): Students select from a list of options or sug-

gest their own product, give their choice of individual or group work, and state their time- line on a contract submitted for teacher approval.

• Varied Technologies (Painter, 2009): Students select the tools by which they will cre- ate their products. Examples include multimedia programs, publishing software, paint/ draw programs, cartoon programs (e.g., GoAnimate and ToonDoo), digital storytelling (e.g.,  Storybird) and video production tools (e.g., Wideo).

• Culturally Sensitive Assessments (Thousand, Villa, & Nevin, 2007): Students can show what they know in a style that is comfortable for them. Examples include translated tests, instructional conversations, and other alternatives to paper/pencil assessments.

Figure 4.1 draws from Tomlinson’s ideas to provide a grid with questions that can guide your planning as you think about differentiating instruction.

There is no single approach to differentiated instruction, but a general procedure might include steps such as these:

1. Assess students’ interests and current understandings of upcoming content. 2. Select learning outcomes based on assessment data. Remember that students study the

same curriculum; to the extent possible, the content standards provide a minimum—not maximum—expectation.

3. Plan learning activities that address the outcomes and provide student choice based on in- terest. Students pursue activities only for content they have not yet mastered. Consider developing tiered assignments, or assignments with parallel tasks at different levels of difficulty or complexity. Students complete the tier(s) that both match their needs or levels and help them learn the outcomes. Heacox (2009) recommends that tiered assignments

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 63

be used only when necessary, respond to actual student needs, and provide tasks that are equally engaging.

4. Use flexible groupings such as partners and small groups based on a variety of criteria as appropriate for student interest and content outcomes.

5. Use formative assessment frequently to gather information on student success and adjust activities and outcomes. Analyze summative (final) assessment results in light of essential understandings.

6. Continue to differentiate by adapting instruction during the lesson based on students’ re- sponses (Parsons, Dodman, & Burrowbridge, 2013).

Differentiated instruction utilizes a variety of grouping structures, an important aspect of responsive instruction.

Use Varied Student Groupings You have a number of choices to make as you decide how to group your students for instruction. Some common student groupings include:

• Whole class: All students receive the same lesson from the teacher, at the same time. Dur- ing work time, all students work on the same task.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.4

Figure 4.1 Sample questions to guide planning for differentiated instruction.

Readiness Profile Interest

Content • Same or different • Together or alone? • How can choice be learning objectives? • Which intelligences? built into the

• Primary language learning goals? or English? • What student

choices in materials?

Process • Which instructional • Auditory or visual? • How to build new strategies? • More structured or skills based on (Read Chapter 7.) more open? students’ favored

• Which small-group • Together or alone? skills? activities? Individual • What choices in assignments? activities?

Product • How to apply or • Variety of formats? • What choices in extend basic • Which skills to products? ideas? teach to support • What real-world

• Same criteria or product development? interests can provide different? a context for

• How to support product development? strugglers and push advanced learners?

Differentiated Instruction Quick Start

Ready to jump into differentiated instruction? An easy way to begin is to provide a couple options for students’ independent work after a lesson (Nunley, 2006). Example: “Your choice: (a) Complete the worksheet, (b) Use a class computer to create a graphic organizer using Cacoo and upload it to our Web site, or (c) Write ten questions and answers about the content. We’ll use these for review.”

TeAChInG TIP

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64 Chapter 4

• Small group: Students work with a few other students, often in groups with three to five members. All groups may have the same task, or each group may receive different instruc- tion or tasks. Groups can be homogeneous (that is, similar to each other based on a selected variable such as interest or achievement level) or heterogeneous (that is, composed of mem- bers who are different from each other on the selected variable). Groups can also be ran- domly formed and can be teacher or student selected.

• Partners: Students work in groups of two. Just like small groups, partners can be formed heterogeneously, homogeneously, or randomly. Partners can also be selected by the teacher or by students. Tutoring (the same or across grades) is a special version of partner work.

• Individuals: Students receive one-on-one instruction from the teacher or work on tasks that are different from those of their neighbors.

Grouping Decisions Grouping decisions are not simple. Answers to the question, “Who should learn what with whom?” are hotly debated. For example, it took federal legislation to ensure that students with special needs are educated with their typically developing peers. Kalogrides & Loeb (2013) find that students tend to be sorted by race and socioeconomic levels both into and within their schools, with the result that minority and poor students have lower-quality teachers. In fact, many schools are now “detracking” in an effort to promote equity and close the achievement gap (e.g., Watanabe, 2012). According to Fordham Institute (2008), the scores of high-achiev- ing students stagnated after NCLB as teachers focused on bringing lower-achieving students up to par. To what extent is it appropriate, then, to place gifted students in homogeneous classes where they might receive more instructional attention, an advanced curriculum, and a quicker pace?

Which grouping patterns should you employ? Your stance regarding the good society and the purpose of education clearly will provide some guidance. So can research. Small-group instruction tends to be effective for many students (Lou et al., 1996), but static ability-based groups, such as primary-grade reading groups, tend to provide poorer opportunities for students in lower groups (e.g., Chorzempa & Graham, 2006). If you do use ability grouping, to maximize effectiveness, be sure that your groups:

• Are based on assessment of specific performance related to the content to be mastered rather than on a single static measure of perceived student ability.

Vary student grouping to meet needs and differentiate instruction.

Source: Sepy/Fotolia

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 65

• Are flexible rather than long-standing. That is, groups should be dissolved and re-formed as needs change.

• Address a narrow range of student need (e.g., a specific skill, procedure, or interest) rather than a general perceived level.

• Provide opportunities to work with a variety of peers over time (Caldwell & Ford, 2002).

In general, the research suggests that grouping alone does not cause positive effects: Instruction does. Positive effects of grouping on achievement are strongest when teachers are trained in using small-group instruction and when they vary their content and instruction based on their groups. Thus, a variety of strategies can be effective, and a combination of whole-group and small-group configurations supports student learning. Figure 4.2 provides some factors for you to consider as you plan to group students.

Figure 4.2 Things to think about as you make grouping decisions.

Configuration Possible Benefits Possible Drawbacks Use It When . . .

Whole class an build a store of • Can be difficult to meet • Students all have necessary • C shared experience full range of student and equivalent background

• Can make manage- needs knowledge

Examples: ment easier • Can decrease student • The objective is appropriate for

• Introducing a • Can allow teacher to interaction all students

new concept focus preparation time • Can decrease opportu- • All students can understand and

• Read-aloud on one lesson instead nities for student choice benefit from the same

• Whole-class of several instruction

discussion • Can maximize teacher-

directed instructional time

Small groups • Can free up time for • Can require preparation • You want students to interact teacher to work with of several lessons, sets • Your goals include social ones struggling students of material, or activities • Students can enhance each

Examples • Can provide flexibility • Can complicate other’s learning

• Cooperative learning for the teacher in management • There is a range of needs or

activities (see modifying objectives, • Can decrease student interest related to the

Chapter 7) pace, and activities accountability objective

• Literature circles based on student • Students need to be

• Group projects needs taught to work together

• Can enhance opportunities for student interaction

Partners Can maximize student • Can decrease student • You want students to talk interaction accountability • Your goals include social ones

Examples: • C

• C

an enhance • Can decrease time • Students can further each

• Partner reading motivation on task other’s learning

• Peer tutoring • Students need to be

taught to work together

Individuals • Can pinpoint instruction • Can decrease overall • Students have highly specific for highly specific instructional time with needs needs the teacher

Examples: • Can provide valid and • Can decrease

• Reteaching a specific assessment accountability for others

missed concept information

• Targeting a skill important for one student

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66 Chapter 4

Mixing It Up with Student Groups Gregory and Kuzmich (2004) provide a helpful suggestion regarding student groups: TAPS. During each unit, give students opportunities to work in the Total group, Alone, in Partners, and in Small groups. In the total group, you may present information or model a procedure. Alone, students may complete journal entries or self-assess. In pairs, students might conduct research or peer edit. In small groups, students might brainstorm or solve a problem.

So, as you plan your groups, think about what students like, what they know—based on assessment data of a variety of types—and what they need related both to your goals and spe- cific content objectives. Set the groups in a variety of ways, including student selection, random grouping, and teacher selection. Ensuring that students have opportunities to work regularly with different peers provides them with opportunities to gain social skills and can equalize inevitable differences in power and status. Guillaume, Yopp, and Yopp (2007) suggest a variety of random grouping strategies, including:

• Numbering off (1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, . . .) • Having students find a partner with the same number of siblings (or birth month, etc.) • Distributing picture postcards, cut in half, one half per student, and then having students

find the other half of theirs • Distributing playing cards and then having students meet with peers who have the same

number and color (for partners), or same number (for groups of four), or same suit (for larger groups)

• Having students sign up for partners and then meeting with those partners during different times of the lesson

Grouping students effectively means matching your students with your goals through a variety of structures.

Address Students’ Special educational needs Varied student groupings and approaches such as Universal Design and differentiated instruction will help you meet student needs across the whole spectrum. Some of your students will, ad- ditionally, have needs that are addressed by more formalized guidelines, such as those related to special education services. Let’s examine some student statistics and laws before looking at two major approaches for addressing special needs.

Some Statistics and Laws Related to Students with Identified needs In 2012, approximately 6.4 million students in U.S. schools received special education services (13% of all students; National Center for Education Statistics, 2014a). “Students with disabili- ties” are one of the student subgroups that must make adequate yearly progress under NCLB. State data, such as those for California—one of our nation’s five mega-states—in Figure 4.3, reveal that we have considerable work to do to ameliorate the achievement gap between students with disabilities and those without.

In defining “disability,” the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (referred to as IDEA) specifies thirteen conditions or categories of need; the two most prevalent categories account for the majority of students receiving services. A third of all students receiving special education services (36%) have specific learning disabilities. Students with specific learning dis- abilities have adequate cognitive functioning, learn some skills well, and struggle in one or more others. The majority of students with learning disabilities face severe literacy problems. “Speech and language impairments” is the second most prevalent IDEA category, comprised of 21 per- cent of those students with special needs. Each other category (such as health impairments or autism) constitute 12 percent or fewer of students receiving special services.

A number of federal laws govern the services students with disabilities receive. IDEA is perhaps the most important. Established in 1975 as Public Law 94–142, this legislation sought to ensure that all children receive appropriate educational services—regardless of their disabilities.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.5

Watch and Think 4.2 This four-minute video clip follows Avery through her school day in an inclusive preschool. As you watch, ask yourself: What are the long-term goals for Avery? How does the general education setting help achieve those goals? Who are Avery’s team mem- bers? Also see if you can discern the team’s positive, strength-based approach.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=x8TnKi_YblQ

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 67

Part B of the law applies to individuals from 3 to 21 years of age. Read the law, reauthorized in 2004, and see related resources at the IDEA Web site (search IDEA). Under IDEA, students with identified special needs have the right to a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. As a result, students with disabilities have the right to an education that is tailored to their specific needs, and students are to be educated, to the maximum extent possible, with their peers without disabilities. Indeed, in 2012, almost all (95%) of students with disabilities were served in typical schools, and of those, the majority (more than 60%) spent most of their day (80%) in a general education setting (National Center for Education Statis- tics, 2014b). Only when the general education classroom does not provide an appropriate setting are other more restrictive settings, such as a special day class or special school, considered.

Today we emphasize inclusion, or the education of students with disabilities in the general education classroom. Our commitment to inclusiveness should be reflected in the care we use in selecting language we use. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip gives advice for putting the person first.

IDEA also mandates the development and implementation of individualized education pro- grams (IEPs) for all students with special needs. IEPs are plans. These plans must specify annual goals, and staff and family members must meet regularly to discuss the student’s progress. In ad- dition to IDEA, two other federal laws notably address the education of students with disabilities:

• Section 504 of the Veterans’ Rehabilitation Act of 1973: This law prohibits exclusion from federally funded programs and activities if the exclusion is based solely on an individual’s disability. Section 504 covers any condition that interferes with learning. Conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, asthma, depression, or diabetes might generate 504 plans, which mandate instructional modifications.

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA; 1990, amended 2009): In seeking to ensure that peo- ple with disabilities can fully participate in state and local programs and services, Title II of the ADA prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities by government agencies including schools—whether or not the agency receives public funds. ADA requires acces- sible design of facilities and reasonable accommodations to address individuals’ disabilities.

• Hughes Bill: This bill addresses students with behavioral problems. Before students can be referred for special education services for behavior disorders, they must receive an assessment in their natural environment and, based on the results of the assessment, a behavioral intervention plan (BIP) that details positive behavioral supports must be developed and implemented.

Figure 4.3 Achievement gap for California English language arts student achievement based on students’ disability status.

Source: 2013 California Standards Test Scores. Scores given at http://star.cde.ca.gov/star2013/index.aspx.

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68 Chapter 4

Serving Students with Special needs As achievement gap data (Figure 4.3) suggest, vigilant attention to your students with special needs is essential. You will act as a part of a team of family members, advocates they may enlist, and professionals who work together to meet students’ educational needs. A resource special- ist, educational psychologist, speech therapist, occupational therapist, and administrator may be among those on the team. You will need to check students’ records carefully to ensure that you are implementing their mandated plans, and you will need to monitor your instruction and stu- dents’ responses to ensure that you are helping them move forward.

At times you will work with students who struggle but have not been identified as having special needs. They might have persistent trouble learning, communicating, or interacting with you or the other students. If you suspect that a student has special needs that have not yet been identified, make careful observations, document those observations, collect student work sam- ples, speak with specialists at your site, keep close contact with the family, and find out about referral processes such as student intervention teams or student study teams at your school. Throughout this process, continue to adjust your instruction to the student’s benefit. Accommo- dations and modifications allow you to proactively address individual student needs.

Accommodate and Modify “A truly inclusive school reflects a democratic philosophy whereby all students are valued, edu- cators normalize differences . . . and the school culture reflects an ethic of caring and commu- nity” (Baglieri & Knopf, 2004, p. 525; emphasis added). Indeed, a core principle of inclusive classrooms is that all members see differences as normal. Inclusive teachers help students realize that nobody is perfect (in the traditional sense), and our imperfections contribute to who we are, adding richness to the ways we perceive and interact with our world.

Along this line, none of us has a disability, and all of us do. The construct of disability is not one that lies within the individual. An impairment (such as a hearing loss or lack of mobility) is not necessarily a disability. The disability is defined by context, by the interactions between the individual and the environment (Broderick, Mehta-Parekh, & Reid, 2005). For instance, the fact that Zach uses some pretty impressive unconventional spelling mattered very much in second grade as he was learning to read and write; it matters far less now as he completes college with its emphasis on strong thinking and argumentation (and as he employs supports like speech-to- text and spell check). The context and tools determined whether Zach’s spelling eccentricities interfered with his success. Accommodations and modifications help us incorporate students’ inevitable differences through environments and instruction that allow students to work to potential. Accommodations and modifications have been shown to increase student academic engagement and decrease teacher’s time spent on classroom management (Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010).

Accommodations make room for the abilities and needs of your students without substan- tially altering what they are expected to learn. Accommodations change the way students are pre- sented with information or display their learning. Depending on student needs, you might make accommodations to the physical environment, ways you present information, materials students use, or conditions under which students display their knowledge. Examples include modified

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

put the person First

When speaking and thinking about students, put the person first. For example, say, “I am thinking of my student with ADHD,” not “She’s my ADHD student.” Putting the exceptionality second staves off the tendency to define a person entirely in terms of a single exceptionality, and it emphasizes the “having” of a condi- tion rather than the “being” of one. Heads up: Some people reject person-first terminology because they perceive their condition

(such as autism or blindness) as a valued, central part of their identity. Others may choose an identifier such as “disabled person” to focus attention on the difference between an impairment and a disability. Lisa Egan (2012) blogs, “‘Disabled’ is the best word in the world for describing the barriers I confront and no nondisabled person has the right to try and take that from me.” All people have the right to choose their own designations. If you’re not sure which language to use, take the lead from your students and families.

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 69

furniture, a preview of the lesson (in English or in the student’s native language), textbooks with large print, a weekly homework log signed by a family member, and an oral (rather than written) test. Accommodations change conditions without much altering expected outcomes.

On the other hand, modifications substantially alter what students are expected to learn. Modifications may require that students use materials at a different instructional level or that they be evaluated according to different performance criteria. For individual students, cutting a spelling list in half, allowing the use of a calculator on an assessment, and providing a word bank for use during a test are examples of modifications. Modifications are typically made for students with significant disabilities, such as severe developmental delay or traumatic brain in- jury. We know that students come to us with a variety of needs. It is your responsibility to search out the technological aids that can help each of your students to achieve to full potential.

Use Assistive Technology to Accommodate and Modify Assistive technology (sometimes called assistive and adaptive technology) addresses students’ physical and cognitive needs. Broadly, assistive technology includes any invention that enhances the performance of people with disabilities. A wheelchair is an example. In terms of comput- ers, assistive technology includes both hardware and software that support student performance. Assistive technology encompasses input devices—devices that allow users to feed information more easily into the computer—and output devices—devices that communicate the users’ mean- ing in alternate forms. A few examples of assistive input devices include alternative keyboards (including those with larger or smaller keys, reconfigured keys, or keyboards made for one hand), switches, and electronic pointing devices (which allow the user to move the mouse on screen by use of a means other than the hands, such as eye movements). Output devices include mechanisms such as Braille embossers (which allow users with visual impairments to print from the computer) and screen magnifiers (to enlarge the screen display).

In line with UDL, it’s important to note that assistive technologies can be tools that are widely available and that make tasks easier for a broad range of users. Consider how spell check- ers, calculators, and text magnification functions can help each of us at times. Although I have full use of my hands, Siri (the application that uses a natural language interface to command my mobile device) makes my life much easier. And mobile devices such as iPads and other tab- lets are increasingly used to assist students with disabilities in the general education classroom (Draper Rodríguez, Strnadová, & Cumming, 2014). See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip for easy ways to increase accessibility with your own machine.

Because you are responsible for student learning, you need to assess student needs care- fully, then search out and implement technologies that meet those needs.

Required accommodations and modifications are listed on students’ IEPs and other educa- tional plans. By now, though, you will have no doubt concluded that teachers have a professional responsibility to account for all learners’ instructional needs, regardless of legally mandated plans. Driven by the goal of powerful learning for all, you will no doubt look for opportunities to make room for student needs whether or not students have formal plans on file.

Increasing Accessibility Using Your Own Machine

• Common applications like word processing programs and spreadsheets contain many functions designed to enhance productivity in the face of special needs. Accessibility features make the software more useful to people with needs such as lower vision or limited dexterity. Macros (shortcuts for sequences of keystrokes or mouse clicks), keyboard shortcuts, and customized toolbars are examples. In your word processing program or other application, search “help” for “accessibility”.

• Use “styles” in creating documents to increase accessibility. Documents created using styles are more effectively processed by screen readers because, for instance, styles indicate to the screen reader how the document is organized.

• Check accessibility of content you post to the Web. Examples include posting content in multiple formats, effectively naming your hyperlinks, using descriptive captions for your images, and closed captioning videos. Learn more by searching “web acces- sibility guidelines.”

• Newish software such as the Office 2010 suite has “accessibility checkers” built in. Run the checker after creating your document to determine whether it’s accessible for users with a variety of needs.

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70 Chapter 4

Use Response to Intervention With the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA came a change in how learning disabilities can be identi- fied and addressed. Previously, students were identified after assessment results showed a dis- crepancy between their intelligence and their academic performance. As a result, most learning disabilities were identified in grade 3 or later, after students had already experienced academic failure. IDEA allows for this discrepancy model’s continued use, and the majority of states still allow for it (Zirkel & Thomas, 2010); eight states prohibit the use of discrepancy for identifica- tion of specific learning disabilities (Hauerwas, Brown, & Scott, 2013).

But now schools are also allowed to use a different model for assessing and instructing students with learning disabilities: response to intervention (RTI). To be identified as having a learning disability, students must show nonresponsiveness to systematic instruction. This change shifts the focus from determining eligibility to providing intense instruction for struggling stu- dents and making early identification as necessary so that all students can be well served before they start to fail and so that students are not misidentified as qualifying for special education merely as a result of poor instruction (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005). Basic tenets of RTI are these (Hughes & Dexter, 2011):

1. Scientifically Based Core Curriculum: All students receive instruction that is supported by research, such as by the National Reading Panel report (National Reading Panel, 2000).

2. Universal Screening: Rigorous assessments are used to determine all students’ initial needs. 3. Tiered Interventions: Students receive increasingly intense, well-researched instructional

interventions when they do not respond to interventions at lower tiers. Processes for mak- ing decisions about when to change tiers based on student response should be in place.

4. Progress Monitoring: Student progress is frequently and systematically monitored through careful assessments. Assessment data are used to maintain, decrease, or increase the in- structional interventions.

In RTI, all students are screened and receive rigorous instruction in the general education setting (that’s Tier One). If assessments show that they do not respond to (succeed with) that instruction, students move to Tier Two, which serves a smaller number of students and provides more intense intervention. Some schools use a three-tiered model; others use four or five tiers. A very small number of students is served by the most intense tiers. Response to intervention is

A Braille keyboard

Source: Dennis Kornilov/Fotolia

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commonly used in reading instruction—where most students with learning disabilities struggle— and it is also used to address student behavior. Figure 4.4 gives a common depiction of RTI.

Research examining the effects of RTI is overall positive across a number of student out- comes. Studies that show success primarily focus on reading and are at the elementary level (Hughes & Dexter, 2011; King, Lemons, & Hill, 2012). Research on RTI at the secondary level is more limited and its findings more modest. It appears to be proving more difficult to effect sizable and lasting growth for secondary students through RTI (e.g., Wexler, Leroux, Roberts, Fletcher, Vaughn, et al., 2012). Many researchers surmise that the conditions of secondary education and its students are markedly different than those in elementary education and, as a result, are working to develop models of RTI unique to the secondary setting and clientele (e.g., Graves, Brandon, Duesbery, McIntosh, & Pyle, 2011; King, Lemons, & Hill, 2012; Vaughn & Fletcher, 2012). In sum, RTI as an approach to preventing academic failure and supporting student success is evolving and is part of a multipronged approach to meet special educational needs. Students who are acquiring English need a different set of approaches.

Shelter english Instruction for english Language Learners Linguistic diversity has always been a part of our U.S. heritage. Did you know that more than three hundred languages are spoken in the United States, including dozens of indigenous lan- guages? Census data (Ryan, 2013) indicate that, in terms of numbers of speakers, Spanish takes second place to English, and Chinese a distant third. In 2011, approximately 22 percent of U.S.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.6

Figure 4.4 Response to intervention.

Tier two some students

more intense intervention smaller group size

(approximately 15% of students)

Tier one all students

frequent assessment, progress monitoring proactive (effective with approximately

80% of students)

Behavioral interventionsAcademic interventions

Intensity Group sizeTier three individual

students services through formal

plans (approximately 5% of students)

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72 Chapter 4

children spoke a language other than English at home. Although all states have English learners, the prevalence of speakers of languages other than English tend to be highest in the West and lowest in parts of the Midwest and South (Modern Language Association, 2014).

Language Acquisition Your English learners—also called English language learners or limited English proficient students—have a difficult job: They must simultaneously master challenging academic content standards as they acquire a new language (English). Additionally, it is important that students work to maintain their primary language. Bilingualism and multilingualism have advantages, including cognitive benefits (e.g., Alladi, et al., 2013; Bialystok & Craik, 2010), and language skills are recognized as important resources for our global society (Bilingual Education Act of 1994). We also know that fluency in the home language boosts fluency and academic achieve- ment in English (Goldenberg, 2014; Karathanos, 2009; Krashen, 1997; Thomas & Collier, 2001). It seems paradoxical, then, that for many bilingualism continues to carry stigma in the United States (Hakuta, 2011).

Although conversational aspects of a language often develop in just a couple years, it takes at least five years—often longer—for a student to develop a second language (Wong Fillmore & Snow, 2000). Students’ acquisition of English will depend on factors such as their level of literacy in their home language and their previous school experiences, but all students pass through a number of predictable stages in acquiring a language (summarized by Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009):

• Stage 1—Pre-Production: Students actively take in the sounds and structure of the target language.

• Stage 2—Early Production: Student utterances are short. • Stage 3—Speech Emergence: Confidence and language skills increase. Vocabulary is still

limited. • Stage 4—Intermediate Fluency: Students can read with fluency; decontextualized, academic

language presents challenges. • Stage 5—Advanced Fluency: Students’ language complexity and vocabulary approximate

that of native speakers.

You will know students’ language levels through a variety of mechanisms including class- room observations and analysis of their writing samples. Also, under NCLB, English learners’ language proficiency is assessed annually, and you will receive score reports that give your stu- dents’ progress in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. All of these assessment results will help you provide instruction that fosters your students’ language acquisition and content learning.

Teaching english Learners The civil rights case Lau v. Nichols (1974) expanded the rights of English learners in the United States by finding that linguistically appropriate modifications must be made so that English learners are not denied equal education opportunities. The case demonstrates that the practice of treating students with different needs the same can be so unfair that it must be outlawed. Eng- lish learners are now educated in a variety of settings, such as bilingual education programs, pullout programs, and mainstream English settings. State law and local policies dictate these decisions. Some states, such as Arizona, California, and Massachusetts, require instruction to be primarily in English through structured immersion. Check the directives for your state and district on your state department of education’s Web site.

Achievement and opportunity gap data (e.g., Abedi & Herman, 2010) indicate just how much work we and our English learners have ahead of us. In the classroom, educational efforts typically focus on two goals: English language acquisition and content mastery. The regular classroom teacher often is primarily responsible for both. Other specialists may assist, particu- larly in the case of English language development. Fortunately, when you work to become an effective teacher, the strategies you learn in general are also supported by research for your Eng- lish learners (Goldenberg, 2014). Goldenberg provides examples of evidence-based practices for all students that include challenging and appropriate content, effective modeling, active stu- dent engagement, and informative feedback. However, your English learners require additional supports in order to meet the dual challenges of content mastery and language acquisition. An

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 73

approach called sheltered English instruction helps English learners build content knowledge despite limited English proficiency.

Sheltered english Instruction To make content accessible for English learners, we modify lessons by lightening the cognitive, cultural, linguistic, and learning loads that can present barriers (Meyer, 2000). Sheltered instruction attempts to provide “a refuge from the linguistic demands of mainstream instruction” (Echevarria & Graves, 1998, p. 54) and is called by various names in different regions, includ- ing content ESL (English as a second language), ESL content, and specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE). It addresses grade-level curriculum standards but makes content accessible by embedding instruction into meaningful contexts and a supportive learning environ- ment. Each of the strategies you employ will be based on your knowledge of student needs given their language development levels. Experts generally agree on methods of sheltered instruction (Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, 2002; Cummins, 1981; Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2004; Fillmore, 1982; Gersten, Baker, Shanahan, Linan-Thompson, Collins, & Scarcella, 2007; Goldenberg, 2014; Hill & Flynn, 2006; Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009; Janzen, 2008; Krashen, 1981; Meyer, 2000; Swain, 1985; Thomas & Collier, 2001). They are:

1. Supportive Environment. In a supportive environment, students’ cultures, home languages, and background experiences are seen as assets from which students can draw rather than as deficits that detract from their English acquisition. The teacher respects preferences for communication styles that may differ from the teacher’s own. Examples include discourse patterns and rules on interrupting, eye contact, and turn taking. The environment provides a context where people feel comfortable experimenting with language and asking ques- tions about it. The teacher minimizes direct correction and shapes accurate English through modeling and provides frequent positive reinforcement for students’ legitimate successes.

2. Focused Content. Teachers focus instruction on the acquisition of three kinds of English: social English (such as that required by informal conversation), academic English (which is more sophisticated and complex and requires more time to develop), and subject-specific language that is used exclusively within particular content areas (including specialized terms such as “sextant” and “velocity”). Each lesson’s content objectives focus on just a few carefully selected main ideas. Content objectives must be rigorous and reflect grade- level expectations. A small handful of key content-related vocabulary terms are explicitly developed during each lesson.

3. Embedded Content. Teachers should embed instruction within meaningful contexts where language is used for a purpose and connected to wider experiences. The acts of explaining something to a younger child or of writing a letter to a peer are examples of potentially meaningful contexts. Teachers set a context for new information by explicitly tying it to past learning and to students’ previous experiences and background knowledge, gained at home and in the community.

4. Comprehensible Input. Language can be made more understandable by modifying it (text and speech), guiding understanding, and scaffolding. Teachers may provide recorded ver- sions of class material (such as tape recordings, audio files, and podcasts) so that students can preview material and revisit it multiple times. Teachers may also provide outlines of the text, rewrite important passages in simpler language, highlight it, provide graphic orga- nizers, or use alternate readings (such as text materials provided in students’ primary lan- guage). To make their speech more accessible, teachers may focus on caretaker speech, which mimics the language caretakers provide for charges by focusing on communication rather than on form. Examples of speech modifications include speech appropriate for stu- dents’ proficiency level and slower but still natural speech.

5. Increased Interaction. English learners need plentiful opportunities to interact with peers and with their teacher to make purposeful use of the language. A variety of grouping structures, such as pairs and small groups chosen in different ways such as matching or contrasting language levels, interest, and random groupings are used. For example, partners might together select, study, read, and question each other on a content text (Ogle & Correa-Kovtun, 2010). The teacher is included as a participant in interactions and monitors and guides students’ collaborations and use of language. The vocab cards

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74 Chapter 4

presented in the Teaching Tip can be used to encourage student conversations that include content vocabulary. The room is arranged to facilitate conversation, and the students talk as much—or more—than the teacher does to rehearse the content and practice English.

6. Emphasis on Higher-Level Thinking. Sheltered instruction focuses on nudging English learners to use higher-level thinking through activities such as adhering to challenging con- tent standards; using questions that ask students to interpret and analyze ideas; providing activities that encourage students to see the whole picture related to the content in addition to its smaller parts; and requiring students to use the text and other evidence to support their opinions. Expectations must remain high (Hakuta, 2011; Parish et al., 2006).

Goldenberg (2014) cautions us that the research on the effectiveness of sheltered instruction is thin. Sheltered instruction is most effective with students who are beyond the earliest stages of English acquisition, although it is still better than unsupported immersion into a mainstream English language class for fostering student success. Even the best sheltered instruction reduces

Vocab Cards

Before your lesson write three to five key terms on large cards. Give students their own smaller cop- ies. Use these cards in a variety of ways for introducing, developing, and practicing new words. Try one or more of these ideas:

• Begin a lesson by asking students to nominate their favorite words, or the most and least familiar words.

• Have them predict the word(s) that will be most important during the lesson. • At their seats, ask partners to pick a card they know something about and tell their neighbor what

they know. • During the lesson, have students practice saying the words aloud and developing meanings in

multiple ways, such as drawing pictures on the backs of cards. • To close the lesson, revisit students’ predictions, say the words again, and use each in a sentence. • Practice these words on a different day, using the cards in engaging ways. For instance, ask stu-

dents to pick two cards whose words are related, or unrelated. Ask them to give examples or use them in sentences (after Spencer & Guillaume, 2009).

TeAChInG TIP

Web-Fueled Language Learning

At school or at home, the Internet provides great opportunities for hearing native speakers, revisiting content, learning new vocabulary, and using English. Try some of these tools:

• Video quizzes: You and your students can create multiple-choice questions to accompany your choice of YouTube videos at ESLVideo.

• Language podcasts: You and your students can record and post podcasts or audio files. Audacity, Chirbit, and myBrainshark all are free and easy audio recorders. Search for “language podcasts” for many free podcasts designed for English learners.

• Vocabulary flashcards: You and your students can develop e-flashcards for tar- geted vocabulary. Quizlet lets you save and share your cards on the Web, and it has some effective teaching tools (like games) to make practice more engaging.

• Language games: Sites like Digital Dialects have free games for learning and practicing a number of target languages.

• Conversing using Voice over Internet Protocol: Tools like Skype or Google Talk allow students to practice English in relaxed settings.

• And one more for fun: Voki. Students create avatars, record their voices convey- ing a brief message in the target language, and share. You can require certain vocabulary and sentence complexity. Students typically rehearse their recordings several times, giving purposeful opportuni- ties for language practice, and the audience is real, heightening motivation. Here’s a screenshot of a Voki: My dog Lila using descriptive language to convey the mountain scene behind her.

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 75

the achievement gap between English-only students and English learners only by half (Thomas & Collier, 2001). Although it is a relatively easy thing to suggest effective practices, it is quite another to put them into practice each day in ways that respond to specific students and their varied profiles. There are no “three easy steps,” no magic answers to provide instruction that re- sponds to culturally and linguistically diverse students (Bartolome, 1994). Doing so is a difficult undertaking that requires ongoing assessment, strategic teaching, sustained effort, and a constant commitment to learning. It is often an uncertain enterprise in which participants give focused attention to respecting each other’s cultures and perspectives, negotiate meaning, and find their way together. The Teaching for Tomorrow Tip gives examples of a variety of ways that the Web can help you and your students meet varied English development goals.

Challenge Gifted and Advanced Learners A student might qualify for special education services in reading but have great mathematical tal- ent. Gardner (2006) reminds us that there are many ways to be smart. Indeed, each of our students has gifts. However, a small segment of the population is designated as “gifted” and receives ser- vices based on that classification. In 2006, more than 3 million students in U.S. elementary and secondary schools were classified as gifted (6.7%; National Center for Education Statistics, 2009).

Giftedness and Programs for Serving Gifted Learners Definitions of giftedness vary, and states have different criteria and policies for determining eligibility. In general, gifted or talented students show performance high above that of their age mates in intellectual, creative, artistic, or other endeavors. Gifted students are diverse, but many are problem solvers who benefit from addressing open-ended and complex problems, often re- lated to their own interests. Many are considered to be emotionally and academically intense (Manning, 2006). Teachers who think life would be easy if their room were full of gifted stu- dents are often mistaken. In addition to their incredible gifts, advanced learners may also face a number of issues that affect classroom performance. According to Manning, classroom issues that may stem from giftedness include problematic work habits and a heightened sensitivity to others. Additionally, some students are twice exceptional, demonstrating giftedness and another need such as a specific learning disability. Once again we are reminded that no one classification explains a person fully and that all students have needs that can stretch their teachers’ skills.

Gifted students are served in a variety of settings. Some districts have magnet schools for gifted students. Many schools have self-contained gifted classes. Others have Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) clusters within larger classes. Gifted students also frequently attend general education classes and visit resource programs or receive all of their education within their regular classroom.

Regardless of the service model, programs for gifted students should be of high quality and challenge all participants. The National Association for Gifted Children has developed standards that specify quality services (National Association for Gifted Children, 2010). The six standards address components such as learning and development, assessment, learning environments, and curriculum planning and instruction. When you access these standards at the NAGC site, you’ll see some clear connections between recommendations found throughout this chapter and text. Examples include culturally responsive pedagogy, differentiated instruction, varied grouping patterns, and collaboration with families—in ways particularly appropriate for gifted learners. The standards also specify identification procedures.

Meeting the needs of Advanced and Gifted Learners Responsive instruction entails not only providing instruction that makes content accessible but also pushing students to their limits to grasp content that is as deep and as rich as their current capacities will allow. Advanced learners often require substantial modifications to the general curriculum to ensure that they, too, find new meaning each day at school. Advanced learners include those classified as gifted and those who are intensely interested in or performing at high levels for particular content areas.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.7

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Many teachers find that meeting the needs of advanced learners can be a challenge because gifted learners often enter a grade or class knowing significant amounts of the content, move be- yond grade-level content standards, and sometimes bring strong independent approaches to their learning goals and choices. Yet our responsibility to ensure that students working at advanced levels make substantial academic progress is the same as our responsibility to the rest of our students. Gifted students’ needs to learn and develop will not be met by correcting spelling tests for us, tutoring peers for most of the day, or completing additional worksheets on the same topic.

Approaches such as Universal Design, RTI (Rollins, Mursky, Shah-Coltrane, & Johnsen, 2009), and differentiated instruction (Manning, Stanford, & Reeves, 2010) provide useful frame- works for addressing the needs of advanced learners. Inquiry-based learning experiences (see Chapter 7) have been shown effective with gifted learners (VanTassel-Baska & Brown, 2007). Additional strategies you may try include acceleration, curriculum compacting, and modifica- tion of the depth and complexity of instruction.

Acceleration In acceleration, students study the curriculum earlier or at a faster pace. Students are often moved to other settings to receive instruction at their level. Junior high school students may, for example, take mathematics at the high school or a nearby college. Or they may work with materials from higher grade levels within their regular classroom.

Curriculum Compacting In curriculum compacting, all students are given a preassessment such as a written test to determine which content in an upcoming unit they have already mastered. Stu- dents receive instruction with the rest of the class for nonmastered objectives and spend the rest of their instructional time pursuing projects and independent work that is more appropriate for their needs (Reis & Renzulli, 1995). Strategies that replace classroom instruction during curricu- lum compacting may include acceleration, community service projects, independent research, and enrichment activities. Systematic assessment of students’ entry knowledge is essential for compacting to be effective.

Depth and Complexity Advanced learners can also address the same topics as their peers, but in greater depth or complexity (California Department of Education & California Association for the Gifted, 1994). Many school districts are pursuing depth and complexity to meet gifted needs in GATE programs, and indeed in classrooms for the general population of students as well. To alter the depth of the content, students might:

• Pursue the tools and language used by specialists in the content. • Go into greater detail. • Look for patterns related to the content, such as trends over time. • Study the underlying structure of the content. • Examine ethical considerations related to the content. • Pursue unanswered questions.

To study the content in greater complexity, students might examine relationships within the content, or relationships between the content and a different entity. They might also examine different points of view related to the content. Alterations of depth and complexity can be ac- complished by mechanisms such as choice boards, learning or interest centers, differentiated assignments, student contracts, and small-group projects. Many teachers are sharing depth and complexity resources through social media like Pinterest; take a look.

foster Gender equity Gender continues to be a variable of interest the world round. U.S. figures (Office of Civil Rights, 2012) show, for example, noted educational disparities related to gender:

• Males comprise the majority of students receiving special education services and are retained at higher rates than girls, who—since 1976—outnumber boys in gifted programs.

• Males are referred for discipline issues more frequently than females (Kaufman et al., 2010) and experience more conflict with and distance from their teachers (Koepke & Harkins, 2008).

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.8

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 77

• Although females are enrolled in more advanced placement classes (including science but exclud- ing math), males take and pass advanced placement tests at slightly higher rates than females.

• Males constitute a minority of college students (43%). • Females pursue high-status science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)

schooling and careers at lower rates (24% of total STEM majors are females), and progres- sively fewer pursue advanced STEM degrees.

Such differential outcomes seem to be a result of combined effects of factors such as biol- ogy, personality, and socialization. We can draw this conclusion because gender differences tend to vary based on time, place, and measure. For example, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) finds a slight difference favoring males for mathematics achievement in the United States, and indeed many countries . . . but not all. Many countries experience no differ- ence in mathematics by gender, and some (like Thailand, Iceland, and Jordan) have mathemat- ics achievement differences favoring females (Programme for International Student Assessment, 2012a). The multicausal nature of gender differences means that the picture of school-related gender differences is highly nuanced. Recent researchers have found, for instance, that factors such as personality, ethnicity, and race all qualify gender-based outcome measures (e.g., Steele- Johnson & Leas, 2013). So, for example, a pattern that holds for white females may not hold for African-American females or Latinas. The same is true when we zoom in our view of achieve- ment data and examine gender differences within groups of students at different places on the achievement spectrum (Theule Lubienski & Robinson, 2011). As a result, there is far greater disparity of scores within either gender than across gender groups.

Schools contribute to gender differences. One study finds that high schools tend to sort stu- dents by gender in ways that might contribute to differential college enrollment (Long & Conger, 2013). Teachers are seen as potent socialization factors that can result in gender differences (Theule Lubienski & Robinson, 2011). For example, teachers in Theule Lubienski and Robinson’s study rated girls more highly than boys even though direct cognitive measures gave the advantage to boys. Some research indicates that teachers have gender-related beliefs about classroom discipline (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004), and based on gender, we tend to praise students to hold different stan- dards for behavior and participation. Thus, in subtle ways, despite efforts to be fair, schools treat male and female children differently in ways that might limit members of both groups.

Initial concerns about gender equity grew out of alarm over ways that schools were short- changing girls (Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, 1992). Indeed, our nation is currently employing many strategic efforts to draw females into STEM fields and to ensure their success, both in advanced studies and in the workplace (see, for instance, the White House’s Of- fice of Science and Technology Policy and its focus on women in STEM).

To these gender concerns we add apprehension regarding differences that seem to place males at a disadvantage. Some experts argue that schools have become unfriendly places for boys (Mulvey, 2010; Sommers, 2013). They cite explanations such as a more adult-driven soci- ety with fewer unstructured play opportunities for children, the accelerating curriculum (difficult for some boys, who tend to mature later), declining opportunities for physical activity in school, and schools’ push for skills that may not come as easily to some boys (such as organization, neatness, and collaboration). A look at boys’ literacy scores around the world—where 15-year- old males are significantly outscored by their female counterparts in literacy in every one of the participating thirty-eight countries (Programme for International Student Assessment, 2012b)— seems compelling, as might our lower U.S. college enrollment rates for males. Other researchers (e.g., Husain & Millimet, 2009) call the “boy crisis” a myth and point to strong achievement and earning data for males overall. Further, such researchers urge us to focus on subgroups of males who are faring less well: males who are other than white and from families that are not finan- cially secure (Mead, 2006).

Schools are responding to gender differences with a variety of approaches. There is much interest in single-sex schools, for example, and the research gives “mild to moderate” support for such schools on a variety of student outcomes (Mael, Alonso, Gibson, Rogers, & Smith, 2005). Horgan’s (1995) strategies remain fresh for today’s classrooms, adapted in the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip. To these, we may add the following promising Practices:

• Encourage mentoring experiences. • Provide opportunities for physical movement and action. • Provide opportunities for both collaboration and competition.

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• Expand the reading options available. Nonfiction materials, books with adventure or danger, materials with interesting text features (such as graphics), series of beloved characters, and books by favored authors are good bets for boys (Farris, Werderich, Nelson, & Fuhler, 2009).

As with all student needs and characteristics, it is important not to rely on stereotypical im- ages based on gender—what boys or girls are like. When it comes to gender, the areas of overlap in performance and preference are far greater than the regions of difference (Theule Lubienski & Robinson, 2011). As is the case with other student characteristics and needs, gender provides you the opportunity to employ your inclusive and responsive teaching approaches.

Creating inclusive classrooms also entails ensuring that all students feel safe to learn.

Create Safe Spaces Issues facing gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (GLBTQ) students and their families are increasingly the focus of national conversations. In the last century, we have moved from the perceived dangers of homosexual teachers to the risks schools present for GLBTQ students and students with GLBTQ families (Griffin & Ouelett, 2003). GLBTQ students and students who express gender in ways considered nontraditional face a school en- vironment than is more hostile than for the general school population. The National School Climate Study (Kosciw, Greytak, Bartkiewicz, Boesen, & Palmer, 2012) reveals the following conditions:

• Most GLBTQ students (85%) reported frequently hearing hostile comments, such as “gay” used in a negative way, and most (72%) also reported hearing homophobic language like “dyke” or “fag” frequently. More than half (57%) of the students said they’d heard such comments from their teachers or staff.

• Most (63%) of respondents felt unsafe at school based on their sexual orientation or gen- der expression, and many were verbally (82%), physically (38%), or electronically (55%) harassed. In many cases, students did not report the harassment, believing that little would

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.9

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

strategies for achieving gender equity

1. Study your classroom to assess your own gender biases. Check the physical environment, activities, student feed- back, and classroom management to ensure that student opportunities are not limited by gender.

2. Encourage students to take risks and set goals. This helps students to take ownership over goals and see them as achievable. Focus on progress goals (not solely performance goals) to encourage intrinsic motivation. Include intermedi- ate and long-term goals.

3. Help students value their successes and learn from mistakes. Classroom activities should encourage legitimate success, but not 100 percent of the time. Students need to be challenged.

4. Keep expectations for learning high and send positive mes- sages. Refrain from sending the message that you do not expect success from some students or that certain kinds of failure are acceptable based on gender. Avoid excessive praise for substandard performance.

5. Provide good feedback. Good feedback (a) focuses students on the relevant aspects of the problem, (b) gives information

about outcomes and processes, (c) challenges incorrect conclusions, and (d) corrects students’ flawed self- assessments.

6. Encourage appropriate attributions. Help students explain success and failure by linking performance with effort, encouraging internal explanations for success, and empha- sizing specific and temporary explanations for failure. Help students focus on making choices and exercising control.

7. Challenge stereotypes. In neutral settings, ask students to think about common stereotypes. Address stereotypes found in the media. Model gender-fair language and behavior. Value both typically masculine and typically feminine per- spectives and activities, and value a fuller range of what constitutes “masculine” and “feminine.”

8. Use groups flexibly. Encourage children to work well within a variety of settings. Vary group compositions frequently, perhaps including single-gender groupings as one learning op- tion. Monitor students’ interactions and intervene for support.

9. Teach the null curriculum. Include readings and other activi- ties that address the varied contributions of men and women in nonstereotypical ways.

How will you incorpo- rate your inclusive and responsive approach into your teaching decisions to foster gender equity?

Watch and Think 4.3 This five-minute news clip covers California’s 2013 passage of AB 1266, which allows transgender students to select school facilities by their self- perceived gender rather than their birth gender. Although California’s law is the first across the nation, many U.S. school districts have similar policies. What policies or laws are in place in your context? As this clip shows, people tend to have strong reactions to issues related to gender identity and expression in schools. How will you prepare for such conversa- tions? What’s your role in advocating for all students?

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=WSPT2lUaMA0

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 79

be done, and in 37 percent of the cases where students did report harassment, respondents report that school staff did nothing.

Transgender students in this survey appeared to be the most vulnerable group. This survey, as have past studies, finds that GLBTQ students have higher absentee rates related to feeling un- safe at school. GLBTQ students also have higher rates of suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts (Robinson & Espelage, 2011). Robinson and Espelage note that middle school students tend to be at higher risk than do high schoolers for negative experiences such as unexcused absences. GLBTQ parents, too, reported negative experiences such as hearing negative remarks or feeling excluded from schooling activities more than did the general population (Kosciw & Diaz, 2008).

In such a climate, it’s not difficult to understand why some students would have concerns about physical and emotional safety that might take precedence over academic concerns. Many teachers are hesitant to raise or respond to students’ questions, comments, or issues related to sexual orientation or gender expression, but teachers and schools are essential for creating safe spaces—inclusive spaces—for all of our students. The presence of resources such as gay-straight alliance clubs, bullying prevention, inclusive curriculum, and supportive staff is associated with more positive experiences for GLBTQ students.

GLSEN (2009) gives suggestions for creating safe spaces for students who are GLBTQ or are members of GLBTQ families. Check your biases and educate yourself on issues related to sexual orientation and gender expression. What are the issues at your site? Serve as an ally for students. Ensure that they know that you are a safe person who advocates for all students; be a role model of acceptance. Use inclusive language (such as “partner”). Respond to anti-GLBTQ language. Let it be known that harassment is not tolerated, and hold students accountable for their behavior. Overall, we teachers need to question assumptions, educate ourselves, listen, be ready to advocate for our students, and seek out resources that can allow all students to feel safe and included at school.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 4.10

Parting words Each of these ten approaches for providing responsive instruction—and others—will require deep and sustained inquiry and practice. I introduce them here for two reasons. First, I hope to help you build an initial awareness and an emerging repertoire of strategies to use now, in your early days as a professional. More important, I hope to help you build an inclusive mindset. Your students’ learning needs

related to sexual orientation, gender, giftedness, exceptional- ity, language, or culture are not layered upon those of their “regular” needs. You build instruction from the ground up that addresses the variety of needs possessed by each of your students and encourages each of them to strive forward in their growth as individuals.

Opportunities to Practice 1. Inclusive and responsive teachers pursue understanding and

continued growth. Choose one approach for inclusive and responsive teaching addressed in this chapter where you judge your knowledge to be limited, and learn more. Web sites from this chapter and from Chapter 3 provide some suggested resources.

2. Use Figure 4.5 to complete a scavenger hunt for resources at your site. Tell people it is for an assignment, but take careful notes for later.

3. Play with one of the tech tools recommended throughout the chapter, perhaps in the Teaching for Tomorrow Tips.

4. Make a set of vocab cards (see the Teaching Tip) for an upcoming lesson or for ten terms that are found in the content standards for your discipline.

5. Interview an experienced teacher at your site regarding response to intervention. Is it being implemented at your site? What model is in place? Is there current evidence of effectiveness? How can you learn more? How can you contribute?

6. I presented my view, based on research and experience, of inclusive and responsive teaching. What’s yours? Bring up your stance toward education, developed in Chapter 2, and highlight key ideas related to inclusive and responsive instruction. See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip for a way to share your view of inclusive and responsive instruction: a found poem.

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Figure 4.5 Site scavenger hunt: Inclusive and responsive teaching resources.

At your site, find someone who…

1. Can point you to translation Name: services and procedures Service or procedure:

2. Teaches students with Name: identified needs who Location or contact information: are taught in the Teaching responsibility: general education setting for at least a portion of the day

3. Has expertise or Name: responsibility for teaching Location or contact information: students identified Expertise: as advanced or gifted

4. Differentiates Name: instruction regularly Location or contact information:

One sample strategy:

5. Has certification or Name: expertise in working Location or contact information: successfully with One piece of advice: English learners

6. Has a great Name: reputation for Location or contact information: including families One piece of advice:

At your site, find materials that . . .

7. Use assistive Equipment: technology or or Location: general technology

8. Provide challenges Materials: for eager learners or Location: to increase depth or complexity

9. Help you arrange the Materials: learning space for Location: students who need fewer distractions

At your site, find services that . . .

10. Help you meet the Services: needs of families Accessing the services: with limited income

11. Help students who Services: are working on clear Accessing the services: speech

12. [Pick a need based Services: on your students] Accessing the services:

Need:

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Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 81

extending the Learning: Search Terms Center on Response to Intervention. The Center provides assis- tance in implementing evidence-based models of RTI. You might enjoy the training modules in Resources.

The IRIS Center. The Center is “dedicated to improving educa- tion outcomes for all children, especially those with disabilities

birth through age twenty-one.” This site is rich with tutorials and resources for many kinds of special education needs.

Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network. The network is focused on ensuring safe schools for all students. Check the educator guides such as “ThinkB4YouSpeak.”

Inclusive and Responsive Found Poem

Remember the four c’s for 21st-century learning, presented in Chapter 1? One is creativity and innovation. Exercise your own creativity—and that of your students—with found poetry. A found poem is writing’s equivalent of a collage.

1. To create a found poem, take existing text, like your stance toward education, and select a small sample of key words and phrases. In this case, you select words that convey your convictions regarding inclusive and responsive instruction.

2. If you’re working in paper, cut out the words and refashion them to convey meaning in a new way. Think about how changing their placement on the page changes the message.

3. Consider placing the words on a background that somehow adds to the poem. 4. Do an image search for “found poem” or “found poetry” if you’d like to see examples before you begin. You’ll find many

variations.

Students tend to appreciate creating found poetry because it frees them from some of the strictures of other poetry forms. Try found poetry across the curriculum.

TeAChInG fOR TOMORROw TIP

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Before You Begin Reading As an adult who has experienced some success in navigating through life and its opportunities, you already know a bit about planning. Before you read Chapter 5, think about your own life and how you have planned for it thus far. Jot down some first-impression notes in response to these questions.

Planning for Instruction

5

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the time you complete this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe standards-based instruction and the Common Core.

2. List some approaches for gathering information about students to inform planning.

3. Distinguish between goals and objectives.

4. Present an argument for the resources you plan to use during instruction.

5. Write long-range plans to meet specified goals.

6. Write a lesson plan that addresses objectives in an organized structure.

WARM-Up ExERCISE fOR pLANNING

1. When do you plan? (Hints: Think small and large. Do you plan on a daily basis? Do you plan for the distant future?)

2. What format do you use to capture your plans? (Hints: Do you use to-do lists? Do you build flow charts? Do you use a voice memo?)

3. What do you notice about your efforts to plan? (Hints: How do plans help? How do you respond to changes?)

4. How do you know when you have accomplished your goals?

As you read Chapter 5, compare what you know about planning in the broader sense to classroom planning. Points of similarity may include, for instance, that teachers plan at different levels and use their plans to ensure that they meet goals and maintain focus on priorities.

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Planning for Instruction 83

Instruction that leads students to success is very careful instruction indeed. It includes, for example, vigorous opportunities to learn, a coherent and aligned curriculum, and practice or application with feedback (Good, 2014). Such instruction isn’t haphazard; it happens with thor- ough and thoughtful planning. This chapter will help you devise plans to increase the likelihood that you and your students end up where you want to be.

Standards-Based Planning Central to education reform efforts that began in the 1980s was the development and implemen- tation of rigorous statements of expectations for student learning: content standards or student performance standards. Content standards tell what students are expected to know and be able to do and performance standards tell how they will show it.

The Basics of Standards-Based Instruction In standards-based instruction, the educational community first develops standards, or expec- tations of what students should know and be able to do. Next, educators develop or select tools to assess student mastery of those standards. After checking students’ entry-level performance related to the standard, educators plan instruction to bring about student mastery of the stan- dard. They develop or select materials that will help teachers guide students toward mastery. Next, teachers present information and check students’ progress along the way. Then students are assessed for mastery of the standard. Finally, educators analyze results and determine the next course of action: Do they move on or provide further development on the standard at hand? In standards-based instruction it is critical that all elements are in alignment: the goals, the resources, the instruction, and the assessment.

Standards-Based Instruction: Lessons Learned during the First Decades You enter the profession of education at a time when we as a community have wrestled for years with standards-based accountability. A few key lessons learned through the first decade of this century are these:

• There was considerable variation across the fifty states in terms of the content students were expected to learn, when they were expected to learn it, and the criteria by which stu- dents were judged as having mastered it (Center for the Study of Mathematics Curriculum, 2006; Schmidt & Cogan, 2009).

• Setting rigorous content standards is not the same as achieving them. Time, resources, and opportunity to learn are all required for the mastery of rigorous content standards, and those quantities were not equitably distributed (Oakes & Rogers, 2006). In some instances, students and families took educational inequities to the courts, noting that if all students are to meet the same standards, they must receive the same resources to do so (e.g., Williams v. State of California; see Powers, 2004).

• Our high-stakes assessment measures of standards-based learning were imperfect and often distorted educational practices. Large-scale assessments typically sampled a narrow range of outcomes, often the lower-level, easy-to-measure expectations. With sanctions attached to results of these assessments, curriculum and instruction were affected in some negative ways, such as substantial investments of instructional time on test prep (Hamilton, Stecher, & Yuan, 2008).

“Cheshire Puss . . . Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?” “That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said the Cat. “I don’t much care where—” said Alice. “Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said the Cat.

—Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

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Content standards have opened the educational conversation about what students should learn, how and when they should learn it, and how their learning should be measured. These conversations address many deep and persistent dilemmas of schooling in a diverse society and have ushered in the next generation of standards-based reform: the Common Core State Standards (CCSS).

The Development of Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards The Common Core State Standards were born of efforts by the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers in 2009 out of recognition of lessons learned, specifically that (1) there were large variations in standards and set proficiency levels across states, (2) despite years of standards-based instruction, U.S. students’ academic achievement wasn’t improving much overall, and (3) U.S. schooling practices didn’t seem to be giving us a competitive edge internationally.

A vision of every U.S. student being college- and career-ready upon high school graduation drove the CCSS development team. Developers were influenced by evidence that many U.S. students complete high school without the academic skills, such as sophisticated reading abilities, to succeed in college, and many similarly lack the skills increasingly required by the workplace. Further, developers felt that the United States needed to reconsider its education goals in the context of globalization and international competition.

To begin, developers examined much existing work. They analyzed the standards from U.S. states with a reputation for excellence, the expectations of top-performing countries internationally, and research evidence related to content areas and human learning. Both teacher involvement and public review were components of the development and revision of the standards. The resulting standards in mathematics and English language arts and literacy are intended to be rigorous, internationally benchmarked statements of expectations of what U.S. students should know and be able to do by the time they graduate from high school. In a related effort, teams in twenty-six lead states wrote science and engineering standards based upon the National Research Council’s (2012) Framework for K–12 Science Education, and the Next Generation Science Standards were released for adoption in 2013.

All three sets of standards call for deep content knowledge that is integrated and applied in context. Common points of math, language arts, and science standards include narrower expectations; in contrast to the “inch deep, mile wide” characterization of prior U.S. state standards, these standards aim for a more focused and deeper set of outcomes. They each include a focus on the development of habits of mind (or practices of disciplinary experts; see Teaching for Tomorrow Tip), a preference for evidence, and an emphasis on ill-formed complex problems and sophisticated communication. Figure 5.1 summarizes major characteristics of the Common Core State Standards and the Next Generation Science Standards.

Current Status of the Common Core: Compliments, Criticisms, and Concerns The Common Core State Standards enjoyed widespread popularity in their earliest days. As of 2014, forty-four states have adopted both sets of Common Core standards. Minnesota has adopted solely the English language arts and literacy standards. The newer NGSS have a dozen adopters, as of late 2014. Initial popularity of the Common Core gave way to criticisms and con- cerns, with some states reconsidering their adoption or implementation of the Common Core. To date, one state, Indiana, reversed its adoption of the Common Core through the courts. Concerns raise questions such as the following.

1. Are the standards an effort to federalize U.S. education? Perhaps one of the mostly loudly stated concerns is expressed by those who feel that the Common Core repre- sents a federal overreach into education, which should be a state and local issue (see Williams, 2014). In response, some point out that the Common Core is a voluntary, state-led effort; that the standards do not constitute a curriculum (Common Core State

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Planning for Instruction 85

Standards Initiative, 2014a); and that no state has been penalized for not adopting the standards (Stern, 2014).

2. Are the standards developmentally appropriate? Some are concerned that, because the standards were mapped backward from what a high school graduate should know, stan- dards for younger students may not be appropriate for their developmental level (Neuman & Gambrel, 2013; Yatvin, 2013).

3. Are the standards just more of the same ineffectual high-accountability effort? Some are concerned that the Common Core is being envisioned solely as part of the national account- ability movement rather than as a key for real change for students (e.g., Welner, 2014). In a related worry, many critics are concerned about the tests that will be used to measure students’ progress.

4. Is implementation being effectively addressed? Another concern is that the Common Core requires great expenditures for curricular and professional development, and that in some places implementation is being rushed rather than thoughtfully pursued. According to polls (e.g., Hart Research Associates, 2013), teachers largely support the Common Core but have concerns about implementation.

5. Can the Common Core help fix root issues and disparities? Krashen (2014) argues that our nation’s efforts should be placed not into revising content standards but in addressing our most pervasive problem, poverty, and its correlates such as food insecurity and lack of access to books.

Despite concerns, it seems unlikely that the Common Core will disappear in the near future. Marie Ferguson, the head of the Center for Education Policy, cites survey data that suggest that most states are currently not considering revisiting their adoption decision, and the substantial time and effort already invested (Ferguson, 2013). And, perhaps more importantly, Ferguson argues that, given years of economic woes and global uncertainties, most leaders and families would agree that our country’s interests are best served when our students pursue the same chal- lenging standards.

Figure 5.1 Major Characteristics of the Common Core State Standards and the Next Generation Science Standards.

English Language Arts and Literacy

Mathematics Science

Habits of Mind Capabilities (e.g., independence, valuing evidence)

Mathematical Practices (e.g., using tools strategically)

Science and Engineering Practices (e.g., devising and conducting investigations)

Content •  Complex text and academic language: Students must be expected to address sophisticated, challenging text.

•   Written and spoken argumentation from evidence: Students must be able to use support from text to advance arguments.

•  Nonfiction: Greater emphasis on content-rich nonfiction across the grades.

•   Focus: A narrower set of mathematics standards allows for greater depth of treatment and more time for true mastery.

•  Coherence: Expectations need to build coherently across the grade level so that one grade level leads carefully to the next.

•   Rigor: Students must achieve equal levels of conceptual understanding (the “why” of mathematics), procedural proficiency (the “how” of math skills), and ability to apply it in context.

•   Interconnected nature of science: The ideas and practices of science should be treated in tandem.

•   Focus and coherence: Science content and applications are treated deeply, and content builds over the years.

•   Engineering: Science and engineering are integrated throughout the standards.

•   Common Core alignment: NGSS standards explicitly align with expectations from mathematics and language arts Common Core standards.

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86 Chapter 5

Planning Starts with the Students You have a responsibility to base your instructional decisions—what, when, and how you will teach—on a firm foundation of knowledge regarding who your students are and what they need. In fact, the major criterion for your planning decisions should be access to powerful learning for each of your students. Effective planning begins with gathering and analyzing a variety of kinds of information related to your students. When you plan instruction that draws from what students already know and can do, from their strengths and needs, and from their interests and perspec- tives, your lessons are far more likely to result in powerful learning for each individual and for the classroom community (Strong, 2011). You must understand students’ backgrounds and their prior knowledge in order to plan effective instruction. Chapter 3 introduced several factors related to students as individuals and as members of groups that can be useful to you as you plan.

Planning also includes preassessment of students’ content-specific needs and interests. Formative assessment, or assessment that guides instruction (see Chapter 8 for more), allows you to discover what students know, believe, or can do prior to your instruction. Caution! Some teachers, feeling pressed for time, skip the formative assessment stage of planning. Don’t be tempted to skip early assessments. Formative assessment is consistently linked with student achievement (Marzano, 2007). Some strategies to gather formative information include audience

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Define Your Habits of Mind

Teachers don’t just pursue knowledge goals; we help our students develop desirable, productive ways of thinking and acting. According to Costa (2013), habits of mind are intelligent action: behaving intelligently when you don’t have the answer, when faced with problems, uncertainties, and enigmas. What does intelligent behavior look like for you?

To develop my own list, I studied dispositions from several sources, including the Common Core State Standards and the NGSS, Project Zero’s Studio Habits of Mind (Hetland, 2013), and Costa and Kallick’s (2009) habits of mind. Here are Andrea’s Top Ten Habits of Mind:

1. Look and listen. Observe the details of your world.

2. Wonder and ask. All learning starts with a question. Always have one.

3. Picture it. Use your mind’s eye to see things in another way. Make a mental model. Look into the future. Think about alternatives.

4. Jump in. Engage. Get involved.

5. Solve it. Figure it out. And when the going gets tough, persist.

6. Join the community. Think and act like a team member.

7. Be fearless. Stretch. Take a reasonable risk.

8. Master it. Go beyond dabbling. Learn specialized ideas and tools.

9. Appreciate. Find the good. Look for other perspectives and value them.

10. Reflect. Think about how you’ll be smarter next time.

Each of these has implications for what I help students learn, regardless of the academic content; habits of mind are transdisci- plinary. For example, “look and listen” applies to the careful observation required in science, to detailed examination of artworks, and the search for patterns in mathematics. When they don’t know, people behaving intelligently look and listen.

To develop your own list of habits of mind, do some reading—perhaps starting with your stance—and some introspection. What key ideas transcend your content areas? How will you teach them through and beyond your content?

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Planning for Instruction 87

response system (“clicker”) quizzes, brief online or paper/pencil pretests, informal conversa- tions, self-checks, and journal entries.

When conducted far enough in advance, pre-assessments yield information that can shape instructional planning in productive ways so that you neither duplicate what students already know nor take too big a step beyond their current understandings.

In addition to students’ content knowledge related to the topic, you should also consider their interests. By considering the facets of the content of most interest to the students, you can connect to their own goals and increase their motivation to learn. Your observations of the free reading books students choose and the activities they pursue will provide some informa- tion about their interests. Additionally, you can try using simple interest inventories, or surveys, directly related to your upcoming instruction.

For example, as part of their course on U.S. history studies since 1877, Texas high school students study social changes in the United States from 1877 to 1898. To plan his unit, one teacher might distribute an interest inventory, excerpted in the Teaching Tip. The teacher plans to have all students read the textbook, but students will, based on survey results, form interest groups to read other materials and complete independent assignments, too. Also, the teacher plans to have students share their issue-specific knowledge later in mixed groups so that the class draws some broader generalizations about U.S. history.

Chapter 4 introduced you to principles of Universal Design, differentiated instruction, and accommodations and modifications. Such approaches should be at the forefront of your think- ing as you plan daily: To what extent do your lessons meet the wide range of learning needs? How will you accommodate your students with physical disabilities? How will you push your advanced learners? How do you help struggling readers improve their skills while simultane- ously helping them gain access to the content? In what ways do you encourage language devel- opment for your English learners?

As the next step in planning instruction for diverse student needs, this chapter helps you plan in ways that consider students’ specific profiles to design clear and appropriate goals, to use an expansive variety of resources, and to develop and organize your instruction in the long and short term. Understanding your students helps shape the next phase of planning: goal setting.

Goals Drive Planning As the Cheshire cat reminds Alice, if we do not have a goal in mind, it does not much matter how we spend our time. But you and your students have places to go! You need a clear set of goals to guide you. Clear learning expectations—or goals—are consistently linked with student success (Farr, 2010; Goldenberg, 2014; Good 2014).

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Read two classroom examples of rapid preassessments.

Interest Inventories

Try writing brief surveys to assess students’ interests for upcoming units of study. Here is an example from a history class.

Interest Rating: What Do You Want to Learn about U.S. Social Issues? We will be learning about some of the issues faced by people in the United States during the late 1800s. Here are some of the social issues we will study. I want to know which issues are most interesting to you. Some of your assignments will be based on your interests. Number your choices from 1 to 5. Number 1 should be the item that is most interesting to you, and number 5 should be the item that is least interesting to you.

Treatment of minorities Child labor Growth of cities Problems faced by immigrants Other. Tell me more:

You might have family members or know other people who could help us understand these issues. If so, list their names and how they might help.

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88 Chapter 5

Kinds of Goals What are our overall goals for our students? What kinds of knowledge or skills do we want them to possess? Our visions and concerns shape our goals for what students should know and become. For instance, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills presents the rainbow found in Figure 5.2 to encompass the broad range of outcomes they deem essential for today’s students. Note that the outcomes encompass not only core subject matter knowledge but also skills deemed necessary for life today and tomorrow. You already have considered the habits of mind you will pursue with your students; I think you’ll see some complements to your habits of mind when you examine the life and career skills and the learning and innovation skills of their rainbow. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills’ rainbow specifies life and career skills.

The pool beneath the rainbow represents the support systems necessary to affect the broad outcomes found in the rainbow.

There is increasing interest in goals that transcend content, such as the habits of mind you developed and the goal of emotional intelligence (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006; Goleman, 1995, 1998). Emotional intelligence allows us to do such things as identify and man- age our emotions, empathize with others, and persist in the presence of frustration.

Educated people not only know things, they also feel things and can do things. Theorists have, for this reason, divided the world of educational goals into three domains: the cognitive, the affective, and the psychomotor domains. Figure 5.3 presents commonly used taxonomies— or classification systems—for each of these domains. Note that in each taxonomy, the first entry is the simplest and requires the least from the learner. Higher levels place increasing demands on the learner. The more complex levels require that the learner draw on the lower levels, and each level contributes to a fuller understanding, appreciation, or performance. The value of these taxonomies is that they remind us of two things. First, we teach more than just cognitive information. We need to specify goals related to different kinds of learning. Second, within each of the areas we teach, there are levels of understanding and action. Teachers need to provide opportunities for mastery across many levels. Students need to process information in increas- ingly deep and complex ways and to respond to their worlds via sophisticated thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Figure 5.2

Curriculum and Instruction

Professional Development

Learning Environments

Standards and Assessments

Learning and Innovation Skills

Information, Media, and

technology Skills

Life and Career Skills

Core Subjects and 21st Century Themes

Source: Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2004), http://www.p21.org/our-work/p21-framework. Used with permission.

Partnership for 21st Century Learning’s rainbow of student outcomes.

What are examples of life and career skills?

Watch and Think 5.1 Watch this two-minute clip that argues for certain goals given the changing nature of our world. Which of the goals stated in the clip would you agree with? Which would you reject?

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ax5cNlutAys

Read an Alex update regarding emotional intelligence.

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Planning for Instruction 89

The most widely discussed taxonomy in schools is Bloom’s taxonomy for the cogni- tive domain. A variety of levels is typically represented in content standards, and teachers are expected to help students work at all levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, not just at the rote recall level. Examine, for instance, a few of the high school Common Core state mathematics standards for data analysis and measurement (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014b; emphasis added):

• Define a random variable . . . • Calculate the expected value of a random variable; interpret it. • Use probabilities to make fair decisions. • Evaluate and compare strategies on the basis of expected values.

Take some time to study the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy and work with them until they become part of your vocabulary and practice. Think about the sequence of the levels and the relationships among them. There is, for instance, an implied order, from lower-order thinking to higher-order thinking; before understanding an idea, you must remember it. Before applying a concept, you must first understand it. That’s why you’ll often see Bloom’s taxonomy depicted as a pyramid with higher levels of thinking predicated on a strong base of knowledge and comprehension. Your analysis should reveal that lower-order thinking is essential; it just isn’t sufficient.

As you work with the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, you may uncover some of the common criticisms of it. The levels are probably not purely linear (Marlowe & Page, 1998). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy corrected some criticisms of the earlier version and changed the level labels from nouns to the verbs you read in Figure 5.3.

Additionally, the revised taxonomy recognizes the multidimensional nature of knowledge that can be possessed at each level: the factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacogni- tive dimensions. Factual knowledge concerns basic information that can be verified. The conceptual dimension addresses the interrelationships of elements within a larger structure.

Figure 5.3 Taxonomies for the domains of learning.

Domain Levels

Cognitive Domain Remember: recall Thinking Understand: show comprehension

Apply: use knowledge in a new setting Analyze: identify logical errors; differentiate Evaluate: form judgments; make decisions Create: Make something new

(Original: Bloom, Englehart, Hill, Furst, & Krathwol, 1956; revised: Anderson 2005; Anderson et al., 2001)

Affective Domain Receiving: being aware of certain stimuli Feeling Responding: reacting to stimuli when asked

Valuing: acting on a belief when not asked to do so Organization: commitment to a set of values Characterization: displaying behaviors that are all consistent with one’s set of beliefs

(Krathwolhl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964)

Psychomotor Domain Imitation: repeat an action after observing a model Doing Manipulation: perform an action without a model

Precision: perform a refined action without a model or directions Articulation: sequence and perform a series of acts with control, timing, and speed Naturalization: perform actions that are now routine and spontaneous

(Harrow, 1969)

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The procedural dimension addresses methods, or how to complete a task. The metacogni- tive dimension is concerned with awareness of cognition in general, and one’s own thinking ( Anderson et al., 2001).

The addition of dimensions of thought at each level is a sophisticated change; it shows us that at any particular level of thought there are different kinds of knowing: Knowing what, knowing how, and knowing how to learn. You’ll find this important as you write your goals and think about the best ways to help students attain mastery both at different levels and of different kinds. Taxonomies in all domains (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) serve an important function: to remind teachers to provide both a solid core of basic knowledge and opportunities to act on that knowledge in more sophisticated ways. Teachers also find that the taxonomies can serve as a useful tool to help them differentiate their tasks for a broad range of student needs (Noble, 2004).

Goals, then, can fall into a number of domains, including cognitive, affective, and psycho- motor. The educational outcomes teachers set also vary in terms of specificity.

Goals versus Objectives Outcomes that are broad or general are typically termed goals. Goals drive our long-term planning. General goals encompass more specific and detailed statements. Deemed objectives, these specific statements guide daily instruction. Thus, objectives can be considered to be the intermediate steps students must master before their end goal is achieved. See if you can sort the statements from Figure 5.4 into goals and objectives.

Notice that the goal statements are lofty pursuits that are not yet operationalized, or put into a form that specifies students’ exact actions. The specific objective statements in Figure 5.4 will help students build toward an understanding of the larger goals. Notice that though the statements in Figure 5.4 differ in terms of specificity, they are alike in a very impor- tant way: Both goals and objectives are worded in terms of what the student should be able to do. Teaching is goal driven. As you examine content standards, you will note that they also are phrased in terms of student outcomes. This keeps the focus on students and their learning. As an example, here is a Common Core State Standard for fifth-grade language arts in the area of writing:

Conduct short research projects that use several sources to build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic. (CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.7; Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014c)

A few objectives to help students reach this standard might include:

1. The learner will be able to locate different types of sources related to a topic. 2. The learner will be able to synthesize information from more than one source. 3. The learner will be able to compose a one-page report that conveys new knowledge

( conclusions) from information from more than one source.

Teachers develop and implement hundreds of objectives, and the lesson-planning portion of this chapter will help you to write instructional objectives. Your objectives, though, will be shaped by your broader vision of what needs to be accomplished, by your set of goals.

Figure 5.4

Set One: Mathematics

1. Given paper and pencil, students will add two-digit numbers with 90% accuracy.

2. Students will improve their computation skills.

Set Two: Science

1. Without reference materials, students will draw a diagram of the water cycle and describe how humans can affect the cycle at two points at least.

2. Students will use scientific principles to make decisions in their own lives.

Goal or objective.

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Planning for Instruction 91

Determining Goals Professional teachers are charged with making important decisions: What should be taught? To whom? When? These decisions need to be guided by your consideration of the larger sys- tem. To develop your classroom goals for the term or year, you need to examine various sources. Recall the bull’s-eye of sources of influence from Chapter 1 (Figure 1.1). As you write a set of goals for student learning, consider the following suggestions, alone if necessary but in a group with other teachers if possible. For some suggestions, the perspectives of other stakeholders such as family members will enrich your thinking. These tips apply to a set of overarching goals for the year or term, and many apply to the goals you’ll develop as you plan specific units too.

• Think again about broad contexts. What are the larger issues facing your students and fami- lies? Your state? For example, how are subgroups of students such as students of color, students with special needs, and students who are acquiring English succeeding in school? (Examining test results for your state, district, and local school can provide some insights.) What are the community priorities?

• Analyze information about your students. What do they know now? How do they learn? What would they like to learn? What are their interests and plans? What support will they need from you as they master challenging standards?

• Review your stance. What are your hopes for students? Check your school’s mission statement as well.

• Review content standards. Spend some time studying the content expectations to which you and your students will be held. Merely glancing over them will not provide the deep under- standing you need. Many teachers find it helpful to work together to examine connections across subject areas and to look for common core concepts such as “change” or “ structure” (Hurt, 2003). Be sure to include 21st-century learning skills as well. How can you incorporate, for example, communication and collaboration? Critical thinking and problem solving?

• Consider content standards in light of your students. Will you need to differentiate your goals based on students’ progress, needs, and interests? For example, will some of your students require a set of intermediate goals to address missing knowledge? Will some need goals that take them far beyond grade-level expectations? Which students need English language development goals? What are the goals specified in IEPs and other individualized plans?

• Check grade-level articulation. What are students expected to learn in the year or years before your grade? What will their teachers in future grades expect them to know?

• Examine your materials. What goals are identified in your adopted curricular materials such as your textbooks? How do they align with your standards?

Jot down information from each of these sources. Look for areas of overlap and areas where goals seem dissimilar. Use a critical eye: Whose perspective is left out of your list of goals? Could a different set of goals be used to improve existing practice? Talk with experienced teachers and other colleagues. Prioritize the goals. You will keep these goals in mind as you develop your long-term plans, develop your daily schedule, and plan individual lessons.

Planning to Use Instructional Resources Once you have set goals, the world is your oyster. Look around you and determine which mate- rials and resources are most likely to foster students’ learning and development toward goals. Based on what you have discovered about your students’ prior experiences, interests, abilities, and needs—and based on the high expectations you place upon students to master content— search out the resources that will push all of your students forward. A vast array of tools is avail- able to help you and your students reach your goals.

Textbooks Textbooks have long been a staple of the U.S. classroom diet. Particularly in the days of high accountability, many schools mandate textbook use, in some cases their strict use. Textbooks

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provide a reasonable starting point because they are composed by teams of experts, are subjected to extensive reviews, are field tested, and undergo periodic revision. Textbooks can be effective supports for student learning (Elsaleh, 2010; Wakefield, 2006) and serve as a vital resource to aid teachers in translating educational reforms into classroom practice (Usiskin, 2013).

The world of textbooks is a rapidly changing one. Teacher and student access to e-texts is rising sharply, according to national surveys (Pressey, 2013). E-text benefits include lower cost, better accessibility (Bruhn & Hasselbring, 2013), and interactive features such as links to mul- timedia content. Also, e-texts can diminish the power differential between author and consumer of text. For example, free sites like Curriculet allow teachers to shape digital text such as books or Web content for their students’ needs. Teachers can insert notes, video links, and quizzes for their students, who complete activities and receive feedback online.

E-texts may be changing the way we think about textbooks, but they bring a new set of challenges. Many students like print textbooks better than e-text (e.g., Marcus, 2013), perhaps because some studies suggest that reading comprehension can decrease with e-text. This is partly because interactive features may serve to distract the reader, and because we tend to read digital content differently—at a more surface level—than we read print-based text (Daniel & Woody; 2013; Herold, 2014).

Regardless of platform, textbooks bring with them a long history of controversies and shortcomings. Some authors argue that texts are boring, bland, or dumbed-down (Ravitch 2003a, 2003b). Textbooks may not address standards well (O’Shea, 2005) or follow research-driven recommendations for learning. For example, Brenner and Hiebert (2010) found that, despite the fact that teachers are required to follow their core reading textbooks closely, major texts included just a fraction of the number of words that third graders should read per day to improve as readers. Through their analyses, authors have also found that many textbooks include content inaccuracies (e.g., Field, Bauml, Wilhelm, & Jenkins, 2012; Loewen, 1996; Pearcy, 2014) and biases such as class privilege (Dutro, 2009).

For these reasons, it is important to study texts carefully, render your own well-supported decisions, and use textbooks judiciously. Start by examining your goals, objectives, and related standards, and then study the text for its relation to those targets. Examine the accuracy and completeness of the text, and search out possible biases. Determine the extent to which the reading level of the text matches your students’ current abilities. (Try the Teaching Tip, Checking the Complexity of Text.) Then think about ways to use the text in support of your goals.

It will be important for you to determine the amount of judgment local policy allows you to exercise in deciding how you will use textbooks. Ask the person in charge how closely you are expected to adhere to text materials. Are you required to “stick to the text”? If the answer is yes, ask a few more questions. What does it mean in your district to “stick to the text”? It can mean very different things, ranging from “use each of the activities exactly as written in the teacher’s edition” to “teach to the text’s objectives using your choice of activities (text and other) that will encourage learning best for your particular students.” In making decisions about using texts, I encourage you to exercise your professional judgment to the fullest extent allowed so that you can provide responsive instruction.

As you consider using your text, remember to use it as just one of many resources that can help students accomplish their aims. If we truly hope to provide equitable learning oppor- tunities, for instance, we must include firsthand experiences, such as laboratory activities.

Checking The Complexity of Text

The Common Core State Standards require readers to grapple with complex text across the curriculum. Text complexity has three dimensions: reader and task components, a qualitative dimension, and quantitative one. The quantitative dimension is usually measured in terms of a Lexile rating ( Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014d). A Lexile measure is based on sentence length and word frequency. When you know students’ Lexile ratings and those of the text, you can ensure that you select appropriately challenging text for your students.

You can search the Lexile Web site for books already rated, and you can get Lexile ratings of your own materials. Try using the analyzer on the Lexile Web site. There are also free apps that check Lexile ratings of existing text.

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How can you use the textbook strategically?

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Planning for Instruction 93

Firsthand experiences build a shared base of experience and knowledge that can level the differences in life experience that students bring with them to the classroom. With similar expe- riences, all students can contribute to classroom discussions (Eisenkraft, 2013). Thus, your instructional planning must include resources beyond the textbook.

Rich Instructional Resources Plan your instruction to include rich resources such as primary sources, manipulatives, realia, a variety of sources of print, software, maps and globes, outside speakers, family members, and multimedia. Using rich resources serves many purposes. First, it increases your opportunities to include materials that build a learning environment that incorporates students’ worlds. Second, it helps students learn to think the way experts in the field think. Social scientists, for example, know how to interpret primary sources, conduct and analyze oral interviews, and use maps. Third, using a variety of materials ensures that students with different needs can gain access to the information. Students who struggle with reading, for instance, are placed at a disadvantage if instruction is entirely text-based (Frey, Fisher, & Moore, 2005). Also, rich source materials deepen student learning by inciting student interest and curiosity, by making the content more accessible and memorable, by helping students connect with the content, by allowing them to more effectively comprehend and practice the material, and by grounding it more fully in the real-world context within which the content will be used. In our Internet Age, digital tools are increasingly the modus operandi of K–12 teaching and learning.

As you choose digital learning tools, you’ll think about decreasing possible access and opportunity gaps, and you’ll think foremost about the value added to student learning by your tool use. See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip on easy Web-based teaching tools.

Interactive whiteboards (IWBs) are on the rise; approximately half of today’s teachers have them (Purcell, Heaps, Buchanan, & Friedrich, 2013). Research on IWBs underscores the fact that the importance of any technology lies not in the tool itself, but in how it is used (Hockly, 2013). IWBs can support student motivation, engagement, thinking, and achievement (Lopez, 2010; Metiri Group, 2006; Torff & Tirotta, 2010), but effects are small and uneven (e.g., Marzano, 2009). As a result, some educators judge IWBs as unworthy of their required substantial investment (Johnson & Hirsch, 2010; Meeks, 2009). Some educators, alternatively, are using less expensive portable interactive boards and devoting budgets to mobile devices for students (Hockly, 2013).

The research (e.g., Kulik & Kulik, 1991; Metiri Group, 2006) on technology in general indi- cates that it can support teacher effectiveness and student learning outcomes such as achieve- ment, social development, and attitude toward the subject matter. The extent to which technol- ogy does facilitate teaching and learning rests largely in the care taken by the teacher to consider purposes carefully and to implement technology as a tool effectively. Technology presents us with tools; the expense of the tool matters, and it’s the skill of the teacher who holds the tool that typically makes the difference. Be sure to use the tools you select in ways that enhance student engagement in the content and in the process of learning. Although gathering rich resources— digital or otherwise—takes some thought and time, it need not necessarily require a large bud- get. The Teaching Tip gives some ideas for securing resources when budgets are tight.

Watch and Think 5.2 This eight-minute clip explores the shifting role of teachers in Singapore. The role of teacher is now facilitation. How does that change the resources that must be available to students? Do you agree that technology in general engages students? Are there other resources you would consider essential for engaging students?

http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=M_ pIK7ghGw4&list=PL10g2YT_ ln2gySTHTs1NXnIlZ4CT9HNxZ

Read about recent tech trends in schools.

Using Web-Based Tools During Lessons

• It’s now quick and free to use still images and video clips on the Web to enhance your lessons. Use digital images that you or your students take, or find them on the Web through an image search. Most schools don’t block videos from TeacherTube. Always check your files at school if you plan to be accessing them online in your classroom.

• Remember to check and follow copyright rules. In general, teachers can use small amounts of information for educational purposes. When in doubt, ask for permission.

• Thousands of Web-based tools allow you and your students to meet ISTE standards such as research fluency, collaboration, and problem solving. They are easy to find by talking with colleagues and searching the Web for terms such as “Best Web 2.0 Tools for Teachers.”

• Web tools change frequently, so be ready to find new tools when favorites disappear. Teach your students to look for elements and skills that transfer from tool to tool. Help them develop the attitude that if they can master one tool, they can master the next.

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In summary, early in your planning, consider the full range of resources available to you and your students. Figure 5.5 can be used to brainstorm the kinds of resources relevant to particular lessons or units. Note that some resources may occur in more than one row, which is fine for brainstorming. Use these resources in your long-range and short-term planning.

Long-Range Planning Although teachers plan differently, one reasonable approach is to move from the broadest level of planning down to the most specific. Long-range planning entails using your knowledge of your students, potential resources, and set of goals to map out the year (or term) and set out a structure for weekly and daily activities. It also includes unit planning. The Teaching Tip gives some.

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Finding Resources When Money Is Scarce

Resources do not need to be expensive to be useful. Imaginative teachers use strategies such as the following to obtain resources to enrich their plans.

• Talk with your parent-teacher organization. Many grant small amounts of money for instructional materials.

• Look for grants. Contact district personnel to scout out opportunities to fund promising projects. • Get corporate support. Businesses near you will welcome the opportunity to serve the local

community by donating supplies. When you purchase materials, tell businesses that you are a teacher. Many businesses offer discount programs for teachers. Others provide materials at drastically reduced prices, or at cost.

• Crowdsource it. You can electronically register for donations from individuals and organizations around the world. Donors Choose, a popular site started by a New York social studies teacher, reports that donors to date have given nearly $2.5 million to projects that have supported more than 11 million U.S. public school children.

• Ask families. Send a note home (translated as necessary) asking for supplies. Do not assume that families will not contribute simply because they have low incomes. Many teachers who work with families of limited means find that families contribute generously. Throwaways such as paper tubes, plastic grocery sacks, and cardboard may become treasures in your room.

• Visit thrift shops. I bought a whole class set of white men’s dress shirts to use as lab coats for $2 a shirt.

• Use your scouts to visit garage sales. Tell family and friends what you need (board games for your game center? uncommon musical instruments?) and put them on the lookout.

• Encourage your students to raise funds as a class. Some classes run recycling programs and use the proceeds to fund field trips or social action projects. Check school policies on fund-raising first.

• Head to the public or university library. You can check out books, or you can stock your classroom library by attending libraries’ book sales, where books are often sold for pennies.

• Borrow. Many organizations have lending libraries of materials that stretch far beyond texts. Check your local museums and state agencies. Or go national. The National Gallery of Art, for example, will ship loaner recordings and art samples free of charge.

• Use free Web-based materials. Search, for example, for free ebooks for teachers as students. • Share. Work with other teachers in your department or at your grade level to make the best of

scarce resources.

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1. Base your planning on student assessment data. 2. Be sure that your decisions about how to use instructional time reflect your goals and priorities. 3. Remember that most lessons and units can take about twice as long as expected, unless we are

very careful with time. 4. Worry less about “covering” the material than about “uncovering” it.

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Planning for Instruction 95

Figure 5.5 Brainstorming instructional resources.

Lesson Unit or Topic:

Standard or Essential Question:

Types of Resources Brainstorming: List ideas for this type of resource (Possible sources? Actual titles?)

Tech Tools

• What technological resources should you demonstrate?

• Which tools should students use? (Think: productivity tools, research tools, communication tools)

• How can technology help meet diverse needs? (e.g., assistive technology, primary language support, support for struggling readers)

Text Materials

• Textbook sections

• Variety of types of print (newspapers, books, charts, manuals, letters, etc.)

• Print in the students’ environment

• Print in students’ home language

• Student-created text

Visual Images

• Think about photographs, video clips, works of art, etc.

• List potential Web sites or search terms

Language of the Discipline

• What tools do experts use?

• Consider a variety of measurement tools, software applications, artistic media, data gathering strategies such as interviews, calculators, etc.

Field Experiences

• What expertise might family members have? Example: interviews about historical events or current experiences with the world at large

• Which community members could contribute?

• What sites could you use for visits to make the world your classroom?

• Which contacts with faraway people may help?

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96 Chapter 5

Yearlong Planning With knowledge about your students and your overarching goals in mind, study your content standards for every area you teach. Then, because you teach as part of a system, ask whether there is a pacing guide for your grade level or subject area. The pacing guide will give you direction about which standards to teach when, and it will make suggestions about the materials to use to address those standards. A pacing guide, though, is no excuse for you not to become well versed in the curricular goals your students are to attain. Only through careful study of your standards will you be able to teach in thoughtful ways that meaningfully connect ideas over time and to students’ worlds.

If there is no pacing guide or curriculum map, create your own for the term or year. Choose a planning strategy that meets your style. You might choose a software program like a spread- sheet, an online tool like LiveBinders or Blendspace, or you might go low-tech. Teachers who want to work in paper sometimes photocopy standards onto colored paper (one color per con- tent area, such as “technology” and “language arts”). They cut apart the slips and group them logically. Downloaded copies of your state content standards can start you on your way. As you examine standards, look for underlying concepts that might capture enduring ideas and serve as glue to hold a variety of standards together. (Hurt 2003) suggests that we look for the important, durable ideas within standards and for ideas and skills that might transfer to other contexts as well.

Where to start if you teach multiple subjects? Many teachers find it helpful to use social studies or science as a starting point and then progress to the other subject areas. Note that this process asks you to integrate content. Integration can create powerful learning by tying stan- dards to real-life contexts or tapping into deep understandings about life’s central or enduring ideas. If your state has adopted the Common Core standards, pay heed to the connections across standards that the authors already made for you. Each of the Next Generation Science Standards performance expectations, for example, gives aligned language arts and mathematics standards. Not all standards can be integrated meaningfully, though. Let “stand-alone” standards remain separate from your grouping and plan to address them through other structures such as open- ing exercises or mini-units during the year or term. Once standards are grouped logically, they can be sequenced over the year. As you decide how much time to devote to each area of study over the year, examine a school calendar for months, scheduled breaks, and local traditions. You may choose to glue to a large chart those colored strips you have organized so carefully in the preceding step.

Many teachers bring coherence to their long-term plans by planning collaboratively.

Source: Pearson Education

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Planning for Instruction 97

Although your textbook may play a central role in determining what to teach when, exam- ine your texts only after you have studied your standards carefully. Begin reviewing the texts by examining the scope and sequence (a chart that gives a suggested layout for the term) and other information in the teacher’s editions to determine the units or standards that are treated in good depth in your adopted materials and those that will need additional support. This will also help you locate possible extraneous material that does not support your content standards. Use the brainstorming chart (Figure 5.5) to consider rich resources to supplement or replace the text. Think, too, about whether certain units make more sense at certain times of the year as you decide when to teach each topic. Fit your topics into the school calendar by becoming more specific in your planning: Move to unit planning.

Unit Planning Glance through a teacher’s edition and you will see that authors arrange instruction in units. A unit is a set of related lessons that address a single topic, theme, or skill. For example, a literature unit might address a particular book or genre. A social studies unit might address a particular group of people or a time in history. A math unit might include a single skill set such as measurement. Units range in length from just a few lessons (perhaps a week in length) to many lessons (perhaps two months). Four to six weeks tends to be a typical length for instruc- tional units.

There are several approaches to planning units. Here are three that allow you to address your goals while maintaining flexibility in developing (or selecting) and sequencing learning activities: backward planning, the “big idea” approach, and thematic instruction. The first format is popular as teachers plan units to meet content standards. It is called backward planning or backward design (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). This model begins with the conviction that a student’s performance is key to determining what the student knows. First, the teacher identifies what students should know and be able to do at the unit’s end. Second, the teacher considers what evidence the students would need to provide for the teacher to determine that they have mastered the content. After the end performance is clearly in mind, the teacher develops activities to help students prepare for the performance. To use backward planning you might:

1. Select content standards or outcomes for mastery. 2. Unify these outcomes through a theme, an issue, or a “big idea.” 3. Compose an essential question that, if answered, would demonstrate students’ deep think-

ing about the content. Develop supporting unit questions as well. 4. Determine performance that you would accept as evidence that the students have mastered

the content. Consider multiple measures as appropriate. 5. Develop rubrics, with the students if possible, or other measures to assess each perfor-

mance. (Rubrics and other assessments are addressed in Chapter 8.) 6. Select activities that lead students toward mastery. 7. Review and revise until each component of the unit supports the others.

The power of the backward-planning model is that it turns the “teach my favorite activities” approach on its head and instead focuses on providing instruction that will help students meet the end goal.

A second unit-planning format is recommended by experts in content areas such as social studies (Ellis, 1998; Savage & Armstrong, 2000) and science (Gega & Peters, 2002). We will call it the “big idea” approach.

1. Begin by determining the major ideas related to the content. Major ideas, or generaliza- tions, are statements that connect facts and concepts. For example, “tree” is a concept, or a class of ideas with identifiable attributes. “Some trees lose their leaves” is a fact. “Trees and other organisms respond to environmental stimuli” is a generalization. It is a more inclusive state- ment that relates several concepts and has greater explanatory power. A sample generalization in social studies is, “All human societies change.” In analyzing your content standards during yearlong planning, you probably identified these generalizations. You can also find them in teacher’s editions, often under the heading “Chapter Concepts.” Chapters typically include three to four big ideas.

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98 Chapter 5

2. Once you find generalizations, write standards-based objectives and then locate activities that can help your students learn the generalizations. In selecting activities, you may draw from your texts and from other sources such as literature, current events, and trade books (which are any nontextbook books, including literature and teaching materials devoted to particular topical areas, typically housed in curriculum libraries or offered for sale at teacher supply stores). An earlier section of this chapter urged you to consider an abundance of resources in your planning, and Chapter 6 will reinforce the importance of rich learning experiences that will lead to student mastery of important generalizations. Examples of enriching experiences include community service work, field trips, guest speakers, and multimedia projects.

3. Then arrange the activities for daily instruction. Good instruction builds bridges between the students’ lives and the content. You can plan lessons that begin with a “bridge” to take stu- dents from their lives into the content via an engaging question, demonstration, or other activity.

Note that, on their way to learning content generalizations, students will learn facts and con- cepts that should slowly coalesce to form larger understandings. It is indeed important to teach facts and specific information. The big idea method of unit planning ensures that facts build into larger, more coherent structures of understanding.

Another strength of this planning approach is that your focus on big ideas will ease decisions about which daily activities to cut or extend. Most teachers feel pressed for time. Using the big idea method of unit planning, you can drop activities that are less likely to help students build understanding of key concepts and spend more time on productive learning experiences.

A third popular approach to unit planning is thematic instruction. Many teachers find that integrating their content through themes allows them to address content standards efficiently and in ways that are interesting to students. Instead of being based solely on core ideas related to particular subject matters, thematic units are interdisciplinary, with learning activities emanating from the theme (Kovalik & Olsen, 2001; Pappas, Kiefer, & Levstik, 2006; Roberts & Kellough, 2008; Ronis, 2008). Thematic units can be helpful because they present content holistically, as it might appear in life, rather than as discrete entities. Further, thematic units hold the prom- ise of helping students with high-incidence disabilities, whose educational experience may be fragmented as a result of receiving instruction in a variety of settings, to experience content in ways that transfer across subject areas and into real-life settings (Gardner, Wissick, Schweder, & Canter, 2003). Themes lie at the core of thematic units. Examples of themes include, for young students, homes, and for older students, discoveries or interdependence. Concepts from different subject areas are surfaced and linked through the use of the theme. Also, thematic units usually include choices for students, allowing students to select at least some of the learning experiences in the unit. The elements of choice and group discussion can develop a sense of ownership and community as students learn together and share their results. Pappas et al. (2006) suggest the following steps for planning thematic units:

1. Select a theme. The theme needs to be broad enough to encompass information from many subject areas but not so broad that meaningful connections are lost. Keep your larger goals and students’ interests in mind.

2. Create a planning web. Brainstorm to create a web—a semantic map—that explores the many instances in which the theme arises. Figure 5.6 gives an abbreviated version of a planning web. Notice that it does not include mention of traditional subject areas such as mathematics or history; it should break away from traditional compartmentalized thinking. As you create the web, you will note connections among ideas and can begin to categorize your ideas into groups. Jot down your ideas for resources, including books, technological materials, concrete materials, and community resources as you create the web.

3. Select resources. This chapter and Chapter 6 argue that teachers should create rich learning environments. As you plan, aim to provide a wealth of resources. Include the arts, literature, other print sources, tangible materials, technology, and community resources; flip ahead to Figure 6.5 (p. 127) for other ideas.

4. Plan activities. Choose or create activities that address the theme, utilize rich resources, and encourage students’ progress toward learning goals. Remember to include opportuni- ties for students to choose their learning activities.

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Planning for Instruction 99

Next, teachers organize their classrooms for instruction and implement their units. It is also important to consider plans for assessment.

Experts in multicultural studies advocate thematic approaches to planning because such approaches allow teachers and students to dissolve the traditional subject-matter distinctions in favor of content organizations that revolve around topics seen as immediately valuable and powerful. By restructuring the boundaries of curriculum, we may open our classrooms to more democratic and inclusive study.

In his book on ethnic studies, James Banks (2005) presents a unit-planning approach that has both an interdisciplinary focus, as does thematic planning, and a focus on key generaliza- tions, as does the big idea approach. This approach allows students to gain information through many diverse examples to build universal, cross-disciplinary generalizations related to such mul- ticultural education topics as ethnicity, socialization, intercultural communication, and power. Banks argues that this planning approach allows learners to gain the knowledge and multiple perspectives required for participation in their increasingly diverse world. Further, Banks and others remind us that the decisions a teacher makes, including decisions about curricular plan- ning, are not purely technical. The ways in which we arrange our content and instruction— across the year, in units, and in weekly and daily schedules—mirror our visions of what we want for our students.

How do you plan? Some teachers use index cards so they can rearrange activities as necessary. Some keep their plans in a loose-leaf notebook so that it is easy to insert

Figure 5.6 Sample planning web.

People living together

Commonalities

People need rules to get along

Present: our community

Throughout history

How are they changing?

Families are different

Study examples from favorite

historical works

Globalization is affecting

communities Support systems

are different

Biological communities

Food chains

Animals living together

Interdependence

Depend on the environment

How are communities around the world

alike and different?

COMMUNITY

What role do virtual communities play? Use mathematical

data to make predictions

How can students shape their

communities?

Study students' families' past communities People's different

needs are more easily met through communities

Food

Who makes them?

Who enforces them?

What if they're broken?

How do they get changed?

Safety Health Public services

Work Play

Plain

DesertOceanRain forest

Explore through field trips, interviews, video,

reading, and the Web

Changing one link affects other links

Food webs

Past

Oral history

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100 Chapter 5

other materials. Others create templates and word process their plans so that they can easily copy/paste information such as content standards into their plans. Others use fee-based Web- based programs such as Taskstream or OnCourse to author, store, and share their plans. Teachers also employ plenty of free tools, like Google Forms, and social media like Pinterest to curate their lesson-planning materials; such cloud-based tools have the added benefit of collaborative use. Experiment and see which planning strategy works best for you.

weekly and Daily Schedules Once you have determined a broad view of what should happen when, devise a schedule of daily and weekly events. A well-designed garden provides an analogy for a thoughtful weekly classroom schedule. According to Benzel (1997) every garden needs plants to serve as “bones,” “binders,” and “bursts.” Bones, permanent and sturdy, provide the structure for the garden. Trees may serve as the bones, for example. Binders connect elements of the garden so that they relate smoothly to each other. Binders might be shrubs and large perennial plants. Bursts infuse the garden with color and excitement—think colorful flowers. In weekly planning for teaching, time structures provide the bones, routines and recurring events provide the binders, and engaging lessons provide the bursts.

Figure 5.7 shows two experienced teachers’ classroom schedules, fourth and fifth grade at the same school, bones only. Notice that both Richard and Susie have devised structured, stable time schedules to ensure that they use their time well and to provide students with a sense of predictability and direction. Both teachers include similar subject areas, and they have devoted substantial instructional time to the language arts. You can see structured use of family volun- teers. You also see that the school works to provide a balanced curriculum and uses specialists in technology, physical education, and the arts. Because all teachers at the site utilize the special- ists, neither Richard nor Susie is free to choose the times for these subjects.

Binders are found in the routines and recurring events of these scheduled time periods. For instance, during the opening in Richard’s classroom, students know they will complete “bell work” (brief review assignments that commence when the morning bell rings) and check their homework. These activities can provide a personal and academic focus for the remainder of the day’s work. Another example of a binder can be seen during the closing activities, where both teachers have students write in their agendas. Bursts are the engaging activities that happen dur- ing the day during content-area instruction. Examples include hands-on investigations in science and projects during social studies.

Bones, binders, and bursts apply to teachers in departmentalized secondary schools who work within the confines of a tight bell schedule as well. They just compress their usage of bones, binders, and bursts to serve them well during a fifty-five-minute period. Figure 5.8 shows how Loretta, a junior high teacher, structures her time over a day and a week for one period near the beginning of her year.

Lesson Planning In my thinking, one of the single most important skill that separates us teachers from our non- teacher friends is this: the ability to teach to an objective. When you write and implement a lesson plan, you show the power of a teacher. You have the ability to structure an experience that leads people from not knowing something to understanding it, and demonstrating that they understand it, in a matter of minutes. Remember Chapter 1’s proposition that teaching is directed toward the goal of change for the learner? Your successful lessons are the enactment of that proposition, several times over each day.

A lesson is a relatively brief instructional sequence that focuses on one or a few instruc- tional objectives. When students master the objectives from one lesson, they are a step closer to building more complex ideas, attitudes, and actions related to the overall unit and to your

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 5.5

Watch and Think 5.3 In this minute-and-a-half clip, a middle school teacher explains her process for planning the week. How does her planning process compare to those of the teachers with whom you work?

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Planning for Instruction 101

Figure 5.7

Richard’s Class Susie’s Class (fourth grade) (fifth grade)

7:50–8:00 Opening 7:50–8:05 Opening

ell work Opening exercises

ttendance Homework collection (with parent helpers)

Lunch count

B

A

Flag salute

Homework check

8:00–9:40 Math 8:05–8:45 P.E. or Music

Warm-up (alternating days: T, Th and W, F)

Homework correction 8:45–9:45 Math

Math instruction

9:45–10:07 Recess

10:07–12:20 Language Arts 10:07–12:20 Language Arts

ournal writing (We sometimes fit in a social studies or science Small reading groups and reading or writing activity here if needed.)

guided practice, follow-up activities

rammar lessons

riting instruction

ead-aloud

ilent reading

ocabulary

J

G

W

R

S

V

Spelling

12:20–1:05 Lunch

1:05–2:00 Social Studies 1:05–2:00 Social Studies or Science and Science (alternating days)

2:00–2:10 Closing 2:00–2:10 Agendas and cleanup

rite in homework agendasW

Cleanup

Special Notes: Special Notes for Language Arts Time omputer lab: T 10:20–11:05 (10:07–12:20):

Music: T and Th 8:45–9:25 ATE reading group with librarian on (don’t forget instruments) T (30 min)

Library: Th 10:15–10:45 and ATE computers on W with parent as time permits volunteers (30 min)

C

P.E.: Th 1:25–2:10 and F arent volunteers help with language arts T and Th

8:00–8:45 (need appropriat

G

G

P

e Computers on Th (45 minutes) shoes)

2:10 Dismissal

Two teachers’ daily schedules.

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102 Chapter 5

guiding goals. Although lessons vary from ten minutes to a week in length, depending on the content and on the age and sophistication of the students, lessons typically last less than an hour. The distinguishing characteristics of a lesson are that:

1. It uses a set, logical structure. 2. Activities relate to each other and aim toward exploring ideas or skills related to a very

limited set of objectives.

Although objectives take on different forms (e.g., Gronlund, 2004), a commonly used ver- sion is the behavioral objective (Mager, 1997). A behavioral objective is a specific statement about how students will be different at a lesson’s close in terms of their knowledge, skills, atti- tudes, or abilities. Especially in your early days as a teacher, behavioral objectives can push you to focus on students and outcomes: What should students be able to do after your lessons?

Figure 5.8

Daily Schedule

Period 5 8th- grade sheltered English

(excerpt from plan book)

opic introduction

ocabulary from literature

Language skill

T

V

Test-taking skill

Literature connected to vocabulary

Practice language skill

Literature connected to vocabulary

Practice language skill

Literature connected to vocabulary

Practice language skill

Test on vocabulary or language skill

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Bones Six-period day, with periods 50 minutes in length.

Rotating schedule. Periods stay in order, but the first one of the day rotates through Periods 1–6.

Period 1 has five extra minutes for pledge, anthem, announcements.

No rainy day schedule. Lunch is 30 minutes long and cannot be shortened.

No assembly schedule (assemblies not held).

Binders Attendance: Call roll. Students must answer with the phrase of the day. “I did/did not do my homework.” “I like my English teacher.” This is quick oral language practice.

Opener: Students do Daily Written Language (correct errors in passages placed on overhead transparency) and get materials ready before attendance has been taken.

Closure: Examples: “Tell your partner two things you learned about sonnets.” “Share with someone the next step you need to take in writing your persuasive essay.”

Nightly homework: Practice skills for Friday’s test.

Notes on Major planning documents:

Planning —District curriculum guide, based on California content standards

and —Drawn from language handbook (teacher’s edition of text)

Instruction —Overview schedule that lists writing activities, literature, test items to be mastered, and skills.

(Bursts) Instructional methods: Using direct instruction. Sharing pictures or photographs, reading poetry aloud, acting out vocabulary words, partner reading of literature selection, cooperative learning activities, student drawings of vocabulary words, creating flash cards with terms.

To Do: There is no coordination of topic or skill between the four items on the overview schedule and curriculum guide. Students might read a story about persuasion during the trimester when they are writing response to literature essays, but not during the trimester when they are writing persuasive essays. My grade-level team wants to work to coordinate these elements in the future.

A junior high language arts teacher’s schedule.

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Planning for Instruction 103

Although many new teachers initially find that writing good objectives is time- consuming and may feel artificial, repeated practice streamlines the time required and sharpens their instruction. It is worth the time. Objectives will clarify for you exactly what you want students to know, which increases the chance that students will learn it. Without objectives, plans tend to become mere scripts of what teachers do during lessons. The Teaching Tip gives advice for writing objectives.

Writing Objectives Look again at the following objectives, found earlier in Figure 5.4:

1. Given paper and pencil, students will add two-digit numbers with 90 percent accuracy. 2. Without reference materials, students will draw a diagram of the water cycle and describe

how humans can affect the cycle at two points at least.

These objectives have the three components typically specified for behavioral objectives (Popham & Baker, 1970): behavior, conditions, and criteria, described in Figure 5.9. Examine your teacher’s editions and other curricular materials to see that each objective includes the three typically identified components of a behavioral objective.

Despite their potential to focus attention on student learning, behavioral objectives are criti- cized on several grounds. They are criticized, for instance, as being too driven by the teacher and as being so mechanistic that little room is left for spontaneous learning. Opinion is divided in terms of how carefully teachers should compose and adhere to objectives. Mager (1997) instructs teachers to focus on observable behaviors. Gronlund (2004) does not. Many teach- ers elect to include only the observable behavior, leaving the conditions and criteria implicit. I adopted this approach in a fossil lesson I taught to second graders (see Figure 5.11). Until you develop skill at writing objectives and using them to guide your teaching, you probably need to

Writing Behavioral Objectives

1. Be sure to focus on the intended outcome of the lesson, not on what students will do throughout the lesson.

2. Focus on the skill or concept involved, not the technique you will use to measure performance. (Why, for instance, have students “complete page 43”?) If you do not state the main intent, your objectives may appear trivial (Mager, 1997).

3. If the outcomes you seek are covert, add an indicator such as “circle” or “list.” 4. List only the criteria and conditions that you will actually use. For conditions, think about what

students may use—or not use—to demonstrate understanding, and think about real-world condi- tions in which they will need to use their knowledge. For criteria, if you will not check to see that all students attain 90 percent accuracy, do not list it in your objectives.

Teaching Tip

Figure 5.9

• Behavior: What, specifically, should you see the students do as a result of your instruction? (What is the students’ observable action on mastery?) In the first objective above, students will add. In the second, they will draw and describe.

• Conditions: Under what conditions should students perform? (Are there limits on time? What materials may they use?) The conditions of performance are found at the beginning of each of the objectives listed. You can imagine how the conditions would change based on both the students’ characteristics and the teacher’s expectations for appropriate performance.

• Criteria: How well should students perform? (How many? How fast? With what degree of accuracy?) Above the first objective gives a percentage rate for acceptable performance, and the second sets a minimal num- ber of discussion points. You will need to think carefully about the kind and level of criteria that are appropri- ate for your students because your definition of success will influence the decisions you make as you plan instruction.

Components of a behavioral objective.

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104 Chapter 5

write full behavioral objectives. That way, if you decide to use shorthand objectives later, your choices will be based upon a full understanding of what is implied in the objective, even if it is not stated. Once you are clear on what you intend for students to learn, you are ready to make decisions about structuring your lessons.

Lesson Structure Lessons are composed of activities that are joined meaningfully into a regular structure that addresses the objective(s). Although there are many helpful planning formats, lesson formats share similar components. Every lesson has three sections: open, body, and close.

The open sets the stage for the lesson to come. The lesson probably begins with a “hook” that catches students’ attention or a “bridge” that allows students to travel from their own worlds into the topic of the lesson. It is common to state the objective in student-friendly language and give a purpose for the lesson. When learning expectations are clear to students, they are more likely to achieve them (Good, 2014; Hattie, 2009). The teacher might also state behavioral standards for the lesson; such standards tell the students in clear terms how they are expected to behave dur- ing the lesson. During the body, students develop concepts and skills related to the objective. To

Figure 5.10

Activities for Different Stages of the Lesson Sequence: Open, Body, Close

Open

Body

Close

1. Capture the students’ attention: Share a real object, or try using a story, a picture, a book, a video clip, or a song.

2. Present a problem. (Challenge students to solve the problem through the lesson.) 3. Provide warm-up or review exercises to engage students. 4. Elicit students’ prior knowledge, experience, or opinions about the content. 5. State your objectives. 6. Preview the lesson. 7. Give your expectations for students’ behavior. 8. State the purpose of what they will learn.

1. Present information verbally and through graphic representations. 2. Point out critical attributes, examples, and counter-examples. 3. Model. (Described in Chapter 6.) 4. Read. 5. Discuss. 6. Use hands-on materials. 7. Work in cooperative groups to solve a problem. 8. Make charts and graphs. 9. Use your questions and those of students to explore the content.

10. Do research at the library or on the World Wide Web. 11. Use computer-assisted instruction. 12. Check on students’ understanding. Adjust instruction based on their responses.

1. Restate the objective. 2. Gather individual lesson pieces into a coherent whole. 3. Draw conclusions. 4. Summarize what was learned. 5. Give a brief quiz to assess understanding. 6. Ask students to state something they learned. 7. Revisit prior knowledge charts or graphs from the lesson’s opening. Revise to reflect new

information. 8. Show students how the learning applies to real life, or ask students to make the connections. 9. Ask what students would like to study next, or record their unanswered questions.

10. Write in journals. 11. Connect this lesson to the next by describing the problem to be solved or idea to be

explored for tomorrow. 12. Hold a gallery tour (described in Figure 6.6) for students to appreciate each others’ work.

Activities for different lesson stages.

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Planning for Instruction 105

close, the teacher and students consolidate and extend what they learned. They might bridge back out from the content to their lives outside of class. Figure 5.10 offers some options that may help you as you think about structuring your lessons according to the open-body-close format.

The fossil lesson (shown in Figure 5.11) demonstrates some of these activities in its open-body-close format. Perhaps as you review the lesson, alternative ways of opening, develop- ing, and closing the lesson come to mind. Also, I taught this lesson in a room with little technology available. Think how technology might be used to enhance the lesson and differentiate learning experiences. The fossil lesson illustrates elements common to most lesson plans.

Figure 5.11

Lesson Plan: How Fossils Are Made

Subjects: Science and Reading

Grade: Second (7-year-olds)

Students: 20 children; all English speakers, most reading at or above grade level

Time: 1 hour 35 minutes

Objectives

1. Students will describe the process by which fossils are made in nature.

2. Students will summarize text by sharing two important points from their reading of self-selected portions of a nonfiction text on fossils.

3. Students will explain how the mock fossils they create are the same as and different from real fossils.

Procedure

Reading Portion (35 minutes)

1. Open: On the rug: Complete a five-item opinionnaire on fossils to find out what children know. (In an opinionnaire, respondents mark their agreement with statements such as “Real fossils are made in factories.”) Encourage discussion of each item to get kids talking. (8 minutes)

2. Body: Pair up the children (more accomplished readers with newer readers) and pass out multiple copies of the fossil book. Read the introduction together. Glance at the table of contents. Encourage them to read the table of contents to choose the sections that interest them. Draw upon surprises from the opinionnaire. (5 minutes)

3. Release them to partner read anywhere they like in the room. Those who wish to stay can do a guided reading with teacher on the rug. (10 minutes)

4. Back at the rug discuss something surprising that the children learned by reading. Draw from students’ ideas to explain the process by which fossils are made. Use illustrations from text as support. (8 minutes)

Science Portion (1 hour)

1. On the rug: Show real fossils. Contrast them with a sample fossil made from plaster of paris.

2. Have students make their own mock fossils. Model procedure, then students work as individuals:

a) Pass out and soften plasticine (non-hardening) clay.

b) Release students back to their tables to select items for imprinting: shells, leaves, plastic dinosaurs (already placed at tables).

c) When ready, have students go to back of room on hard floor to mix their own plaster of paris, pour carefully onto plasticine mold.

d) When dry, remove fossils.

3. Close: (May need to follow lunch recess.) Reread the text, compare the process and types of real fossils with class’s mock fossils.

4. Assign homework: “Tell someone at home what you know about fossils. Use yours as an example.”

Assessment: Students describe the fossil-making process, referring to texts and mock fossils.

Fossil lesson.

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106 Chapter 5

Figure 5.12

Lesson Plan

Students:

Time:

Materials:

Concepts/skills:

Standards-based Objectives:

Open: (Time: )

Body: (Time: )

Close: (Time: )

Assessment:

Differentiation:

Lesson plan format.

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Planning for Instruction 107

elements of a Lesson Plan In addition to structuring each of your lessons to include an opening, a development phase, and closure, you should include in your plans information that will keep you organized and that will help you communicate your intentions to yourself during teaching and to others who may wish to follow your instruction. Although you will find a great variety in lesson plans, six elements commonly included in lesson plans include the following:

1. Housekeeping Details: Include contextual information about the students (such as their English language proficiency, reading levels, and behavioral needs) to ensure that you are providing inclusive and responsive instruction, include information about the materials you will require, and address other contextual information that may affect the lesson.

2. Concept, Generalization, or Skill: Remind yourself of the “big idea” you are working toward. Individual lessons should add up to bigger things. You may elect to phrase the larger learning in terms of an essential question. Include target vocabulary terms as well, keeping the number of terms fewer than five.

3. Objectives: State the intended outcomes of your lesson using an observable student behav- ior, the conditions for performance, and the criteria for success. List the relevant content standards. The typical lesson includes one to three objectives. Don’t forget the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.

4. Procedure: Use the open-body-close format to structure what you will do during each step of the lesson. Primarily use general descriptions of what you will say and do. For impor- tant points, or when the content is difficult or new for you, include scripted quotations. Include enough detail so that a substitute teacher could pick up your plan and teach from it, but work on limiting the text. Think of the procedure as a to-do list that you can glance at quickly to remind yourself of what comes next.

Include information about student groupings, the activities different individuals or groups may engage in, and about accommodations and modifications. Include time estimates for good time management and to help you develop realistic expectations for how much time the activi- ties might take.

5. Assessment: Include a plan for how you will assess student learning in terms of the objec- tives and incidental learnings. Note that objectives, activities, and assessments must all align.

6. Differentiation: Include any final notes on special considerations you need to take to attend to students’ needs and interests as appropriate for this lesson.

Figure 5.12 gives a lesson plan format that can be used in many situations. The fossils lesson followed this format, as do lessons in future chapters. As you review these lessons, you may also notice that I tend to plan in fine detail. I am convinced that careful planning enhances teaching, so I encourage you to take great care in preparing good lessons for your students. The more specific and careful your individual lesson plans are, the more confident you can feel in front of the students, the more you will be able to focus on students’ learn- ing rather than on your own words and behaviors, and the more quickly you will learn from experience and be able to streamline your planning. So planning in detail is one “do” for les- son planning.

Lesson planning can be daunting for beginners. Perhaps some “dos and don’ts” may prove useful. When planning lessons, don’t…

1. Reinvent the wheel. Begin with existing materials—of what teachers have already tried— and check your resources. Modify based upon your own stance, students, and standards. Lesson plans are yours for the taking. Your adopted text probably has good ideas. Select from its many ideas those activities that meet the needs and interests of your particular students and that are directly related to your objectives and standards. If you are required to follow the textbook with little variation, study the text to analyze the quality of its activi- ties. You can tweak it just a bit, as necessary, to ensure that you provide well-structured lessons that are appropriate for your students. At the very least, ensure that you can provide a solid rationale for each instructional move you make.

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108 Chapter 5

The Internet is a rich source of lessons as well. Try a search for “lesson plans” related to your topic and grade level. A few likely sources are listed in the Web sites section at the chapter’s close. The Teaching for Tomorrow Tip gives criteria for selecting high-quality lessons from the thousands that reside on the Web. Even if you are inspired by a lesson from the Web, make sure you adapt it to meet your students and standards.

2. Let materials make your important decisions. Planning is not the same as finding work- sheets to fill the time until lunch, or glossing over lessons so that you can finish the book by June.

3. Be intimidated if the content is new to you. Check out some books and hit the Internet to study the information you will be teaching. All teachers should expect to continue to improve their subject-matter knowledge. Here I employ Andrea’s Habit of Mind #8: Master it.

4. Be lured by the promise of “fun.” Student engagement is important (critical, in fact), but not everything that is fun encourages student learning.

Do . . .

1. Focus on thorough and rigorous treatment of the content. Most teachers feel as if they are pushed along by the hands of the clock. Rather than simply mentioning topics without exploring them in depth, consider cutting out topics that do not reflect key standards or that you cannot fully explore. Devote your planning efforts to encouraging lasting and mean- ingful learning.

2. Plan with a partner or team. Experience and a rich supply of ideas help. 3. Anticipate students’ varying responses. Develop alternate plans to address the things that

may possibly go wrong; you need not just have a Plan B but a Plan C as well. It will get eas- ier to anticipate students’ responses with experience, but uncertainty is inherent in teaching.

4. Rehearse, especially if it is the first time you have taught the lesson, the content is particu- larly challenging, or if you have a tough audience.

5. Prepare your materials so you are ready to go. Have your materials at your fingertips so that you feel calm and prepared as you begin your lesson. Test all of your links and digital files in the room where you will use them.

6. Be prepared to scrap your lesson if you need to rethink it or pursue some other path that is likely to lead to significant learning. This applies even if you are being formally observed.

Judging The Quality of Lessons from The Internet • Start your search with highly reliable sources such as professional organizations like the National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics, the International Reading Association, the National Art Education Association, and the National Council of Social Studies. Also check university- and state-based sites.

• Judge a lesson by its substance, not by its label. For instance, any author can claim that a lesson is aligned with the Common Core State Standards. Their claim doesn’t make it so; make that determination yourself.

• When you find a lesson, look for its match with your content standards. Be sure to go beyond a surface-level match and aim for the bigger, transferable ideas.

• Select lessons that address more than one set of standards. For example, lessons can address one or more of the four c’s (critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, or communication), digital literacy outcomes, and English language development standards as they simultaneously address standards from another content area.

• Look for components of effective instruction (more to come in Chapter 6). For instance, lessons should connect with students’ prior knowledge and encourage student interaction.

• Look for rigor and depth. Songs that have students memorize algorithms (such as “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” for the order of operations) may be catchy, but they do not encourage conceptual understanding; they don’t teach the why, or transferable learning.

• Remember, a worksheet printed from the Internet is not inherently better than a worksheet torn from a workbook. A flashcard on a screen may be no better than one in the hand.

TeaChING FOR TOmORROw TIP

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Planning for Instruction 109

Opportunities to Practice 1. Join the conversation. Do some research on what people are

saying about the Common Core. Then read the Common Core (Common Core State Standards Initiative) to assess the veracity of people’s claims.

2. Connect. Join a social network for teachers. A great place to start: Classroom 2.0. Browse the “groups” listed. See if the Classroom 2.0 Beginners group, or some other group, is the group for you. By the way, Classroom 2.0 is a network created on Ning, an online platform where people create their own social networks. My current favorite online community is Art Education 2.0. It focuses on creativity and collaboration, no matter the content area. Maybe I’ll see you there.

3. Pick a single content standard. Write an essential question for it. List some objectives. List a large variety of resources that could be explored in conjunction with it.

4. The taxonomies of educational objectives (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains) are useful in helping teachers to broaden their scope during planning. However, the domains

have been criticized in their application to classrooms. Think about a classroom instance where you learned something that you value greatly. Analyze that experience in terms of the domains of objectives:

• Which domain or domains were primarily involved? • Which levels of understanding or performance were required? • What, if anything, can you conclude about the classroom use

of educational taxonomies?

5. Examine an existing unit that is touted as having a multicul- tural emphasis. Use Banks’s (2005) levels of planning (from Figure 5.13) to determine the extent to which the unit can help students develop a knowledge base and view issues mean- ingfully from multiple perspectives. In terms of its depth of treatment, how representative is the unit you selected of other approaches that claim to be multicultural? Which level of mul- ticultural curricular planning do you see at your site? Is that good or bad?

Parting words One of the reasons that teaching is more difficult than the uninitiated might expect is that so much time is spent outside of instructional hours preparing effective learning experi- ences. There are no shortcuts to good planning. Even teach- ers who are handed scripted materials and are asked to follow the text closely need to bring students and content together through careful planning. The more time and thought you

devote to considering what your particular students need to learn and how you can help them learn it, the more likely they are to succeed.

Teaching is goal directed. This chapter was intended to help you think about structuring experiences likely to result in learning, and Chapter 6 gives advice on breathing life into your plans through your instruction.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 5.6

Figure 5.13 Banks’s (2005) levels of integration for multicultural content.

Level 1: The Contributions Approach

• The mainstream perspective remains unchallenged.

• Study focuses on discrete elements that various cultures have contributed to the mainstream culture: their heroes and holidays.

Level 2: The Additive Approach

• Deeper content is introduced to the curriculum, but the structure of the curriculum remains unchanged.

• Books, readings, or lessons are added to existing materials.

Level 3: The Transformative Approach

• This approach shifts the assumption that there is one mainstream perspective and infuses the perspectives of several groups to enable students to view themes and issues from several perspectives.

• The structure of the curriculum is changed.

Level 4: The Social Action Approach

• Learning activities not only allow students to analyze issues from many perspectives but also require them to commit to personal social action related to those issues.

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110 Chapter 5

extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms CAST. The Center for Applied Special Technology. This is the home site for Universal Design for Learning, including teaching modules and model lessons. Try out the UDL Lesson Builder.

Educational Origami. This blog and wiki addresses 21st- century learning. It has a myriad of resources for Blooms’ taxonomy . . . all digital.

Free Ed. Federal Resources for Excellence in Education. Here find thousands of digital resources organized by subject matter and standards. You can filter by resource type as well.

Kathy Schrock’s Guide to Everything. Take a look at her Bloomin’ Apps (apps for Bloom’s taxonomy) and her iPads4Teaching, among all the great resources.

Search “Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.” Take your pick of the myriad of sites that explain the taxonomy, give examples, and allow you to practice learning it. Try an image search instead

for a quick glance at the wide variety of ways the taxonomy is represented.

The IRIS Center. IRIS stands for IDEA and Research for Inclusive Settings, at Peabody College of Education at Vanderbilt University. Click the “resource locator” and explore plentiful information on special education, including accommodations. Browse by topic or try the learning modules.

Teachers Pay Teachers. This popular site bills itself as “an open marketplace for educators.” You can buy materials from other teachers, and for an annual fee (and a cut of the profits) you can sell your own teaching materials on the site. My listing of the site is not an endorsement of it but a nod to the changing world of curriculum development.

Search “Unit plan template.” You’ll see ideas from many places and organizations about how teachers organize their units.

6. Practice Bloom’s taxonomy by identifying the level of each of the following general teacher statements. Then try writing your own statement at each of the levels.

a. Did the main character make a good choice? Why or why not?

b. Organize the story into parts and give a good title for each part.

c. Tell about some people in real life who have the same problems as the person in the story.

d. Name the characters in the story. e. Tell the story in your own words. f. Make a painting or construction to represent the main

characters in the story.

Key: a: Evaluate, b: Analyze, c: Apply, d: Remember, e:  Understand, f: Create.

7. Write behavioral objectives for some of the following skills and concepts or choose some concepts from your upcoming lessons.

• Composing a five-sentence paragraph • Identifying plot structure in a narrative story • Troubleshooting a hardware glitch • Forming letters in cursive • Explaining causes and effects of an important historical event • Solving challenging story problems in mathematics • Creating a device that throws marbles at least five feet • Serving a volleyball • Responding to a piece of music

• Analyzing the use of color in a painting • Balancing chemical equations • Doing a cartwheel

Analyze your objectives to be certain that each has:

• An observable verb (an action the students will take to demonstrate mastery). Underline the verb.

• Conditions for performance of the observable action. Circle the conditions.

• Criteria for acceptable performance. [Bracket] the criteria.

Explain your work to a devoted friend.

8. Try sketching out a lesson plan for a video-recorded or observed lesson segment.

• Write behavioral objectives to guide the lesson. Write one for both the cognitive and affective domains.

• What materials are required? • Write a brief open-body-close lesson plan for the lesson. • Write a “close” that is logical based on what you see in the

video. • How will you know whether students have mastered the

objectives?

9. Plan a lesson using the open-body-close format. Use the form in Figure 5.12. Choose some objectives for your own students or rewrite one of the plans presented in this chapter. Use this format for other plans that you teach in your own classroom as well. For extra credit, plan this lesson with a peer. Note the benefits of collaborative planning.

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6

Before You Begin Reading Take your pick of Exercise A or B, or, if you like, do both.

Warm-Up ExErcisE a Warm-Up ExErcisE B

Think back to Chapter 1, which presented six propositions for the nature of teaching. How many propositions can you remember? Write as many as you can; then refer back to Chapter 1 to complete the list and check your work.

The Nature of Teaching 1. Teaching looks

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Good for you for taking the time to review and write! The six points you just reviewed provide the foundation for the advice you will find in this chapter. For instance, because teaching is goal directed, I suggest that you be organized when you teach. As you read, think about how these six propositions about teaching are reflected in the chapter’s suggestions.

Think back to an instance when you, with the help of a coach or mentor, learned a new physi- cal skill. Examples include sports and crafts. Make a list of the things that your coach or mentor did that were helpful. What made the coaching successful or unsuccessful?

Physical skill:

Things that helped me to learn the skill:

Things that interfered with my success:

Now generalize. Mark the points on your list that seem to provide advice for classroom teach- ing. Keep them in mind as you read this chap- ter’s advice on instruction. (Thanks to Charlotte Danielson at Educational Testing Service for this exercise.)

Advice on Instruction: Come In

LEarning OUtcOmEs

By the time you finish this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Provide instruction that helps students build connections.

2. Organize instructional time and tasks within the classroom structure.

3. Model desired skills, behaviors, attitudes, and abilities effectively.

4. Apply the importance of “enriched instruction and environment” to your own teaching context.

5. Build instruction with high levels of academic interaction.

6. Describe some instructional implications of your students’ general developmental levels, and give one example of a strategy you use to meet students’ individual needs in your class.

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112 Chapter 6

You’ve chosen a profession where you have the privilege of leading students to learning with pas- sion and commitment. What better way to spend each day of your professional life? The same ardor and diligence that is requisite for learning is necessary too for teaching. Your instruction must be a vigorous pursuit whereby you help students not only learn, but gain control over their learning (Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 2007). Through your instruction, you’ll help students reach for high expectations. You’ll convey to students that they are capable learners whose perspectives matter. You’ll provide goal-driven, organized opportunities to help all students engage deeply in working with new information, building connections, and formulating and testing theories about the world.

Instruction must be driven by a sense of urgency about what must be accomplished in the very short time allotted. It must be driven by genuine regard for students, by unfailing belief in their potential, and by passion for the subject matter and its transformative power (Delpit, 2006; Hattie, 2009; Schussler, 2009). Challenge motivates learning, and a sense of pride in our accomplishments presents true motivation to learn (Bowman, 2007). Thus instruction must cre- ate meaningful challenges–challenges that students believe they can meet–and assistance in meeting those challenges. As you strive to provide excellent instruction, consider your inclusive and responsive mindset, your stance, your goals, and research on teaching and learning.

This chapter helps you make decisions about instruction by exploring six pieces of advice for instruction. Together, these six pieces of advice invite you to help your students . . . COME IN.

• Connect. • Organize your instruction. • Model. • Enrich. • Interact. • Consider human nature and student needs.

Connect Human learning is biologically and socially an endeavor to form connections. Thus, one of our central instructional responsibilities is to connect and to help students form connections. As instructors, we form connections with and among people, we help students connect ideas, and connect their ideas with the real world and action. The rationale for each of these connections is made here. Figure 6.1 assists you and your students in making these varied connections.

Connecting People “All of us yearn for a sense of relatedness or belonging, a feeling of being connected to oth- ers” (Kohn, 1999, p. 21). The first people with whom teachers must connect are their students. Authentic, caring, and respectful relationships lie at the heart of teaching and learning. Students who report connections with their teachers report better attitudes toward education and school, and they have positive school experiences (Markow & Martin, 2005), and reviews of the litera- ture on effective teaching demonstrate clearly the importance of healthy teacher-student rela- tionships for student success (e.g., Goodwin & Hubbell, 2013; Hattie, 2009).

You must also help classroom participants to connect with each other. Helping students to form a cohesive group encourages a safe environment where students will take academic risks, and it can help students learn important lessons about working as members of a group. Additionally, learning strategies that require students to work together are effective in supporting academic achievement (Bowen, 2000; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001; Puzio & Colby, 2013), language development (Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, 2002; Faltis, 2001; Pan & Wu, 2013), and social and emotional growth (Goleman, 1998).

There are plenty of strategies for building a sense of community in a classroom. Most important, teachers must model respect, revealing genuine interest in students as people, and

“Learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with diligence.” —Abigail Adams

Which forces should drive your decisions about selecting instruc- tional strategies?

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 113

Figure 6.1 Tips for “Connect.”

Connecting people • See Ideas for Encouraging Interaction and Active Participation (Figure 6.6), numbers 2, 5, 18–24, 29, and 31.

• Contact students before school to welcome them.

• Learn students’ names the first day. Encourage them to learn each others’ names.

• Make participants’ culture a part of classroom life and the curriculum.

• Give students a space in the room to display items that are important to them.

• Share appropriate information about yourself that reveals your love of learning, your willingness to make mistakes, and your eagerness to apply the content.

• Laugh—and cry—with your students. Tell your own stories and listen to theirs.

• Try Figure 6.6, Ideas for Encouraging Interaction and Active Participation. See numbers 4–6, 12, 18–20, 22, 24, 28, and 29.

• Use project-based learning (Chapter 7).

• Use strategies that place the content in a real context. One example is analyzing news stories.

• Show how information has been important to real people in different times and in different ways.

Connecting to action • Use action projects that allow students to apply their learning. Examples include letter-writing campaigns and community improvement projects.

• Have students share what they know with other audiences, such as families, other students, or the community.

• Try simulations and role play.

• Use guest speakers.

Connecting with Text • Have students make connections between text and self, text, and world. Study Figure 6.2 for an example.

• See Watch and Think 6.1 for a great conversation of two readers making connections to self and text.

• Try Figure 6.6 strategies to elicit connections: 5, 6, 18–20.

• Try Figure 6.6 to check connections through vehicles like 11–13,15, 28, 29, and 31.

Connecting to prior knowledge and experience

Connecting with the outside world and its important ideas

they need to encourage students to do the same for each other. When modeling isn’t sufficient, teachers move to explicit instruction. If one student ridicules another, for example, the teacher’s lesson of the day must necessarily shift to address expectations for how community members are to treat each other. Several engaging techniques can foster a sense of community, as follows:

1. Share expectations: Hold a discussion, perhaps preceded by a journal writing session, of what class members expect from each other. What can students expect from their teacher? How do they expect to be treated by their peers?

2. Use activities that help students get to know each other: Choose from among many pub- lished activities that allow students to learn about each other. In an activity called “Trading Places” (Silberman, 1996), students write a favorite (e.g., book, place, song) on a sticky note, place the note on their shirts, and circulate to discuss each other’s ideas. They negoti- ate trades of sticky notes based on self-selected criteria. Or search “team building activi- ties” online for activities appropriate for your students.

3. Develop an outward symbol or sign to signify a sense of group identity: Create a work of art, a name, a handshake, a logo, or other identification that signals your cohesion as a class. For instance, my cohort of students have named themselves “The Fearless Block 3” and endeavor to live their lives with the “Be fearless” habit of mind.

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114 Chapter 6

4. Share personal histories: One way is to build a class wiki (e.g., Google Presentations) and have students insert digital photos to represent some interest or value.

5. Use new media to build extended community. Used responsibly, social media can allow students to build community not only with their face-to-face peers but with communi- ties of individuals who share interests in specialized pursuits (Ito et al., 2013). Read more about connected learning as a way to broaden students’ access to learning that is socially embedded in community, interest driven, and opportunity oriented (see Ito et al. or visit the Connected Learning site online).

Connecting Ideas Helping students to connect ideas involves connecting to prior knowledge, connecting ideas across contexts, and connecting with text.

Connecting to Prior Knowledge and Experience Learners have experiences and ways of thinking that strongly influence what they will learn and how they will learn it. Research reviewed by Marzano (2004) shows a high positive correlation between what students know about the content when they walk in your door and what they will know when they leave. Let’s test this with a popular exercise. What does this sentence mean? The notes were sour because the seam split. You know each individual word in the sentence, but for most people, the words are not combined in a way that makes sense. However, if you know that the topic is bagpipes, then the meaning of the sen- tence becomes clearer. Your comprehension depends on your background knowledge.

Research also indicates that the background experiences we all have sometimes run con- trary to established fact and accurate explanations of the world. These alternative or growing conceptions can be difficult to change (Driver, 1981; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001; National Research Council, 2000). Research links teachers’ use of student background knowl- edge with achievement (Strong, 2011). Thus, it is critical that you help students find out what they bring to the current learning situation, revise it as necessary, and link it to the new informa- tion. Formative assessments (from Chapter 5) such as pretests and sample problems serve this purpose. So do strategies such as knowledge charts and clinical interviews. Chapter 8, Student Assessment, gives additional strategies that can be of use to you as you make it a point to include preassessment to guide instruction.

We help students link the new to the known through our scaffolds, our efforts to support students’ developing constructions of the subject matter. Scaffolds can be thought of as tempo- rary supports that we gradually withdraw as students gain independence with subject matter. We should select scaffolds—analogies, metaphors, and experiences—that are familiar to students and thus allow them to connect to school knowledge (Delpit, 2006). In one study, teachers’ knowledge of cultural scaffolds was limited in comparison to the many other scaffolds they used to help English learners acquire content (Pawan, 2008). Once again we see the importance of understanding students’ worlds; it helps us help students bridge the new to the known.

Connecting Ideas across Contexts What did you have for dinner last Friday? You probably can’t answer that question immediately. To recall that information, you probably ask yourself a series of questions, perhaps beginning with one like, “What was I doing last weekend?” You can prob- ably retrieve your menu once you trace back the related links.

This exercise argues for how information is stored in our brains—not as isolated bits but as networks of related ideas. To increase the likelihood that information is retained, can be recalled, and is useful in a variety of settings, then, we can help students strengthen the networks in which information is situated. You and your students can consider questions such as: “How does this concept apply in another subject area?” “Where in history do we see this notion?” and “Is this term’s usage in the current context related to its usage in another field?” We need to be explicit in our efforts to help students connect their ideas and use them across contexts.

Connecting with Text “Text” can be broadly defined not just as written language, but as anything that (1) conveys meaning through the use of signs and (2) can thus be interpreted. So, as you think about text, include works in the visual and performing arts, auditory works, and digital and multimedia

Read an example of a class sharing artifacts to explore personal histories.

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 115

sources in your thoughts. The same theoretical stance that suggests that we store information in personally constructed networks—schema theory—also holds that comprehending text involves building a set of connections: connections between self and text, connections of text to text, and connections of text to the world (Keene & Zimmerman, 1997).

Tovani (2000) argues that when teachers help students make these three kinds of connec- tions with text, they support comprehension. Explicitly building text connections, according to Tovani, is effective because it builds motivation and a purpose for reading, supports active engagement in the act of reading, and encourages self-monitoring of comprehension. To help students build the three kinds of connections, you’ll model by thinking aloud, then you might post charts with sample questions to help them build connections, and you’ll monitor and give feedback on the quality of students’ connections. Be sure to stress the importance of meaning- ful connections; not every connection is equally suited for advancing our accurate and deep understanding of text (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000). Figure 6.2 gives two images—two texts—and sample prompts that can help students build connections with these texts.

The Common Core State Standards in English Language Arts place particular emphasis on argumentation from evidence with text-to-text connections. The Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms feature at this chapter’s close directs you to Text to Text, a learning activity at the New York Times blog that helps students build connections using fresh-off-the-press news articles paired with related historical stories.

Connecting to the outside World and Its Important Ideas In connecting to the outside world, teachers provide students with authentic settings for using and developing their academic content. Reality-based approaches provide students with oppor- tunities to enhance their skills at analyzing problems, gathering and summarizing important information, solving problems, and reflecting on their solutions (Cole, 1995). Examples of real- world connections include project-based learning (Chapter 7); reading primary sources such as historical documents and the newspaper; beginning lessons by presenting photographs or real- istic problems; and inviting guest speakers such as scientists, writers, or elected representatives into the classroom. Digital storytelling is another (see the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip). Connect- ing to the real world heightens students’ sense of relevance and enhances motivation to learn, perhaps especially important for your disengaged learners (Kajder, 2006; Schussler, 2009).

Authentic experiences are linked most closely to the settings in which students will use their new understanding. For Duckworth (1996), the essence of intellectual development is the forma- tion of connections or, in her terms, “the having of wonderful ideas.” Wonderful ideas

need not necessarily look wonderful to the outside world. I see no difference in kind between wonderful ideas that many other people have already had, and wonderful ideas that nobody has yet happened upon . . . . In each case, new connections are being made among things already mastered. The more we help children to have their wonderful ideas and to feel good about them- selves for having them, the more likely it is that they will some day happen upon wonderful ideas that no one else has happened upon before. (p. 14; emphasis added)

Watch and think 6.1 Listen as these two young thinkers have a structured conversation about a book they’ve read. In this less-than-four-minute clip, the students make many connections. As you watch, look for connections to self, text, and the world. How do you infer their teacher prompted for these connections?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=uRUsAoyRRHU

Digital Stories

Digital stories are short (e.g., two-minute) multimedia productions that include visual images accompanied by a musical soundtrack and a narration, usually from a piece of personal writing. They tell the lives of everyday people. Digital storytelling is a way to em- power youth while building both literacy and technological competence. Look at your unit plans and decide how you can include digital storytelling as one option for an upcoming assignment. Then look around you for available tools: What cameras are avail- able? What software is available for audio recording and editing? For now, simplify the project to use what you and your students have available, perhaps using widely available presentation software with still images and narration. Get more information at sites like the University of Houston’s site, Educational Uses of Digital Story Telling and the Center for Digital Story Telling. Students are also recording cross-generational stories to connect with grandparents and preserve their personal histories. The University of Maryland, Baltimore County, has one such project. Search Digital Stories@UMBC.

TeAChIng foR TomoRRoW TIP

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116 Chapter 6

Figure 6.2 Connecting with text.

Unit Overview:

• Grade 5 students are studying U.S. history, from pre-Columbian settlements to the present.

• One generalization upon which they will focus is “People develop transportation systems to meet their needs using the resources available to them.”

• They begin their study by making text connections with the images below.

image study:

Source: Edward S. Curtis; July 6, 1908, Edward Curtis Source: Edward S. Curtis; March 11, 1910, Edward Curtis Collection. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Collection. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress Reproduction number LC-USZ62-46966. Congress Reproduction number LC-USZ62-47001.

sample prompts for text connections: connecting to self

1. What, if anything, looks familiar to you from either image? 2. What experiences, if any, have you had with boats similar to those shown here?

connecting texts

3. What do the boats have in common? How are they different?

4. What are your ideas about how the boats’ shapes relate to how they were used?

5. What are the boats made of? Why did the builders choose different materials?

6. Do the images give you any clue to the location of the photos?

7. How would understanding the photos’ locations help us understand the boats?

8. Are there any clues in the photos as to when they were taken?

9. Were they taken at a similar time, or at different times? What’s your evidence?

10. What questions do you have that connect the boats?

11. Which texts would help you answer our questions?

connecting to the World

12. These images were both taken by Edward Curtis just two years apart. What would you like to know about Edward Curtis and his pictures?

13. Edward Curtis visited the Mandan (Image 1) and the Kalispel (Image 2) about a hundred years after Lewis and Clark visited them. Do you make new connections?

14. The Mandan and Kalispel continue to inhabit the lands pictured here. What forms of transportation do you think they use now?

15. Based on our analyses of these images, what can you conclude about people and the forms of transportation they choose?

Connecting to Action Your long view of learners is probably related to students’ future behavior patterns and decision- making abilities. What we teach children, from kindergarten on, should connect to the ways we want them to act now and as adults. They deserve immediate opportunities to act on what they learn. Social action projects can serve as a powerful mechanism to shape schools and com- munities into more humane and inclusive institutions (e.g., Banks, 1997; Nieto, 2004). Another

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chance for students to take action is through service learning, wherein they test and apply their content learning by serving the community (Allen, 2003).

In studying science (including facial anatomy and materials science) and social studies methods in an arts-rich context, Fearless Block 3 participated in the Memory Project. Students received photographs of children living in a group home in Mexico and drew portraits from the photographs, and the project shipped the portraits to the portraits’ subjects as recipients. Block 3 students grew from stretching their own drawing skills to bringing smiles and a piece of portable history to children in another country; I think you’ll see the pride captured in their faces by the photo. When you visit the Memory Project online, you’ll see that artists of all school ages have created more than 60,000 portraits for children in 35 countries.

organize Your Instruction A half century of research documents the importance of clear instruction—teacher clarity—for student learning (Chesebro & McCroskey, 1998; Hattie, 2009; Rodger, Murray, & Cummings, 2007). Teacher clarity includes both your verbal behaviors and your organization. Our messages and activities must be organized so that students understand them. You increase clarity through organization when you:

• Use a logical structure for your instruction. • Signal the structure to your students. • Provide connectors between segments of instruction. • Use instructional supports such as graphic organizers and note-taking guides. • Transition between topics and activities effectively.

Organization also supports student success because it maximizes student learning time. Teachers who waste little instructional time and ensure that students are engaged affect student achieve- ment positively (Miller & Hall, 2009). You need to be organized on more than one level: You need to organize content within and across individual lessons, and you need to organize times and tasks within the larger teaching environment.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning outcome 6.1

Block 3 displays its portraits created for the Memory Project

Source: Nancy Saucedo

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organizing Content Information processing theory reminds us that the human brain chunks information into man- ageable pieces (Miller, 1956). Think back to Exercise B at the beginning of this chapter, where you were invited to think about what a good coach does well. One often-cited coaching skill is the ability to break a complicated task (for instance, sailing, golfing, or driving a manual- transmission car) down into smaller, more easily mastered skills. As does a coach, you need to analyze the content you are teaching. It needs to be broken into chunks before it can be pre- sented in your classroom. What size should the chunks be? What shape? In which order should you present them?

The importance of scaffolding (introduced earlier) also will drive your decisions about how to organize content. Scaffolds allow us to “prop up” our students, giving them just enough support to succeed until they can succeed independently. We organize instruction to gradually withdraw assistance as students demonstrate increasing mastery. Because students vary, you will need to provide more scaffolding for some, less for others, and different sorts of support for still others.

The manner in which you organize the content depends on your knowledge of the students, the amount of time you have with them, and your knowledge of the content itself. Before you teach, ensure that you have a firm grasp of the major concepts you will be teaching and that you understand the relationships among these ideas. Check your understanding by constructing a diagram or other visual representation of your knowledge. One example is a concept map, which relates ideas in a hierarchical structure. Figure 6.9, found in Opportunities to Practice Exercise 3 at the close of this chapter, is a concept map of this entire text.

Being able to organize your ideas into a one-page diagram helps you discover the main points and supporting details so you can structure instruction and arrange your time appropri- ately. Additionally, using graphic organizers, diagrams, and other nonlinguistic representa- tions of the text supports student achievement (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip for more on graphic organizers.

By presenting information in particular ways, your curriculum materials will also provide clues for content organization. Often textbooks follow predictable structures in presenting con- tent. Some typical patterns for the structure of text are suggested in Figure 6.3.

Also think about the organization that would best suit your purposes, even if it differs from the organization used in your curricular materials. Your learners’ developmental levels provide one clue in organizing instruction. A general rule is that the less experience learners have with the content, the smaller the chunks of content need to be. For example, kindergartners, who tend to have fewer background experiences from which to draw, need consistently smaller pieces of content. So do teenagers when exposed to complex information with which they have limited experience. Age and other elements such as the students’ capacity to learn and language profi- ciency affect the amount of experience students have with the content and hence the size of the chunks of information their teachers present.

Interactive Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers aren’t just teacher tools. They can help students organize information as they build a number of 21st-century learning skills such as systems thinking, problem solving, logical reasoning, and creative thinking. Plenty of free interactive graphic organizers and mapping tools are found online at sites like these:

• bubbl.us • Holt Interactive Graphic Organizers • LexIcon Interactive Graphic Organizers • instaGrok • Popplet

• DropMind • FreeMind • WiseMapping • Try the free trial version of popular concept-mapping

programs, Inspiration and Kidspiration, online.

Many of these sites allow for collaborative editing. Find the newest and most popular tools by searching for “best interactive graphic organizers.”

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The most common mistake novice teachers make when organizing content is to include too much information (too many chunks) in a single lesson. I also made that mistake when I taught a reading and science lesson to second graders, as I described in Chapter 5. You read my plan (Figure 5.11) for the hour-and-a-half lesson. I planned to guide the children through some reading experiences and then have them make their own fossils to build an understanding of how fossils are made. Upon reflection, I overestimated second-graders’ experience with text and could improve the lesson by breaking the reading portion of the lesson into even smaller chunks spread over more time.

organizing Times and Tasks The content that you so thoughtfully arrange within individual lessons is placed in a framework of how activities will flow over the course of the day, a daily structure (recall Chapter 5’s discussion of planning). When you are ready to teach, make certain that the class understands and accepts the organizational scheme you have devised. Learners deserve both an overall sense of where the day is headed and clues to let them know where they are on the day’s map. The Inclusive and Respon- sive Teaching Tip provides some techniques for building and sharing your organizational plan.

As you teach, events will conspire to encourage stalls and side trips. Because classrooms are crowded, busy places, it is easy for plans to be forestalled. Students, for instance, may raise interesting questions or bring up points that warrant exploration. Instances like these— teachable moments—are not found explicitly listed in the daily plan book, but they present wonderful opportunities for learning. One difficult aspect of your job will be to decide which moments to pursue because of their rich promise and which opportunities may not be worth the time invested. When the situation arises in my classroom, I sometimes tell students, “You are raising important issues! We can certainly explore them now. We will need to modify our agenda to make room for it by deleting X. Shall we?” Use your professional judgment, and refer back to contents standards and your stance toward education and its important goals, as you decide which paths to pursue. The point is to remain intentional. Keep your goals in mind.

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

techniques for Building and sharing Your Organizational plan

• Ask students for their expectations at the beginning of a class (e.g., “What do you hope to learn this year?”).

• Include an overview to the course, the year, or the upcoming unit on your Web site. Include your regular schedule, too.

• Write a daily agenda on the board. Try allowing learners to provide input by adding, deleting, or rearranging items.

• Provide a graphic organizer that shows how your instruction will be organized.

• Briefly tell students what will happen during the lesson. • Preview the lesson’s major points. • If you intend to lecture, provide a note-taking form that helps

students organize the information. • During the lesson, use internal summaries and transition

sentences so that students see when you are switching to a different point or activity.

• Refer back to your agenda or chart as the lesson progresses. • Draw each lesson to closure. Try summarizing by asking

students to share an important point or ask for input for the next agenda.

Figure 6.3 Some organizational patterns of content.

Organizational Pattern Example

Time sequence Historical events presented chronologically

General principles to specific examples Scientific laws and then real-world examples of them

Specific examples to general principles Letters of the alphabet as examples of vowels or consonants

Topical Aspects of family life within a culture: recreation, food, and work

Cause and effect Historical events and new laws they inspired

Compare and contrast Plants and animals

Problem and solution An enigma and then its solution

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You will no doubt discover that the clearer you are in your priorities and the more organized you are, the less time gets wasted. This is especially true with giving directions. If your directions are clear and students know just what to do, they can jump in and get to work. If your directions are disorganized or unclear, your students will waste time and materials, and you will waste your time and energy reteaching. The Teaching Tip suggests advice for giving clear directions.

It is also easy to lose track of time. If we were to list Murphy’s Laws of Classroom Teaching, at the head of the list might be “Things always take longer than expected.” Keep one eye on the clock and maintain your sense of urgency for all that needs to be accomplished. Use students’ time well.

model In life outside the classroom walls, we often learn by example, by being shown how to conduct ourselves. Modeling, or showing students how to carry out a skill, is a powerful instructional strategy that is linked with student achievement (Cole, 1995; Goldenberg, 2014). Figure 6.4 gives some examples of modeling.

To model, think about what you want students to learn, show them how to do it, watch them try it, and give them feedback on their performance. Modeling is effective for learners of all ages, and it is appropriate in every subject area. Modeling is important for helping students learn behaviors, such as using manners and showing consideration, as well as for helping them master content-area outcomes. When you model, try some of the suggestions in the Teaching Tip.

Digital technology greatly expands our ability to supply good instructional models for our stu- dents. A document camera, for example, allows the students to view in very good detail the teacher’s

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning outcome 6.2

Giving Clear Directions

Ensuring that your directions to students are crystal clear will help you and your students remain organized and productive. When giving directions, remember the following:

1. Limit your directions to no more than three steps. 2. Use more than one form of input: Say your directions aloud, post them, and model them. For

older students, using just two forms of input may suffice. 3. Hold up your fingers to count steps as you state your directions: “The first thing you will do

is . . .” Be certain that, for older students, you use natural phrasing and do not overemphasize the gesture.

4. Check for understanding of the directions before you release students to work: “What is the first thing you will do?” Reteach until students demonstrate understanding.

5. No matter the age of the learner, give your directions immediately before you want students to follow them. Students may forget what to do if you give directions and then talk about some- thing else before releasing them.

TeAChIng TIP

Watch and think 6.2 Before reading this section, watch this four-minute clip. It shows teachers model- ing across grade levels and content areas. Make a quick two-column chart with the headings “Why?” and “How?” Jot down notes as you watch. Here are two entries to get you started: “Why?” “To help students focus their use of materials.” “How?” “Tell students what’s tricky as you model.”

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=6CpN7DDZmvg

Tips for Effective Modeling

1. As you plan, think about the most important elements of the skill or process you will model. List them to draw students’ attention to critical attributes and remember that in many cases students’ performances need not match yours. Their efforts may be both different from yours and good.

2. Verbalize your decisions; talk about what you are thinking and doing. This models metacogni- tion and shows that we understand and have control over our thinking.

3. Provide plenty of good examples, including student models. Point out when the examples are different from each other and say what they have in common that makes them good. Showing different examples—multiple embodiments—helps students focus on the criteria for a success- ful performance.

4. If the behavior is complex, model sections of it and slow down your performance. 5. Model desired behaviors more than once. The less familiar students are with the skill, the more

careful repetitions they need to see. 6. As students emulate your performance, observe carefully and provide specific feedback.

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 121

modeling. Or students may view, for example, video clips that demonstrate how to sign the alphabet or change an oil filter. Recorded clips of a performance are helpful because they can be magnified, played at variable speeds, and repeated endlessly as necessary. As they learn social skills, students with autism are benefiting from software that models emotions in the human face (Tanaka et al., 2010; Tardif, Laine, Rodriguez, & Gepner, 2007). Software that models native pronunciation of a language (English or other target languages) is helpful because the computerized model never tires of being asked to repeat a phrase. Electronic models, then, can help you differentiate your instruction by allowing students who need particular kinds of help to view models targeted to their needs.

Additionally, technology allows us to more easily capture and share appropriate student mod- els, or work samples. Ask for the permission of students (and families, as appropriate) to create and keep electronic copies of their work to serve as models for future students. Sample work created by other students tends to be very well received; such models show students what is possible by someone in their peer group. Also, electronic student models are especially helpful because they

Figure 6.4 Four examples of teacher modeling.

Concepts and Skills Modeling

Tying shoelaces • Mr. Alvarez positions himself on the rug so his six kindergartners can see clearly. • He demonstrates each step of tying a bow, exaggerating and slowing his

motions to make the steps obvious. • He asks the students to verbalize the procedure with him as he ties several

times before handing each student a shoe to tie while he watches.

Cooperating with peers • Having assigned his fourth graders to work in pairs, Mr. Pease reviews his expectations for partner work: “Partners support each other by reaching decisions together. Partners help each other when they get stuck.”

• He invites a student to the front of the room to play the role of his work partner.

• The partners show the class how to compromise to reach decisions and how to use helpful words to get unstuck.

• Mr. Pease reminds the class: “Here’s what cooperation looks like, and here is what it sounds like.”

• Now his students have some specific advice and behaviors to help them work together.

Writing a persuasive • On a projected computer display in her seventh-grade class, Ms. Simon shows essay and reads aloud two examples of good persuasive essays.

• She shares the criteria for effective persuasive writing and states that she will use those criteria to write her own essay.

• She talks through her decisions about selecting a topic and its supporting points.

• As she expresses her decisions, she writes a couple of drafts on the projected computer screen.

• She and the students check to see whether the essays meet the criteria for good persuasive writing.

• She posts her final essay on the class Web site, for students’ later reference.

Solving a challenging • Miss Thompson reads the problem aloud to her ninth graders, varying her word problem in math intonation as she reads critical components of the problem.

• Using the think aloud strategy, she summarizes her understanding of the problem, discusses what she needs to know, and reacts to the problem to show her stance as a problem solver: “This one looks tough, but I have solved similar problems!”

• She attacks the problem on the whiteboard, sharing her decisions for trying certain strategies. When her strategies do not bring immediate success, she shows students how to move forward by trying new approaches.

• When she reaches a solution, she shares the joy she finds in persisting and solving a challenging problem.

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122 Chapter 6

are easy to store, take up little space, do not fall apart over time, and—if shared on the Web or dis- tributed to students—can be viewed by many students repeatedly and simultaneously. If you use electronic models, take precautions to ensure that students submit their own work by structuring the assignment carefully and by providing a variety of models that are different from each other and are still of high quality. Finally, through their modeling, teachers teach more than content-area skills. Good and Brophy (1987) note that through their modeling, teachers shape a healthy group climate, convey an interest in the students as people, and teach ideas about good listening and com- munication habits. Through teacher modeling, students learn to socialize as members of groups, to gain rational control over their own behaviors, and to respect others. Teacher modeling, then, is an important socializing force that helps teachers induce students toward the good.

enrich Because teachers are responsible for presenting a great deal of information to large groups of students in relatively brief periods of time, classrooms tend to ring with auditory input, or teacher talk. Listening is an efficient learning strategy for many students much of the time, but it does have at least six drawbacks:

1. People process information at different rates. 2. Because speech comes in a stream, listeners may not be able to separate main points and

discern the supporting points. 3. It can be difficult for students to contribute to a lecture, change its pace, or connect with its

content. 4. People learn differently (Gardner, 1993). 5. Students may have insufficient experience with the language of instruction or with the content

to comprehend it solely by hearing it. Meaningful instruction for students acquiring English is most often embedded in realistic and rich contexts, as you will recall from Chapter 4 (Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, 2002; Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2004; Hill & Flynn, 2006; Krashen, 1981; Swain, 1985; Thomas & Collier, 2001).

6. Work in human learning suggests that varied stimulation is essential for brain develop- ment. The more varied and frequent the stimulation the brain receives, the more complex its development (Kovalik & Olsen, 2001; National Research Council, 2000).

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning outcome 6.3

Source: Photograph by Ginger Geftakys.

Paola uses the document camera to model an art project for her second grad- ers. The screen behind her shows, greatly enlarged, the art materials on top of a guided drawing she just modeled. Placing the camera in front of the class allows Paola to face her students as she uses the camera.

Watch and think 6.3 Here’s what an enriched environment looks and sounds like. In this five-minute clip, three co-teachers lead a space station experience where students engage in cross- curricular, hands-on learn- ing. What do the teachers see as the benefits from this enriched experience? In your judgment, do the benefits for students out- weigh the substantial time and effort investments by the teachers? What’s one idea that you might apply from this clip to your own context?

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 123

For all of these reasons, teachers need to enrich the learning environment by providing rich input. Think about powerful learning experiences you have had in life. Potent learning experi- ences tend to be full of sensations: new sights and sounds, textures and smells. As you teach, remember to fill students’ lives with authentic—rich and real—opportunities to learn. Focus on meaning. Give students a chance to see and try new things, to hear the music and speech of far- away places, to experience the struggles of those fighting for independence, to touch the moist skin of the amphibians they study, to read and hear the words of people who have shaped history. Figure 6.5 gives some ideas for enriching the learning environment.

Will providing enriched experiences take more of your preparation time than would photo- copying a worksheet page? Almost certainly so. You can minimize your time investment by sav- ing your collections, by inviting students to bring in materials, and by utilizing the expertise of community members and colleagues. On the other hand, do worksheets and book activities have their place in the classroom? Almost certainly so. You will need to balance the kinds of activities and input you provide, checking to see that you select a variety of activities that promote mean- ingful learning. Your efforts to provide rich input will pay off. Remember that you are a window to the world for your students.

Interact In his classic study of U.S. classrooms, Goodlad (1984) witnessed the predominance of “frontal practices,” where teachers stood in front of the room, presenting information and briskly quiz- zing students on factual content. Thirty years later, it appears that teachers are still talking.

In one study, teachers talked eight times more than their students did (National Center for Education Statistics, 2003). Similarly, in a British study, teachers made 75 percent of the class- room discourse moves (Smith, Hardman, Wall, & Mroz, 2004). When students do talk, their utterances tend to be short and dependent on the teachers’ narrow requests for information. This is discouraging for all students, but the news gets worse. Students placed in low groups or tracks have poorer opportunities to interact with content (Chorzempa & Graham, 2006; Oakes 2005). Additionally, the whole-class instruction that predominates in K–12 general education class- rooms cuts opportunities for students with learning disabilities (Vaughn, Hughes, Moody, & Elbaum, 2001). Thus, exactly those students who need enriched opportunities to develop con- tent and language mastery through interaction actually are granted fewer. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip gives one easy way to spread the participation.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning outcome 6.4

Rich environments foster deeper learning

Source: Rawpixel/Fotolia

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Figure 6.5 Ideas for enriching the learning environment.

Look for a variety of ways to present the content and for varied representations of it.

• Meaning: Focus on conceptual understanding, not just rote learning. Provide authentic experiences in the content areas.

• Many kinds of print: Fill your room with books of different genres. Include, too, other kinds of print such as posters, recipes, student-generated work, letters, and signs (Schifini, 1994). Include text in students’ primary language.

• Picture files: Start clipping and saving pictures to support your instruction. Pictures can be used for concept sorts or to encourage small-group discussion. Old magazines and calendars are a good place to start. Many images can be downloaded and printed or projected.

• Realia: Find real objects to provide examples of what you read and study.

• Works of art: Reproductions of great works are available in teaching materials and at libraries. They can set the stage for the study of concepts from the content areas.

• Newspapers and current periodicals: Look in the news for examples of what you are studying. Encourage your students to do the same.

• Technology: See the Web sites at the close of this chapter for resources that can bring the world into your room. • Living things: Instead of assigning only worksheets to study insects, bring in mealworms from the pet store.

Create a worm garden in an aquarium. Grow mold.

• Music: Many students love to sing, and nearly all love to listen. Find recordings to support your study of history and culture. Make instruments in science to study sound.Dance.

• Food: Try foods from different places or that illustrate different scientific or mathematical applications. Make butter as an example of a physical change. When students study about George Washington, bring in George’s favorite breakfast: hoe cakes and tea.

• Real tools: Have your students seen the simple tools they read about in science? Bring in wedges, screws, and pulleys. Encourage students to hunt for them also. Bring in a computer or toaster beyond repair, cut off the plug, and let the students take it apart.

• Models: Use physical models to provide opportunities to study hard-to-reach phenomena such as atoms, planets, rockets, or the human heart.

• Graphic organizers: Provide visual displays of your information. Try Venn diagrams to compare and contrast. Make an outline that students view before they read.

• Guest speakers and visitors: Bring in family members and other guests. Do you know someone who has seen war? Volunteered? Marched in a protest? Named a star? Escaped persecution? Written a book? Played professional sports? Learners’ lives are enriched when they meet people with great accomplishments.

• Field trips: Be certain to prepare your students for the trip by building connections between their studies and what they will be experiencing in the field. List their questions before you go. Consider whether it would be appropriate for your students to record information during the trip. When you return, process the field trip by focusing on what students saw, heard, and learned. Find out if they have answered their questions. Connect questions to past and future study. Even a 10-minute walk can provide abundant learning experiences (Russell, 2001).

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

share the Wealth

When you feel obliged to ask a question, try this: Ask the question. Then say, “No matter what the first answer is, I’m going to call on four more hands.” Wait a few seconds, then call on four in a row.

This strategy can increase student participation for both convergent and divergent questions. Pair students who may need support con- structing a verbal response. If you like, you can have students turn to a neighbor and discuss before asking for a show of hands.

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Teaching is more than telling. Interaction is a critical component of good instruction for all students. Indeed, research underscores the importance of frequent, thoughtfully structured opportunities for content-based interactions in class (Goldenberg, 2014). Interaction allows students to build social skills, to refine their thinking, to consider alternative perspectives, to practice using language, and to provide ongoing assessment information for their teachers. As a result, teaching must be interactional; students must be active participants. Let’s address three particular aspects of interaction here:

• Active participation and progress monitoring • Structured interaction for language development and content mastery • Physical movement during classroom instruction

Active Participation: engagement and Progress monitoring Do you remember Abigail Adams’s words in the opening quote to the chapter? She said, “Learn- ing is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with diligence.” Students who seek learning with ardor and diligence are engaged students. Student engagement is the degree to which students invest wholeheartedly in learning and the activities of schooling (Newmann, 1992). Engaged students are more likely to learn (Marzano, 2007), to find passion in learning, to graduate from high school, and to go on to college (McCarthy & Kuh, 2006). Indeed, students’ interest in a topic or activity can be a better predictor of success than their abil- ity (Naceur & Schiefele, 2005). Our instructional practices directly affect student engagement; one factor that enhances student engagement is the extent to which students are expected to par- ticipate actively during lessons.

Active participation strategies are the teachers’ explicit efforts to ensure that all students overtly engage in the lesson’s activities. Figure 6.6 gives a list of thirty-one low-tech ideas for encouraging active participation. Some strategies are best for checking content mastery and others for sharing students’ perspectives. Mastery strategies are listed first in each section.

Many of these active participation suggestions have higher-tech twins. For example, stu- dent response systems offer a digital alternative to opinionnaires (#4) and flash cards (#7). Students can use their own devices or special hardware to send data to their teachers’ com- puter, which quickly analyzes responses and projects results. Too, some teachers run back channels, during class, often through Twitter, so that students can make brief anonymous comments and ask questions during the lesson. Many Web-based programs, some with free versions (such as Poll Everywhere), employ texting for audience responses, and Web 2.0 tools such as Socrative, TodaysMeet, and Padlet allow students to respond during a lesson. High or low tech, as you select active participation strategies, remember that you need to use a variety of strategies, and those you select should be consistent with your goals and your learners’ needs. Active participation strategies support participation and academic suc- cess. They break the traditional pattern of the teacher doing most of the talking while stu- dents either listen quietly or respond, one at a time, to the teacher’s numerous questions. For instance, when students use response cards (or flash cards, #7 in Figure 6.6) rather than hand raising, instances of misbehavior decrease and participation and achievement increase sig- nificantly for students both with and without disabilities (George, 2010; Horn, 2010; Munro & Stephenson, 2009; Randolph, 2007). The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip shares an active participation strategy that can balance the power scales for students who need more opportunities to be viewed as competent: audience plants (Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 2007).

Active participation strategies also provide for progress monitoring. They provide informal assessment opportunities so that you can determine whether and what students understand and pro- vide instructive feedback. Feedback is one of the most important activities teachers can employ to improve student learning (Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2005). To be effective, feed- back must provide information related to students’ performance. It should relate directly to students’ responses and provide specific suggestions. See the Teaching Tip. Such feedback corrects misun- derstandings and reinforces learning. Active participation strategies provide a perfect opportunity to provide timely, specific feedback. Imagine how much more powerful active participation strategies can be than are the traditional queries, “Does anyone have a question? Anyone not get it?”

Watch and think 6.4 In this three-and-a-half- minute clip, high school teachers interact with their theater students. Watch how the teacher observes the students’ work and then gives feedback to help the students improve. Then he watches again. What are the features that add to the quality of his feedback? How did he and his co-teacher build oppor- tunities for feedback into their groups?

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Figure 6.6 Active participation strategies: thirty-one ideas for encouraging interaction and active participation.

Give prompts to discover what students know, think, feel, have experienced, and wonder.

Teacher–Student Interactions

“Tell Me” 1. Choral response: When questions have convergent, brief answers, all students respond at once instead of one at a time. Teacher records and discusses items with muddy responses.

2. Whip: Everyone shares a brief response (word, phrase, or sentence) to a topic or question. Contributions move from one student to the next with no teacher intervention. Students are allowed to “pass.”

3. Stand to share: All stand when they have developed a response to a question such as, “What was an important point in the chapter?” One person shares aloud, and all with the same or similar responses sit. Sharing continues until all are sitting (Kagan, 1994).

4. Opinionnaire: All respond privately to a set of statements related to the current topic, such as, “Efforts to clone humans are wrong.” Responses can be formed as agree or disagree or as numbers that indicate degrees of agreement. Teacher leads a discussion to elicit students’ responses.

5. Share a story: Teacher elicits students’ stories related to the topic. If there are many stories, students can tell their stories to smaller groups or to partners. For instance, “I have told you a story about crickets in my apartment. I would like to hear a true cricket story that you may have.”

6. Student questions (Dillon, 1988): Teacher provides time for students to formulate their questions about a topic. He might record them for discussion and study. For example, “We will be studying space. I have always wondered why stars twinkle. What do you wonder about space?”

“Show Me” 7. Flash cards: Individually or in groups students hold up color-coded or other flash cards in response to teacher’s or peers’ mastery questions. For example, teacher asks questions about the federal government, and students hold up red for legislative, yellow for executive, or blue for judicial. Students can also ask the questions.

8. Hand signals: Students hold up numbers of fingers to respond to mastery questions (e.g., “How many sides on a triangle?”). Other gestures can also be used. For instance, “I will watch while you draw a triangle in the air.”

9. Whiteboards: Students record responses on individual boards, then show teacher or peers. Some examples include spelling words, cursive letter formation, French vocabulary, and brief math exercises.

10. Letter and number tiles: Students have sets of ceramic, magnetic, or tag board tiles displaying letters of the alphabet or digits 0 through 9. They display their tiles in response to tasks from the teacher or peers. For instance, “Build an even number that is greater than 50.” Or: “Round 5,723.86 to the tenths place. I will come around and check your tiles.”

11. Comprehension check: Students complete brief quizzes, written by teacher or pulled from existing materials, at the beginning or end of class. Students check their own work and analyze what they need help with before passing their papers to teacher.

12. Quick write: Students respond in writing to a prompt. For example, “Before we read this chapter, please take a minute and write about a time when you felt powerless.” Quick writes can spur discussion and allow all students to express feelings or experiences in writing, even if they choose not to share aloud. Quick writes are not graded.

13. Fuzzy points: Near the end of a lesson, students anonymously record their fuzzy points, the concepts about which they are still unsure. Teacher collects and analyzes them for the next time.

(Continued)

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

audience plants

1. Before the lesson, select brief content that can be shared by a student. You might select a question you want someone to ask or short answers you want someone to give.

2. If your students read, give them the content on paper along with a plea for secrecy.

3. Select one to three students and speak with them quietly before the lesson, teaching them the cue for when during the lesson they should share information. Tell them that they should use their best acting skills so that people don’t know they are plants.

4. During the lesson, give the cue (for instance, ask, “What questions do you have?” scratch your nose, or ask the cue question).

5. Allow your audience plants to share their information.

6. There is often a strong positive reaction from the audience to the content shared by their peers. Decide whether you will share your strategy with the class.

Here’s an example. Before Phil Campos taught his fifth-grade social studies lesson, he surreptitiously took the intermediate English learners outside and taught them their lines. They rehearsed, and on cue during the lesson, they shared their information smoothly. Phil noticed that after this lesson, his audience plants spoke spontaneously more often and demonstrated more confidence. Their English- only peers initiated more conversation with them as well.

Phil Campos

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 127

Figure 6.6 (Continued)

Student–Student Interactions

14. Peer coach: In pairs, students take turns serving as coach and coachee. Coach observes coachee solve a problem and provides praise and suggestions. Roles switch. Teacher circulates to check for accuracy and social skills (Kagan, 1994).

15. Student-led recitation: Students prepare written comprehension and challenge questions over course and reading material. They sit in a circle and take turns asking, answering, and evaluating each others’ questions and responses (Dillon, 1988).

16. Numbered heads together: In small groups, students number off. Teacher (or a peer) asks a question, and group members put their heads together to discuss. Teacher calls on one number to respond for each group (Kagan, 1994).

17. Toss the ball: Students give a response to a factual or opinion question and toss a Koosh ball, Nerf ball, or other soft ball, to a peer, who becomes the next to answer or question.

18. Talk to your partner: Students turn and discuss with a nearby partner. For instance, “Tell your partner about an animal you know with protective coloration.”

19. Peer interview: Students ask their partners questions about their experiences with a certain topic.

20. Values line up: Present a prompt that is likely to elicit a wide range of responses. For instance, “To help the environment, families should own only one car.” Have students numerically rate their agreement with the statement and then line up in order of their numerical ratings, 1 to 10. Split the line in half and pair students with extreme scores (1 goes to 10). Instruct them to give their responses and rationales and then to paraphrase each other’s points of view. Draw conclusions as a class once students are again seated.

21. Scavenger hunt: Prepare a scavenger hunt form that encourages discussion of students’ varied backgrounds and knowledge. Allow students to circulate and record the names of peers who fit certain criteria. For instance, “Find someone who has seen a famous monument.” You can also make the prompts content oriented. Students might be required to find the match for their chemical symbol, for instance.

22. Group chart: In groups, students draw diagrams or charts to illustrate the content. Charts are displayed for class review and comparison.

23. Group problem: Each member of a small group is given a vital piece of information necessary to solve a problem. Only when students share their information can they solve the problem together.

24. Snowballs: Invite students to record their questions or perceptions on a sheet of paper. Then have them crumple the sheets into wads and, on your signal, toss them across the room. After the chaos subsides, students open the wad nearest them and respond to the question or add their own perspective in writing. Toss and respond a few times so that students can read a variety of perspectives. Process by asking for themes or questions that need to be addressed.

25. Student quiz: Students develop written quizzes to check their peers’ mastery. They check the content before handing papers to teacher. As an option, students can complete quizzes in groups.

26. Follow the leader: One partner gives oral directions as the other partner tries to draw, make, or build a construction that fits the leader’s description. Roles switch. Teacher leads discussion about effective communication.

27. Sorts: In small groups, students sort objects (such as leaves or small tools) or ideas (recorded on cards such as elements on the periodic table). In open sorts, students choose but do not reveal their criteria for sorting. Peers discern the criteria by observing groups. In closed sorts, students follow the grouping criteria given by the teacher or a peer. Older students can use multistage classifications; younger students may group by one attribute only.

“Tell Each Other” (Be sure to process these activities. Come together as a class and briefly share. Discuss findings.)

“Show Each Other”

(Process these activities, too.)

Give prompts to discover what students know, think, feel, have experienced, and wonder.

Teacher–Student Interactions

“Tell Me” 1. Choral response: When questions have convergent, brief answers, all students respond at once instead of one at a time. Teacher records and discusses items with muddy responses.

2. Whip: Everyone shares a brief response (word, phrase, or sentence) to a topic or question. Contributions move from one student to the next with no teacher intervention. Students are allowed to “pass.”

3. Stand to share: All stand when they have developed a response to a question such as, “What was an important point in the chapter?” One person shares aloud, and all with the same or similar responses sit. Sharing continues until all are sitting (Kagan, 1994).

4. Opinionnaire: All respond privately to a set of statements related to the current topic, such as, “Efforts to clone humans are wrong.” Responses can be formed as agree or disagree or as numbers that indicate degrees of agreement. Teacher leads a discussion to elicit students’ responses.

5. Share a story: Teacher elicits students’ stories related to the topic. If there are many stories, students can tell their stories to smaller groups or to partners. For instance, “I have told you a story about crickets in my apartment. I would like to hear a true cricket story that you may have.”

6. Student questions (Dillon, 1988): Teacher provides time for students to formulate their questions about a topic. He might record them for discussion and study. For example, “We will be studying space. I have always wondered why stars twinkle. What do you wonder about space?”

“Show Me” 7. Flash cards: Individually or in groups students hold up color-coded or other flash cards in response to teacher’s or peers’ mastery questions. For example, teacher asks questions about the federal government, and students hold up red for legislative, yellow for executive, or blue for judicial. Students can also ask the questions.

8. Hand signals: Students hold up numbers of fingers to respond to mastery questions (e.g., “How many sides on a triangle?”). Other gestures can also be used. For instance, “I will watch while you draw a triangle in the air.”

9. Whiteboards: Students record responses on individual boards, then show teacher or peers. Some examples include spelling words, cursive letter formation, French vocabulary, and brief math exercises.

10. Letter and number tiles: Students have sets of ceramic, magnetic, or tag board tiles displaying letters of the alphabet or digits 0 through 9. They display their tiles in response to tasks from the teacher or peers. For instance, “Build an even number that is greater than 50.” Or: “Round 5,723.86 to the tenths place. I will come around and check your tiles.”

11. Comprehension check: Students complete brief quizzes, written by teacher or pulled from existing materials, at the beginning or end of class. Students check their own work and analyze what they need help with before passing their papers to teacher.

12. Quick write: Students respond in writing to a prompt. For example, “Before we read this chapter, please take a minute and write about a time when you felt powerless.” Quick writes can spur discussion and allow all students to express feelings or experiences in writing, even if they choose not to share aloud. Quick writes are not graded.

13. Fuzzy points: Near the end of a lesson, students anonymously record their fuzzy points, the concepts about which they are still unsure. Teacher collects and analyzes them for the next time.

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128 Chapter 6

Figure 6.6 (Continued)

28. Brainstorming and fact-storming: Students in groups record as many ideas as they can generate related to a topic or solutions to a problem. Praise is given for fluency (number of ideas) and flexibility (variety of ideas). In fact-storming, students record as many relevant facts as they can. Facts can be grouped and labeled, or they can be placed on a chart for future revisions and additions.

29. Partner journals: Students can be paired anonymously or with friends. They respond to classroom activities and content by writing to each other. Teacher chooses whether to collect and review journals.

30. Blackboard blitz: During small-group work, representatives from each group simultaneously record their group’s best ideas on the board. All students can view each others’ ideas, and work continues while students write on the board (Kagan, 1994).

31. Gallery tour: Upon completion of individual or group projects, students place their projects on desks and tour the room to view other works. Students can respond to each other’s works on sticky notes or on a response sheet for the author.

Student–Student Interactions

14. Peer coach: In pairs, students take turns serving as coach and coachee. Coach observes coachee solve a problem and provides praise and suggestions. Roles switch. Teacher circulates to check for accuracy and social skills (Kagan, 1994).

15. Student-led recitation: Students prepare written comprehension and challenge questions over course and reading material. They sit in a circle and take turns asking, answering, and evaluating each others’ questions and responses (Dillon, 1988).

16. Numbered heads together: In small groups, students number off. Teacher (or a peer) asks a question, and group members put their heads together to discuss. Teacher calls on one number to respond for each group (Kagan, 1994).

17. Toss the ball: Students give a response to a factual or opinion question and toss a Koosh ball, Nerf ball, or other soft ball, to a peer, who becomes the next to answer or question.

18. Talk to your partner: Students turn and discuss with a nearby partner. For instance, “Tell your partner about an animal you know with protective coloration.”

19. Peer interview: Students ask their partners questions about their experiences with a certain topic.

20. Values line up: Present a prompt that is likely to elicit a wide range of responses. For instance, “To help the environment, families should own only one car.” Have students numerically rate their agreement with the statement and then line up in order of their numerical ratings, 1 to 10. Split the line in half and pair students with extreme scores (1 goes to 10). Instruct them to give their responses and rationales and then to paraphrase each other’s points of view. Draw conclusions as a class once students are again seated.

21. Scavenger hunt: Prepare a scavenger hunt form that encourages discussion of students’ varied backgrounds and knowledge. Allow students to circulate and record the names of peers who fit certain criteria. For instance, “Find someone who has seen a famous monument.” You can also make the prompts content oriented. Students might be required to find the match for their chemical symbol, for instance.

22. Group chart: In groups, students draw diagrams or charts to illustrate the content. Charts are displayed for class review and comparison.

23. Group problem: Each member of a small group is given a vital piece of information necessary to solve a problem. Only when students share their information can they solve the problem together.

24. Snowballs: Invite students to record their questions or perceptions on a sheet of paper. Then have them crumple the sheets into wads and, on your signal, toss them across the room. After the chaos subsides, students open the wad nearest them and respond to the question or add their own perspective in writing. Toss and respond a few times so that students can read a variety of perspectives. Process by asking for themes or questions that need to be addressed.

25. Student quiz: Students develop written quizzes to check their peers’ mastery. They check the content before handing papers to teacher. As an option, students can complete quizzes in groups.

26. Follow the leader: One partner gives oral directions as the other partner tries to draw, make, or build a construction that fits the leader’s description. Roles switch. Teacher leads discussion about effective communication.

27. Sorts: In small groups, students sort objects (such as leaves or small tools) or ideas (recorded on cards such as elements on the periodic table). In open sorts, students choose but do not reveal their criteria for sorting. Peers discern the criteria by observing groups. In closed sorts, students follow the grouping criteria given by the teacher or a peer. Older students can use multistage classifications; younger students may group by one attribute only.

“Tell Each Other” (Be sure to process these activities. Come together as a class and briefly share. Discuss findings.)

“Show Each Other”

(Process these activities, too.)

Providing Effective Feedback

• Effective feedback allows learners to close the gap between their current performance and the goal.

• Provide feedback that will help students answer all three questions: “Where am I going?” “How am I going?” and “What’s next?” (Think: feed up, feed back, and feed forward.)

• Praise, along with extrinsic rewards and punishment, is the least effective form of feedback. Instead, focus your feedback on ensuring that students have accurate information about their performance related to the task, about the necessary processes for completing the task, and about their self-regulation efforts to accomplish the task. (Hattie & Timperley, 2007)

• Wiggins (2012) reminds us that effective feedback is different from advice. Rather than containing “you should” statements or evaluating an effort, effective feedback is related to the goal, concrete, specific, useful to the learner, and timely.

TeAChIng TIP

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 129

Figure 6.7 Structuring interaction for English learners: checkpoints for sheltering instruction.

Supportive environment Reflects and values students’ cultures and community norms Encourages language experimentation Fosters motivation (downplays explicit or negative corrections and reinforces progress)

Content focused Grade-level content standards Literacy objectives in reading, writing, listening, and speaking Develops social, academic, and specialized English Focuses on a limited number of key ideas Develops key vocabulary terms systematically

Context embedded Purposeful use of language Meaningful to students Ties to students’ prior knowledge and experience Plentiful use of objects and activities that provide context (realia—or real items—props, images, recordings, and demonstrations)

Comprehensible input Modified text (simplified, alternate forms) Modified speech (caretaker speech: enunciation, slower rate, matches students’ level, repetition) Use of primary language for support Guides instruction (clear directions, checks for understanding, reviews, opportunities to practice) Scaffolding (appropriate support)

Increased interaction Includes teacher–student content-driven conversations Includes student–student content-driven conversations Room is arranged for interaction Various groupings (pairs, small groups) Maximizes student talk All participants foster language use (wait time, elongated responses)

Emphasis on higher- Challenging content expectations level thinking Higher-level tasks such as evaluation and analysis

Teach strategies for powerful learning

Structured Interaction for Language Development Your students who are English learners rely on you to build opportunities for structured interactions that support their language development. In addition to comprehensible input, your instruction must include opportunities to produce spoken and written English—to produce com- prehensible output. By structuring interactions carefully, you help students work toward the tri- ple goals of English acquisition, content mastery, and social growth. Figure 6.7 builds on those priorities by providing checkpoints for structured interactions for English learners.

Every K–12 student should have structured opportunities to gain more powerful control over the English language, including the content-specific discourse considered “the language of the discipline.” Students practice and refine their language through multiple opportunities to use it.

Also, language provides a powerful vehicle for supporting content mastery. Meaningful opportunities to engage in elaborated, higher-level, subject-based conversations promote learn- ing (Brophy, 1997) through academic vocabulary, higher-order thinking skills, and literacy skills (Michaels, O’Connor, Hall, & Resnick, 2010; Zweirs & Crawford, 2011). As a result, there is currently great interest, both within the Common Core and beyond it, in increasing students’ opportunities and skills for participating in structured discussions or extended student-to-student discussions that build new understandings of the content. Content conversations are addressed more specifically in Chapter 7, Instructional Models and Strategies. As you select strategies and plan and implement your lessons, then, ensure that you build in opportunities for students to use language frequently and purposefully. Review Figure 6.6 for supports for you in this goal by

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130 Chapter 6

providing a variety of strategies to increase student interaction and talk. Be sure to vary the size of groups in which students interact and vary the partners regularly.

Physical movement during Classroom Instruction Student engagement in lessons is clearly associated with student achievement (Marzano, 2007), and when energy lags, so does engagement. Physical movement during content instruction is one way to increase energy and engagement. Physical movement gives students an opportunity to interact with a variety of peers, to increase blood and oxygen flow to the brain (Corbin, 2008; Jensen, 2005), and to refocus during subsequent periods of sitting. Additionally, it provides stu- dents who need higher levels of physical activity to channel their energy toward content learning.

There are many simple ways to provide productive physical activity in service of student learning during your lessons, no matter the subject. From Figure 6.6 you can use stand to share, values line up, scavenger hunts, and gallery tours. Here are five more, some from Marzano (2007):

1. Stand and Stretch: After ten minutes of lecture, ask students to stand and stretch. Challenge them with a flexibility test if you like.

2. Physical Representations: Ask students to stand and use their bodies—independently or in small teams—to represent concepts such as letters of the alphabet, angles of different mea- sures, or abstract concepts such as communalism.

3. Eye Contact Partners: To process information, ask students to make eye contact with a peer across the room. At a signal, ask them to meet with their peer, papers in hand, and discuss their notes, work a problem together, develop three questions about your content, or raise two plausible objections to the conclusions you drew.

4. Appointment Partners: Before the lesson, have students travel the room with an appoint- ment sheet, signing up two or three partners for an hour lesson. Stop periodically during the lesson and have students meet with their appointment partners to discuss the content.

5. Vote with Your Feet: Have students express opinions by moving to specified areas in the room at your signal. For example, “If you think climate change is the most pressing issue we face, you’ll come stand near the bookcase. If you think disease is the most pressing issue . . .” Allow students to discuss responses with people in their area before sharing with the group and listening to alternative opinions.

Consider human nature and Student needs Finally, when we start with the students, our instruction reflects students’ current physical and emotional states, and it should reflect an understanding of human nature. What you know about how humans learn and behave should be reflected in your teaching. For example, we know that people are more likely to engage in activity if they are motivated to do so. Glasser (1986) states that humans have five motivations. These include the need to be safe, belong, acquire power, be free, and have fun. Your instruction will be more successful if you ensure that those needs are met.

Other examples abound. For instance, we know that people have limited ability to take in new information and that they need opportunities to process—to think about—what they hear. As a result, you will need to vary your activities within a single lesson. We know, too, that people tend to protect themselves from public displays of ignorance. For that reason, you will create an environment where risk taking is the norm and students feel free to express their questions and wonderful ideas. Using strategies such as partner discussion instead of whole-class discussion can lower students’ perceptions of personal risk. The Teaching Tip includes a concrete example of how you can capitalize on human nature, specifically on how memory works by starting your lessons with a bang.

We must also recognize that at different times in their lives, humans vary predictably: They change, or develop, over time. You will need to carefully observe your students to note their cur- rent levels of physical, emotional, and cognitive development and to propel them toward more sophisticated levels. Watch their physical skills, the ways they interpret problems, the ways they play or talk together on the school grounds, and listen to the issues they consider important.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning outcome 6.5

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 131

From your readings, observations, and conversations, your understanding of your students will become richer and more reliable explanations of human development.

New media present resources that, when used wisely and evaluated carefully, can help teach- ers capture human nature and address highly specific needs. In terms of human nature, students tend to find digital technologies to be motivating. Good software addresses human needs such as the need for feedback on performance, the desire to explore and test ideas, and the benefits of multimodal presentations. Given the popularity of computer gaming and its ability to motivate many people, for instance, experts in a number of fields are currently seeking ways to harness the power of digital gaming to teach critical thinking in the schools (Federation of American Scientists, 2006). Well-designed digital games support student motivation and engagement, and many suggest that they can be used to teach today’s highly valued outcomes like collaboration and problem solving. “Perhaps what is most unique about digital games—as opposed to any other learning innovation—is the combination of motivation, engagement, adaptivity, simula- tion, collaboration, and data collection that can’t be achieved at scale any other way” (McClarty, Orr, Frey, Dolan, Vassileva, & McVay, 2012, p. 23). The link between digital games and aca- demic performance isn’t yet well established, but gaming at its best presents content in ways that students find motivating and that are consistent with their developmental abilities.

Finally, considering human needs and nature entails you looking beyond students’ similari- ties and facing again the fact that each of your students comes to you with a unique constellation of characteristics, with an idiosyncratic set of strengths and issues. You must value all students and the contributions they will make to your life and work. When asked what you teach, perhaps your first response will be, “I teach people.”

Openers

Because of the primacy effect, people tend to remember the first things they hear and see. Make your first minutes count! Start your day or your lesson with an opener that catches students’ attention and draws them into the content. Here are some samples.

• “In your small groups, make a list of four events that group members’ families celebrate or honor. Each group member’s family must be represented. Write each event on a sentence strip and come place them on the board.” (The lesson that follows is on ritual as an aspect of culture.)

• “Here’s a picture of my dog. In your group, estimate how many teeth a dog has.” (Or use some photos of students’ pets. The lesson that follows is on digestion, which starts in the mouth.)

• “Use this string to shape an outline of Peru. We’ll compare in two minutes.” (The lesson that follows is on South American geography.)

• “Read these headlines about the Bay of Pigs and pick the one that is false.” (The lesson that follows is on President Kennedy’s foreign policy.)

• “Every generation has its protest songs. Who can name one? Now listen to this one and discuss: What are they protesting?” (The lesson that follows is on the First Amendment.)

In addition to being memorable, openers allow you to make curricular links, practice past concepts, and address standards or topics that might not otherwise fit.

Head’s up: There is a recency effect, too. People also tend to remember the last thing they hear. What does this tell you about how you close your lesson and day?

TeAChIng TIP

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning outcome 6.6

Parting Words This chapter recognizes again the incredible power of a teacher to affect student success. It is through our instruc- tion, the first paragraph of the chapter argued, that we help students reach for high expectations (ours and theirs) through goal-driven, organized opportunities to help them all engage deeply in the content and develop as individuals

and communities. The six pieces of advice—Connect, Organize, Model, Enrich, Interact, and consider Needs and nature (COME IN)—can take you and your students a great distance as bridge builders constructing meaning and finding places in the world.

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132 Chapter 6

opportunities to Practice 1. Use the form in Figure 6.8 to analyze a lesson. You have two

choices: • Analyze a peer’s lesson or one from your master teacher or

mentor.

Figure 6.8 Lesson analysis: COME IN.

Advice Evidence

Connect To prior knowledge:

To important ideas or the real world:

To action:

Participants:

Organize Content:

Time and activities:

Model Draw attention to critical attributes:

Use appropriate number and pace of repetitions:

Enrich Provide rich experiences:

Interact Strategies for active participation (verbal? written?):

Structured interaction for language development:

Progress monitoring:

Nature and Needs Human nature:

Developmental needs:

Physical movement:

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Advice on Instruction: Come In 133

• Analyze one of your own plans, perhaps one you wrote as you studied Chapter 5.

2. Take another look at the fossils lesson in Figure 5.11. Use the lesson analysis in Figure 6.8 to analyze whether, during the les- son, I followed my own advice. Record any evidence you find and then draw a conclusion for each of the six pieces of advice.

3. Implement and practice one or more aspects of COME IN through mini-lessons. Try the following examples to get you started:

• Create a semantic map or some other graphic organizer for a piece of text that either you or your students will read in the coming days. Use paper and pencil or one of the tools found in the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip, page 121. A concept map of this text, found in Figure 6.9, offers an example.

• Write a daily agenda and share it with your class. Invite students’ reactions and modifications.

• Write and give a set of directions for how you want students to spend the first five minutes in your classroom each day. Use the advice for directions given in the Teaching Tip, page 123.

• Model a new behavior, either for your students or for a willing friend. Select a skill or technique that is unfamil- iar to your audience and, after modeling the skill, ask for feedback on which elements of your modeling were most successful.

• Plan to use one active participation strategy ( Figure 6.6) in an upcoming lesson. If you are not currently teaching, select a strategy from Figure 6.6 that could have been used during a lesson you recently experienced as a student.

• After an online search, make a poster of conversational moves for a content conversation. Find a likely topic for a content conversation and write a prompt. Teach students the conversational moves during your first content conversation.

• Add one resource to your classroom materials. Consider adding to your picture file, make a Pinterest board, or find or construct a model for a concept that is difficult to learn. Create a bookmarking site to collect your resource Web sites into one location. Try the free version of Portaportal.

• Commit to opening an upcoming lesson with an activity that accesses students’ prior knowledge. Seek to value the cul- tural experiences that students share.

• Watch students either during break time or during unstruc- tured class time. What is the range of differences you note in their physical development? Their social development? Their reasoning? How could you improve your instruction by using this specific information? If you are not teaching, try observing people at a playground or other public place. What conclusions can you reach about physical, social, and moral functioning?

Figure 6.9 Concept map of K–12 classroom teaching textbook.

Occurs at all stages of

Modified by

Distinct nature (Ch 1)

In flu

en

ce s

Enacted throug h

M ea

su red

by

Teaching

Which interact

Continuous growth in the profession

(Ch 11)

A Stance (Ch 2)

Students (knowledge of and

commitment to) (Ch 3)

Informed by

Are related Decisions

regarding discipline (Ch 10)

Management of learning environment

(Ch 9)

Instruction

• goals • outcomes • activities • sequences

Establishes

Assessment (Ch 8)

Planning (Ch 5)

Inclusive and responsive

(Ch 4)

General principles

(Ch 6)

Models and strategies

(Ch 7)

Is guided by

Has Is enriched by

Is guided by

Begins with

Which drive decisions related to

Constrain and enhance

Constrains and enhances

Employs

Mu st

be

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134 Chapter 6

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms The Google suite. So much can be done with Google Maps, Google Earth, Google Cultural Institute . . . in addition to the commonly used blogging tool “Blogger” . . . .

The History Channel. Listen to historic speeches such as Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech and Amelia Earhart’s discussion of the future of women in flying. I can imagine start- ing class each day with “This Day in History.”

Library of Congress. An incredible source for U.S. and world history and culture.

Exploratorium. Museum of science, art, and human percep- tion. An award-winning site, this one will appeal to students and includes many resources for educators. Click on “Explore” and then browse by resource topic or type. You’ll find great resources, from apps to Web sites.

Fun Brain. This site provides content such as online books and games for K–8 content. Many of the games are great for a center activity on the interactive whiteboard.

National Gallery of Art. You can search the gallery’s collection. Click on “education” and take a look at the teacher resources. NGA Kids has online activities that teach art history and art effectively.

National Geographic Society. The natural and social worlds at your fingertips! I find terrific images at Photo of the Day to spark discussions at the start of a lesson.

National Library of Virtual Manipulatives. This site gives math- ematics manipulatives-based activities across the math strands and grade levels. Excellent challenge problems are provided to

use in a center for early finishers or for differentiating instruc- tion. Good for the interactive whiteboard, too.

The Learning Network: Teaching and Learning with the New York Times. This site includes rich resources for teachers and learners based on the content of the New York Times. A great recent addition: Text to Text. A current headline and article are juxtaposed with an article from the past. You are guided through the analysis with ideas and activity sheets.

Edutopia. Founded by George Lucas, Edutopia focuses on evidence-based practices for improving learning and schools. It’s based on seven core strategies such as project-based learning (more in Chapter 7) and social emotional learning. I appreciate the strength-based approach perhaps even more than the great resources on the site.

Smithsonian Institute. The Smithsonian is the world’s largest museum and research complex; they have nineteen museums alone. You’ll need to start somewhere on this site. How about clicking on “Connect” and checking out SI on social media such as Instagram and Twitter? Great podcasts, too.

World Newspapers. This site gives news from English-language newspapers around the world. See what they think in Benin and Bangladesh. Picture having your students contrast different— and international—perspectives on the same event.

ePals Global Community. Find e-pals for your students from among two hundred countries, or sign up to participate in digital projects that link them with learners from around the world.

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Before You Begin Reading Your prior experience with instructional models and strategies will influence what you learn from this chapter. Before you read, check your familiarity with some of Chapter 7’s models and strategies by completing the following chart. Use your results to focus your efforts as you read, and check your ideas against those presented in the chapter.

Warm-Up ExErcisE for instrUctional modEls and stratEgiEs

model or strategy rate Your level of

familiarity*

list Bulleted phrases that come to mind When You

think of this model or strategy.

1. Classroom Questioning 1 2 3 4

2. Direct Instruction 1 2 3 4

3. Learning Cycle 1 2 3 4

4. Concept Formation 1 2 3 4

5. C o n t e n t C o nve r s a t i o n s (Discussion)

1 2 3 4

6. Cooperative Learning 1 2 3 4

7. Project-Based Learning 1 2 3 4

*1 = I have no idea; 4 = I am a pro at using this strategy or model.

Instructional Models and Strategies

7

lEarning oUtcomEs

By the time you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to plan and implement instruction that accurately and appropriately employs:

1. Strategies for effective questioning

2. The steps of a direct instruction lesson

3. The stages of a learning cycle

4. The sequence of a concept formation lesson

5. The skills of student-led content conversations

6. The attributes of cooperative learning

7. The components of project-based learning

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136 Chapter 7

You have so much to help your students learn; their success requires your big ambitions. When you teach your students each day, you will have made purposeful decisions about the best ways for them to interact with each other and the subject matter. Which learning activities and what sequence will you follow? How will you help them learn?

This chapter presents instructional models, strategies, and skills that can help you and your students realize big results. For every lesson, you’ll select the strategies with the most potential, and you’ll use three criteria to do so. First, consider your students. Be sure to select models and strategies that build from their strengths, engage them, and keep the content accessible to them. Second, consider your goals: Overall, who are you helping students to become, and what are the logical steps to get there? There is much current interest in preparing students for this—their century—the 21st century. What sort of skills will they need to succeed in this digital, highly connected world? A review of works related to 21st-century learning yields some differences, but there are many common threads (American Association of School Librarians, 2007; Part- nership for 21st Century Skills, 2009; Resnick, 2010; Sheridan-Rabideau, 2010; Tullis, 2010; Westby, 2010). In a nutshell, 21st-century success includes:

• Problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking (basing conclusions on evidence) • Creative thinking (innovation and aesthetics) • Collaboration (dispositions and skills for working openly and flexibly with diverse groups

as both a member and a leader) • Multiliteracies (analyzing and utilizing several symbol systems for creating and conveying

meaning, including, for example, digital, visual, and language literacies) • Skills for inquiring to generate new knowledge • Dispositions for continued growth (including personal responsibility and accountability,

self-assessment, and the will and desire to learn in many contexts)

Notice that this list makes different sorts of demands on students. It requires them to know things (like facts and language), do things (like inquire and use hardware and software), and feel things (like empathy and responsibility). Choose your instructional models and strategies so that students work toward this broad set of outcomes, moving every day closer to the competencies that will make them successful contributors to their world.

Third, you’ll consider evidence of effectiveness. Empirical studies can give information about how strategies have worked with other students whose characteristics and developmen- tal levels are similar to those of your students. Although the effectiveness of many strategies is documented through research that links the teaching strategy with student outcomes such as increased academic achievement (e.g., Hattie, 2009; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001), in general, research does not point to any one “best” instructional strategy. Research is clearer in providing information related to questions such as “What is the potential for this strategy, at its best?” and “Under what conditions is this strategy useful?”

Hundreds of instructional strategies exist. This chapter starts you on your way with seven instructional models—or cohesive systems for engaging students in the content—strategies, and skills that can serve as the basis for your instructional repertoire.

Classroom Questioning The world over, classrooms are full of questions, and researchers devote much time to exam- ining classroom questions. Why this fascination with questions? Questions are assumed to link with answers. Indeed, Aristotle postulated that knowledge itself exists in question-answer propositions: Without a question, there is no knowledge; and by generating and addressing a question to find its answer, we create knowledge. Because a major purpose of schooling is the

“Big results require big ambitions.” —Heraclitus

Watch and think 7.1 In this eight-minute clip, Harvey Silver works with a class of fifth graders who are reading Bridge to Terabi- thia (Patterson, 1977). Silver provides a good model of the advice, “Ask your ques- tions nice and slow”; he conveys care and interest in students’ responses, and he asks his questions at an appropriately thoughtful pace rather than rushing through them. Silver dem- onstrates four styles—or purposes—of questions and numerous question- ing techniques. Make a list of his techniques as you watch and listen, and observe the effects of his techniques. Which tech- niques are already in your repertoire, and which will you add?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=5uKqs3D0Z0M

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Instructional Models and Strategies 137

transmission or generation of knowledge, then, questions abound. Here are six things we know from the decades of research about classroom questions:

1. Teachers ask many, many questions. They ask hundreds a day (Hattie, 2009). In fact, in one estimate teachers spend one-third to one-half of their day asking questions (Black, 2001). Further, the many questions teachers ask are often not used to their best instruc- tional advantage (e.g., Becker, 2000; Wimer, Ridenour, Thomas, & Place, 2001).

2. Students ask very few questions (Acar & Kiliç, 2011; Dillon, 1988a; Reinsvold & Cochran, 2012; Shams-un-Nisa & Khan, 2012). Dillon (1990) reviewed elementary and secondary school studies and found that each pupil asks an average of only one question per month. Students in lower-track classrooms ask even fewer questions (Nystrand, Wu, Gamoran, Zeiser, & Long, 2003).

3. Teachers ask questions for a variety of purposes, such as to prompt thinking, maintain les- son flow, maintain power structures (e.g., Reinsvold & Cochran, 2012), hold student atten- tion, and punish misbehavior. The primary purpose of teachers’ questions, though, seems to be to check student understanding (e.g., Hattie, 2009; Heritage & Heritage, 2013).

4. Classroom questioning exchanges are typically rapid and follow a predictable pattern (Ca- zden, 1986; Dillon, 1990; Good & Brophy, 1987; Hattie, 2009). In the typical sequence, known as the IRE pattern, the teacher initiates a question, one student responds, and then the teacher evaluates the response. A new question from the teacher usually follows.

5. Students receive different questions based on teachers’ perceptions of them. For instance, students who are perceived as of low academic ability get more factually based questions and receive less time to answer them (Cotton, 2001). A sizable group of students have zero questioning interactions in class, and a small group of “target students” (typically white males) receive a disproportionate amount of the teacher’s attention in questioning (Walsch & Sattes, 2005).

6. The link between the type or level of a question and the type or level of the response is not as strong as one might think. Some researchers find little relationship between the level of the question asked and the level of the response (Cotton, 2001; Dillon, 1988b; Good & Brophy, 1987). Other research suggests a relationship between higher-level questions and students’ cognitive engagement (e.g., Smart & Marshall, 2013). Lee and Kinzie (2012) noted that when teachers asked open-ended questions, students’ responses were longer and used more complex sentence structure. Hattie (2009) concludes that there are small posi- tive effects between teacher question type and student response.

From this research, we can conclude that it is teachers’ questions we hear most often in the classroom, and those questions are not always used productively. Instead, question/answer sessions often focus on lower-level exchanges that seek to reinforce teacher/student power dif- ferentials and a transmission model of learning. Although we use questioning with the best of intentions—to foster learning—then, we sometimes have the opposite effect.

Authentic questions are essential to learning. Recall the 21st-century emphasis on build- ing the skills and dispositions of inquiry. And recall Aristotle’s notion of knowledge: question + answer = knowledge. These conclusions help us reconsider classroom questioning and the environment in which it takes place. Rather than creating classrooms of gentle inquisition, we should strive to create contexts for grand conversations (Eeds & Wells, 1989). Teachers must create cultures where questioning occurs with students rather than to them. In such cultures, teachers foster student motivation and engagement, and they inspire and energize student learn- ing (Caram & Davis, 2005). Figure 7.1 presents promising strategies for improving our class- room questions.

Perhaps the most powerful way we can improve questioning in our classrooms is to fos- ter students’ questioning skills. Not only is the ability to inquire a life skill, current content standards demand it. The Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts call for students to approach text with an active, questioning stance, and they ask students to question authors’ assumptions (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). The Next Generation Science Standards recognize ques- tion asking as a core scientific practice (NGSS Lead States, 2013). Research also supports the

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Figure 7.1 Promising practices for teachers’ questions.

1. Create and maintain a culture that welcomes questions.

• It takes courage to ask a question. Support students when they take the risk necessary to admit a state of not knowing (Chin & Langsford, 2004).

• Encourage dialogue through nonverbal communication like a positive tone, nods, and smiles and by treating students’ responses seriously (Caram & Davis, 2005).

• Respond with genuine enthusiasm when questions arise.

3. Ask your questions equitably.

• Ask all students to tell a partner an answer and then ask for volunteers.

• Spread the wealth: Invite several students to answer the same question.

• Use a random responder generator (like cards with students’ names on them).

• Institute a “no hands up” policy and call on students at random (Wiliam, 2014).

• Use active participation strategies, such as flash cards, hand signals, or a student response system.

4. Slow down the pace of interaction.

• Give students at least 3–5 seconds of wait time after you ask a question and again before you respond. This increases the length and quality of student response (Rowe, 1986; Stahl, 1984; Tobin, 1987).

• Invite students to respond to each other’s points. Teach stems such as “I have had a different experience” and “I have a point that builds on what X just said.”

5. Consider not asking a question. Use the four S alternatives to questions instead (Dillon 1988b).

• Statements: Say what you think, or reflect on what the student thinks.

• Student questions: Encourage a single student to ask a question about a puzzling circumstance, or invite the class to phrase the question.

• Signals: Use gestures of brief utterances (“mmm!”) to refrain from taking control of the discourse.

• Silence: Say nothing for a few seconds to allow others to join in (Orsborn et al., 1995).

6. Check the quality of your questioning practices.

• Audio record your teaching and analyze it. Olson (2008) recommends listening for both the initial questions you ask and the subsequent interactions.

• Analyze the patterns in student responses as well. Are levels of interaction equitable across student subgroups?

2. Plan your questions carefully.

• Prepare your questions in advance to enhance students’ opportunities to learn (Blosser, 1990; Lenski, 2001; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).

• Think about your purposes for asking questions and what you will do with the results.

• Ask authentic questions (Nystrand, et al., 2003).

• Think about your purposes for asking questions and what you will do with the results. Study taxonomies and consider the sort of thinking you want from students. In addition to Bloom’s taxonomy (from Chapter 5), consider others such as a taxonomy for creative thinking: association, imagination, brainstorming, organization, analogy, and reconceptualization (Gilbert, 1992).

power of student questions as mechanisms that help students read with a purpose and com- prehend (Taboada & Guthrie, 2006), pursue meaningful investigations, and learn in deep and connected ways (Becker, 2000; Chin & Brown, 2000; Middlecamp & Nickel, 2000; van Zee, Iwasyk, Kurose, Simpson, & Wild, 2001). Teachers can encourage students’ questions by pro- viding time and opportunities to ask them and by using specific strategies to support students’ question formation and pursuit. More suggestions are found in the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip.

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Direct Instruction One useful distinction among instructional models and strategies is the point at which the major concept, skill, or understanding is stated during the lesson. Lessons that state the concept or understanding early in the lesson are deemed deductive. Using deductive strategies, the teacher states the concept or major learning promptly and then provides practice on that concept through- out the remainder of the lesson. Deductive strategies reason from the general to the specific: They present general rules, then specific examples. Inductive strategies do the reverse. In an inductive, or discovery, lesson the teacher provides specific data and guides students toward discerning a general rule or rules from those data. The major concept, skill, or understanding in an inductive lesson is not explicitly stated until later in the lesson, and students usually state it.

The direct instruction model is one of the most widely used and helpful deductive strate- gies. Direct instruction, sometimes called “explicit instruction,” allows teachers to impart in- formation or skills straightforwardly to their students and to help students master strategies for learning. The direct instruction format is flexible, and because one of the teacher’s primary re- sponsibilities is to present information, it fills a vital need in most classrooms.

Description of the Direct Instruction Model In a directed lesson, the teacher systematically presents information related to an objective and carefully guides students’ participation to ensure mastery. The emphasis is on efficient teacher presentation and eventual student command of a convergent set of objectives. Control over in- formation or skills initially resides with the teacher, who relinquishes control as students first practice under the teacher’s supervision and then eventually demonstrate independent mastery.

Stages of the Direct Instruction Model There are a few versions of direct instruction. In the seven-step model (Hunter, 1982), the directed lesson begins with the teacher’s statement of expectations for student behavior throughout the

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

practices to Encourage student Questions

• Create a forum for student questions. An “I wonder” graffiti board hung in my middle school classroom. Students listed questions that intrigued them, and we discussed them weekly. Ness (2014) found that helping students address their “parking lot” questions gave them skills for handling informational text and fueled more questions.

• Use a question mailbox. Allow students to submit off-topic questions. Review the questions after class and decide whether to answer a question with the individual student or in front of class. Simms-Smith and Sterling (2006) report that this strat- egy helped them build solid relationships with their students and families and fostered students’ inquiry.

• Teach students to ask themselves comprehension questions about what they read. This raises comprehension (Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996).

• Require students to write “ignorance questions” (Carroll, 2001). Ignorance questions are those content-related questions to which students don’t have answers. Carroll assigns igno- rance questions, and they are discussed in class. Later, students contribute exam questions as well.

• Pause every ten minutes or so during a lecture. Ask students to review and consolidate their notes. Ask small groups to think about three questions that are significant about what they are

learning and to think about what makes the questions signifi- cant. Ask some to share (Donohue-Smith, 2006).

• Require students to compose and ask questions as part of their pre- sentations, like book talks. Fischbaugh’s (2004) students asked peers questions such as “deep connections” questions and “think outside the box” questions. They improved in their questioning skills over time, partly by using a rubric to analyze their own questions.

• Prompt student questions with a scenario. Middlecamp and Nickel (2000) provide their science students with a scenario and, in groups, have students devise lists of questions they should ask before taking any action. Using an intriguing object or photo to begin a lesson can serve the same purpose.

In summary, using questions effectively in the classroom will require you to go against common and traditional practice, to plan carefully, and to check the quality of your efforts. Some of the most promising practices in questioning are these:

• Think about what you want your questions to do, and plan them carefully to meet your purposes.

• Ask fewer questions. • Encourage students to ask more questions, and use their ques-

tions to guide learning.

Gather evidence about your use and students’ use of ques- tions and adjust instruction based on your findings.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 7.1

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lesson. For example, the teacher may remind the students: “I need to see you sitting up straight and staying in your seats throughout this lesson.” That statement of expectations is missing from the five-step version of the direct instruction model, but its reduced number of steps may make the five-step model easier to integrate into daily planning.

In the direct instruction lesson, the teacher provides a set for learning, gives focused input, helps the students practice, ensures that they mastered the objective, and then encourages them to practice on their own. As you read through the five stages of the model, found in Figure 7.2, remember that the model provides a mere blueprint for structuring lessons. Some teachers think of the stages as options from which they can choose, so not every lesson contains all five (or seven) steps. The length of a lesson can vary so that it may take a number of sessions to com- plete all of the stages. Also, through a teacher’s ongoing assessment of student performance, he may decide to employ some back-and-forth movement between the lesson stages. For instance, students’ performance during guided practice may indicate the need for further input rather than a move forward to closure. The steps of the direct instruction model are generic, so many teachers use this lesson format throughout the day.

A Sample Directed Lesson Figure 7.3 gives a brief example that presents a skill, cursive letter formation.

Strengths and Criticisms of Direct Instruction Research generally supports the effectiveness of direct instruction. In a meta-analysis reviewing more than 350 sources on direct instruction, Adams and Engelmann (1996) found that direct instruction was highly effective in supporting student achievement. Slavin (1997) similarly found some forms of direct instruction to be effective in teaching basic skills, primarily in elementary-grade reading and mathematics. Baker, Gersten, and Lee (2002) also found explicit instruction effective for supporting mathematics achievement for students with low achievement.

Figure 7.2 Stages of the direct instruction model.

Open 1. Anticipatory set a. Focus: Briefl y gain the students’ attention. b. Objective: State the lesson’s objective in student-friendly language. c. Purpose: Tell students why this objective is important.

Body 2. Input

Provide clear information related to the objective. One or more of the following may be appropriate:

• Present defi nitions. • Share critical attributes. • Give examples and nonexamples. • Model. • Check for understanding, usually through active participation devices.

3. Guided practice

Allow students to practice the objective under your supervision.

Circulate to provide feedback to all learners. Employ praise–prompt–leave, wherein you give specifi c praise related to a student’s effort, provide directions about what to improve, and then leave to check another student.

Close 4. Closure

Observe all students performing the objective without your assistance. A performance, a brief test, or an active participation device (recall Figure 6.6) can help you check mastery.

5. Independent practice

Have students practice the newly acquired objective on their own, often as homework or during individual work time. (Note: Some versions of the direct instruction model place independent practice before closure; however, that arrangement does not allow teachers to assess mastery before students practice alone.)

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Instructional Models and Strategies 141

Figure 7.3 A sample direct instruction lesson.

Objective: Third-grade students will correctly form the lowercase letter t in cursive.

Anticipatory set (Open)

1. Focus: “Watch me write a few words in cursive on the board and see if you can determine what they all have in common.” “You are right! They all have the cursive letter t.”

2. Objective: “By the time you leave for lunch, each of you will be able to write t in cursive.”

3. Purpose: “T is important because it will help with lots of other letters we will be learning to write in cursive, learning to write t will make your cursive job easier. Besides, we cannot spell Natalie or Xochitl without t!”

Input (Body)

4. Model: “Watch me as I form the letter t on the board,” (Teacher describes his actions as he forms ve is on the board.)

5. Critical attribute: “Notice that the vertical part of t is closed, not like l. Also notice that I cross the t from left to right.”

6. Check for understanding: Teacher draws incorrect ts and correct ones. He allows students to exclaim, “No! No!” or “Yes!” as he models, checking whether students are aware of the critical characteristics of the letter. “You seem ready to try your own ts! Let’s go!”

Guided practice

7. Students use wipe boards with dry erase markers to make ts. The teacher selected these materials instead of pencils because he has a student with weak grip strength. Students like wipe boards better anyway. • Teacher circulates and checks each student’s progress. “Raymond, you are holding your pencil just right! Remember that t doesn’t have a loop. Close it up. I will be back to check on you soon.”

• Teacher has a pen with an adaptive grip ready if his student needs it.

Closure (Close)

8. “I have seen many excellent ts! We will do one more for the record. Please take out a piece of scratch paper . Write your name at the top and then form your best t for me. Make three or four ts if you like!” (Teacher can collect and check the slips later or circulate now and mark them as correct.)

Independent practice

9. If the students do not demonstrate mastery during closure, teacher will provide additional instruction. If the objective is mastered, teacher tells students “Aha! Remarkable ts! Please practice your ts on the whiteboard or in the salt box during center time today.”

Immediate and specific feedback is an important part of guided practice

Hattie’s more recent meta-analysis (2009) finds that direct instruction has similar effectiveness for students at different achievement levels and schooling levels, and it has similar effects for both basic and high-level knowledge goals.

The strength of direct instruction lies in the fact that it is carefully sequenced to provide key information, to lead the students in supervised practice, and then to finally release them for in- dependent work after they demonstrate mastery of the content. Direct instruction provides an ef- ficient mechanism to address one central purpose of education: to pass information and skills from one generation to the next. Direct instruction shows that even when a teacher is primarily sharing

Credit: © Monkey Business

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information, she can do so much more systematically than by just telling. The teacher can carefully steer students toward control over new information or skills.

Direct instruction is comfortable for many new teachers because most directed les- sons follow a predictable path, and the teacher retains control over most decisions during the lesson. Further, direct instruction exemplifies some of the principles of instruction from Chapter 6: It is highly organized, it makes use of modeling, and it is interactive.

One criticism of direct instruction offered by some (e.g., Coles, 2000) is that direct instruc- tion’s focus on the transmission of information or skills is too narrow. Because it is fully deductive, with the teacher presenting important concepts and students then practicing them, direct instruc- tion is sometimes criticized as encouraging student passivity. The teacher retains primary control over the content, over the pace of delivery, and over the selection of learning activities. Students have limited choices and control in a directed lesson. Also, direct instruction may not connect to the life of the learner or use enriched resources as readily as other instructional strategies might. It may also decrease student motivation to learn (as described by Flowers, Hancock, & Joyner, 2000).

Given its strengths and weaknesses, when, if at all, will you use direct instruction? Direct instruction may be helpful when (1) it is important that all students master the same objectives to a similar degree, (2) you are interested in efficient use of time, (3) it may not be safe for students to discover concepts, as in cases wherein students are handling potentially dangerous materials or tools, and (4) students start from similar background experiences. The Teaching Tip will help you use direct instruction during lessons and other times too.

Learning Cycle The learning cycle is an inductive model. Inductive teaching presents a stark contrast to direct in- struction. Through inductive methods, students create or discover important ideas by interacting with concrete materials or other data sources and their peers. Instead of stating the learning explicitly at the beginning of the lesson, during inductive lessons, the teacher guides students to interact with data, materials, and each other so that they discover the ideas. Additionally, whereas direct instruction fo- cuses primarily on the product, or outcome, to be gained, inductive strategies also focus directly on the processes by which knowledge is formed. Reviewing content standards demonstrates that literate individuals not only have mastery of a body of information, they also can use the methods by which specialists build knowledge. They can formulate questions, address their questions through appropri- ate methodologies, collect information, analyze it, and draw appropriate conclusions. Students learn these processes by using them, and inductive instruction provides an appropriate vehicle.

The learning cycle approach is inductive in that it moves from firsthand experiences to well- formulated understanding of the content and real-world application. It is based on constructivist learning theory that defines learning as both the process and the result of questioning and inter- preting, the application of thought processes and information to build and improve our under- standings, and the integration of current experiences with past experiences (Marlowe & Page, 1998). What makes the learning cycle a cycle is that it begins and ends with the real world and questions related to it. The learning cycle approach can level the playing field by ensuring that all students have firsthand experiences to build background knowledge and deepen content knowledge. This is especially important for English learners and for students whose background experiences may be limited (Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 1996). It also can foster the development of content vocabulary (Spencer & Guillaume, 2006).

“The man who can make hard things easy is the educator.”

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Direct Instruction Quick Start

Often you need to teach a skill on the spot. For example, two students need to know how to set the low hurdles before a track meet. Don’t just show them. Use direct instruction to make sure they’ve got it. After a few tries, you will internalize the method and be able to use it naturally even without a lesson plan. Use this flow:

✓ I do it. ✓ We do it. ✓ You do it.

TeaChIng TIp

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 7.2

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Description of the Learning Cycle Model A learning cycle begins with a real-world problem or event that piques students’ interests and fuels one or more questions for exploration. A personal story, discrepant event, current event, toy, poem, or thoughtful question from a student or the teacher can all serve to engage the stu- dents. Next, students interact with data sources and concrete materials to explore the problem or question(s). Exploration builds background knowledge, from which more abstract understand- ings arise. After students have firsthand experiences, the teacher begins to formally help students to systematize their knowledge, label concepts, and generate explanations. Finally, students apply their newly formulated knowledge to a similar real-world problem or event.

Stages of the Learning Cycle Model Different versions of the learning cycle approach to planning and instruction vary only slightly in the number of stages they propose, typically between three and five. Kolb’s (1984) experien- tial learning cycle, for example, proceeds from (1) experience to (2) sharing to (3) processing to (4) generalizing to finally (5) applying . . . back to experience. Science educator Bybee (1997) developed the popular 5E model: Engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate. Eisenkraft (2003) expanded the 5E model as the 7E version, adding steps to elicit student thinking before exploration and following evaluation with extension. Figure 7.4 depicts the phases of the 5E learning cycle.

a Sample Learning Cycle Lesson Although the learning cycle is prevalent in science education, the approach can be used in any subject area. The lesson in Figure 7.5 is a visual arts lesson for high school students that follows

Figure 7.4 Stages of the learning cycle.

Invite students to think about a real-world phenomenon

Explore the phenomenon through direct

experience

Explore

Develop ideas by reading, discussing,

organizing your findings and thoughts

Use newly developed ideas

to spark exploration of the next

phenomenon

Elaborate

Back to the real world and on to the next

learning cycle

Explain

Evaluate

Engage

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144 Chapter 7

Figure 7.4 (Continued)

Open 1. Engage: Provide a brief real-world phenomenon, an object, or an issue that engages students’ interest in the topic and fuels one or more questions for investigation.

• Listen carefully to determine students’ prior knowledge related to the topic and to expose their questions.

•

•

Do not provide explanations of phenomena yet.

• Make a list of students’ questions.

Body 2. Explore: Provide materials so that students engage in firsthand experience with the issue under study.

• Students begin to address their questions from the prior phase.

• They begin to generate new concepts and questions. Observe students carefully to determine emerging concepts and vocabulary.

3. Explain: Systematically develop the concepts that arise during the exploration phase.

• Supply vocabulary terms appropriate given students’ experiences.

• Provide direct presentations of the information and reading experiences as necessary so that students refine their understanding.

Close 4. Elaborate: Present a new problem or situation that can be addressed given students’ newly

5. Evaluate: Guide students in assessing their understandings and abilities. Evaluate key concepts and skills.

formed understandings.

• Connect to the real world.

• Allow them to deepen new knowledge and skills in a different context.

• Use the real-world connection as the starting point for the next learning cycle.

Elicit their thinking.

Figure 7.5 A sample learning cycle lesson.

Objectives: Tenth-grade students will analyze works of art to determine principles of color use. Students will create their own work of art that uses color to convey a message.

Engage 1. With zydeco, Cajun, or jazz music playing in the background, the teacher shares a (Open) brightly rendered watercolor painting from New Orleans.

2. “Years ago I took my favorite vacation and bought this painting. Looking at this painting, where do you think I went?”

• She supports the students’ guesses by asking for their evidence. “What about the picture makes you say, ‘Europe’?”

• They discuss, among other student-generated topics, the architecture portrayed in the painting.

3. Once the students conclude that the painting depicts a courtyard in New Orleans, teacher asks students to examine how the artist used color to capture the sense of energy, cultural fusion, and joy that many people associate with the city.

4. To set the stage for exploration, teacher states that artists throughout time and all over the world use color to convey or enhance the message or mood of their works.

Explore 5. Teacher sets the task: “I reserved the laptops for tomorrow. Your job will be to go on a (Body) virtual tour of museums around the world and download examples of visual art that use

color in a variety of ways. You will share your examples with the class.”

6. The next day, the students boot up the laptops and connect to the Internet for their tour. It launches with a visit to the National Gallery of Art (http://www.nga.gov).

• The teacher supplies URLs of other museum sites, and in pairs, students fi nd examples of art that vary in their use of color to convey mood and message.

• When permitted, students print out copies of the art and create a class gallery of the varied works. Or they leave the image displayed on their screens. Another option is to load images into a google docs presentation for a virtual gallery.

• Teacher and students add reproductions such as posters of famous works and their own works to the gallery as well.

• A few students have created and shown their own works at festivals. These are added to the gallery.

Explain 7. The following day, teacher commends the students on their diligent searching: “We (Body) have created quite the collection of works in our class gallery. Very impressive! Your next

task is to study all the works to determine themes in how color is used.”

8. Students tour the class gallery, grouping works that create similar moods or convey similar messages. They test the hypotheses they formed in viewing works they found with their partner on the virtual tour by studying the larger set of works found by their classmates.

9. The day ends with the students writing and submitting journal entries on their tentative conclusions about the use of color.

• One student writes, for example, “When artists use a subdued palette, it expresses a calmer message. Mixing black with the colors adds an air of sadness to the work.”

• Two students, including one with a developmental delay, dictate their entries into the computer near the door that has speech recognition capacities. They print out their work and take it home to practice reading it.

10. That night, the teacher studies the students’ entries and reproduces some of their most telling fi ndings using presentation software instead.

11. The next day, the teacher lectures on the use of color, drawing from the concepts and tentative generalizations about color students recorded in their journals.

• She introduces terms such as “hue,” “value,” and “saturation” to formalize what the students stated informally in their entries.

• For homework, students read from their text a chapter on the use of color. • Two or three who experience reading difficulties read a compact disc version, in which

the teacher has highlighted key ideas and terms.

(Continued)

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Instructional Models and Strategies 145

the learning cycle model. Notice that a single lesson can last more than one day and that it can make use of many kinds of resources. In following the learning cycle model, the lesson begins with a real-world phenomenon to engage the students (discussion of a painting), explores ideas related to that phenomenon (examination of the use of color in many other works), develops explanations of concepts that were surfaced through the exploration phase (color concepts), and elaborates on learning with a connection back to the real world (creation of students’ own works that make use of what they learned through the lesson, principles of color use). Students’ work is evaluated throughout.

Figure 7.5 (Continued)

Objectives: Tenth-grade students will analyze works of art to determine principles of color use. Students will create their own work of art that uses color to convey a message.

Engage 1. With zydeco, Cajun, or jazz music playing in the background, the teacher shares a (Open) brightly rendered watercolor painting from New Orleans.

2. “Years ago I took my favorite vacation and bought this painting. Looking at this painting, where do you think I went?”

• She supports the students’ guesses by asking for their evidence. “What about the picture makes you say, ‘Europe’?”

• They discuss, among other student-generated topics, the architecture portrayed in the painting.

3. Once the students conclude that the painting depicts a courtyard in New Orleans, teacher asks students to examine how the artist used color to capture the sense of energy, cultural fusion, and joy that many people associate with the city.

4. To set the stage for exploration, teacher states that artists throughout time and all over the world use color to convey or enhance the message or mood of their works.

Explore 5. Teacher sets the task: “I reserved the laptops for tomorrow. Your job will be to go on a (Body) virtual tour of museums around the world and download examples of visual art that use

color in a variety of ways. You will share your examples with the class.”

6. The next day, the students boot up the laptops and connect to the Internet for their tour. It launches with a visit to the National Gallery of Art (http://www.nga.gov).

• The teacher supplies URLs of other museum sites, and in pairs, students fi nd examples of art that vary in their use of color to convey mood and message.

• When permitted, students print out copies of the art and create a class gallery of the varied works. Or they leave the image displayed on their screens. Another option is to load images into a google docs presentation for a virtual gallery.

• Teacher and students add reproductions such as posters of famous works and their own works to the gallery as well.

• A few students have created and shown their own works at festivals. These are added to the gallery.

Explain 7. The following day, teacher commends the students on their diligent searching: “We (Body) have created quite the collection of works in our class gallery. Very impressive! Your next

task is to study all the works to determine themes in how color is used.”

8. Students tour the class gallery, grouping works that create similar moods or convey similar messages. They test the hypotheses they formed in viewing works they found with their partner on the virtual tour by studying the larger set of works found by their classmates.

9. The day ends with the students writing and submitting journal entries on their tentative conclusions about the use of color.

• One student writes, for example, “When artists use a subdued palette, it expresses a calmer message. Mixing black with the colors adds an air of sadness to the work.”

• Two students, including one with a developmental delay, dictate their entries into the computer near the door that has speech recognition capacities. They print out their work and take it home to practice reading it.

10. That night, the teacher studies the students’ entries and reproduces some of their most telling fi ndings using presentation software instead.

11. The next day, the teacher lectures on the use of color, drawing from the concepts and tentative generalizations about color students recorded in their journals.

• She introduces terms such as “hue,” “value,” and “saturation” to formalize what the students stated informally in their entries.

• For homework, students read from their text a chapter on the use of color. • Two or three who experience reading difficulties read a compact disc version, in which

the teacher has highlighted key ideas and terms.

Elaborate and Evaluate (Close)

12.  Students select a life event that evoked strong emotions from them.

• They create a work using a medium of their choice and use color to convey their intended emotions.

• Students plan a gallery showing, including background music related to their works. Families (and other supporters) attend the lively showing.

• Students begin to notice, now, differences in artists’ use of line in addition to color. Teacher begins to think about line as the next element for study.

Elaborate and Evaluate (Close)

12.  Students select a life event that evoked strong emotions from them.

• They create a work using a medium of their choice and use color to convey their intended emotions.

• Students plan a gallery showing, including background music related to their works. Families (and other supporters) attend the lively showing.

• Students begin to notice, now, differences in artists’ use of line in addition to color. Teacher begins to think about line as the next element for study.

Elaborate and Evaluate (Close)

12.  Students select a life event that evoked strong emotions from them.

• They create a work using a medium of their choice and use color to convey their intended emotions.

• Students plan a gallery showing, including background music related to their works. Families (and other supporters) attend the lively showing.

• Students begin to notice, now, differences in artists’ use of line in addition to color. Teacher begins to think about line as the next element for study.

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Figure 7.6 Stages of the concept formation lesson.

Open 1. Challenge the students with a question about the topic that will encourage them to generate an extensive list.

Body 2. List: In full view, record students’ contributions in the form of a list. Some teachers use sentence strips, large cards, or the interactive whiteboard.

3. Group: Invite the students to place similar objects together. Questions such as “What goes together?” can elicit grouping.

4. Label: Ask students to label their new groups: “What can we call this group?”

Close 5. Call students’ attention to new concepts that arise from their groupings.

6. Categorize new pieces of information according to the students’ system and invite them to regroup and label the information.

7. You may require students to use the information in some way, such as through a writing or retelling assignment.

Concept Formation Hilda Taba’s (1967) strategy is another inductive approach. It allows learners to build new ideas by categorizing specific pieces of data and forging new connections among those data.

Description of the Concept Formation Model Often deemed “list–group–label,” concept formation should increase students’ ability to process information. Students begin by developing extensive lists of data related to a topic or question. Next, they group the data based on criteria they select, and they develop labels for their groups. The labels of the groups convey a concept or generalization. Oftentimes students are asked to re-sort data in different ways. Lessons often conclude with students using the information in a new way, such as by composing an explanatory paragraph.

Concept formation can be used to induce one particular concept or can be used in a di- vergent manner so that a number of accurate concepts or generalizations result. It has a wide range of applications. One is to consolidate concepts at the end of a lesson, as in the Teach- ing Tip.

Stages of the Concept Formation Model Figure 7.6 lists the stages employed in the concept formation lesson. The Teaching Tip gives some ideas for a concept formation quick start.

a Sample Concept Formation Lesson Figure 7.7 gives a concept formation lesson I used with second-graders. In this lesson, students generated many words related to the topic water. They sorted the words into groups that shared certain characteristics. I was surprised that students initially grouped the words according to linguistic clues rather than by semantic clues. With prompting, students regrouped words in a few different ways to discover that water can be both helpful and harmful to humans. Finally, they wrote mini books about how we interact with water.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 7.3

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Figure 7.7 A sample concept formation lesson.

Objectives: Second-grade students will form two accurate statements about the interrelationship of humans and water.

Students will group data in rule-governed ways.

Open 1. “Class, come sit with me and listen to my rain stick.” Students join teacher and listen intently as she turns the column once, then twice.

• They chat briefl y about their experiences with similar instruments.

• One student visited family in Chile, birthplace of the rain stick.

• “I brought my rain stick in today because we are beginning to study weather.”

2. “Let’s begin today by writing down as many water words as we know. I will write the words here on index cards.”

Body 3. List: The class creates an extensive list of water words. Examples include evaporation, puddle, and mudslide. When the students’ listing slows down, the teacher prods their thinking: How about frozen water?

4. Group: Teacher calls the class of 20 to the carpet, and in their circle they lay out all the index cards that list their words. “That’s quite a list, my friends! Now let’s think about putting some of the cards together in groups. Who sees some cards that go together?”

Teacher jokes with students, suggesting that they sit on their hands, because each is so eager to group the cards. She makes a note to herself that making individual or partner cards may work even better than class cards for grouping. Students group words into those that include -ation within them and those that do not.

Teacher praises the ingenuity of their grouping and then asks students to regroup them another way. Students continue grouping until each card is with others. Teacher encourages students to collapse groups and to consider cross-groupings.

5. Label: Students dictate the names of the groups they have generated, and the teacher writes group names on new cards, which she places near the three groups: Ways water helps us, Ways water can be dangerous, and Other water words.

Close 6. Teacher leads students to draw conclusions about the groups they have generated. Students conclude that humans interact with water in many ways, both helpful and harmful.

7. Teacher provides materials and instructions for students to make water pop-up books that contain two accurate sentences of ways that humans interact with water. Later, students read their books aloud to their sixth-grade buddies.

Extension: Because the students were so eager to sort the cards, teacher knows students need more opportunities to work with the words. She transfers the words to a computer fi le and each day for the next week students begin the day by coming up to the interactive whiteboard and dragging and dropping terms into new groups.

Concept Formation Quick Start

Use a mini-concept-formation activity to close your lesson or as a review. Here’s how.

1. Choose some content terms, perhaps between five and ten. Remember your vocab cards from the Teaching Tip (p. 74)? Use those. Or have the students pick the words. Be quick.

2. Put the words on cards or large sticky notes and display them. Use magnets to hold them to the board if you wrote cards. Or display them on the interactive whiteboard.

3. Have students group them. Which words go together? Regroup them in a different way. 4. Ask students to name the groups, then use the group labels in a sentence. 5. Alternatives: Students can sort cards with small groups at their seats. Or you can hand each

student a card and have the students move around the room to form groups.

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Strengths and Criticisms of Inductive Strategies The learning cycle, concept formation, and (coming up soon) project-based learning are all inductive, discovery-oriented approaches. Each of us probably has a story that illustrates the old saying “Experience is the best teacher.” Experience allows us to form rules that can be useful in guiding our behavior and solving related problems in the future. Most of us report that when we generate the rules by distilling experience rather than simply by reciting the rules we have heard stated for us, learning is more potent and tends to be longer lasting. Inductive strategies like the learning cycle and concept formation capitalize on the tremen- dous power of discovery learning. Indeed, there is research to support the effectiveness of inductive methods (e.g., Feyzioğlu, Ergin, & Kocakülah, 2012; Hattie, 2009; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).

Additionally, one widely professed purpose of education is to foster students’ ability to think independently, to find order and patterns in the huge amount of information that confronts us daily. Inductive approaches are useful for that purpose because they provide students with opportunities to frame problems, to select appropriate methodologies, and to analyze their rea- soning. To expand students’ ability to face problems and complicated issues, inductive strategies focus on the processes of questioning, gathering information, and learning, in addition to content mastery. Recall that the skills and dispositions necessary for the generation of new knowledge are considered essential for the 21st century.

Finally, inductive strategies make use of many principles from Chapter 6: They connect easily with the lives of the learners by using student interest and frequently allowing for some student choice in the methods of study and the pacing of the lesson. Inductive approaches ad- dress human nature and needs by sparking and sustaining curiosity and by encouraging students to be puzzlers and problem solvers. Further, inductive strategies often make use of a wide range of information sources and real-world materials, which results in an enriched learning environ- ment. When students engage in inquiry into problems they themselves experience, they have the important opportunity to question existing conditions and to work on improving one piece of the world.

Inductive strategies can be criticized for a number of reasons. First, because student input can so dramatically shape the direction of the lesson—not only its pacing but in many cases its content as well—it can be difficult for the teacher to predict a lesson’s content outcomes. Releasing partial control to students can be unsettling to teachers because they must approach content and time decisions with greater flexibility, especially in divergent lessons. Whereas the outcomes in a directed lesson are clear at the outset, divergent inductive lessons such as project- based learning result in multiple generalizations. Some teachers feel that this divergence places heavy demands on their own stores of knowledge.

The divergent, somewhat unpredictable nature of certain inductive methods also worries some teachers because of the pressure they feel to systematically treat a large body of content information in short periods of time. Focusing study on relevant, real-life problems may not al- low for orderly treatment of some of the more mundane topics teachers are expected to address.

Finally, inductive lessons require resources and time. Whereas it takes very little time for a teacher to directly state a generalization, inducing a generalization requires repeated and varied experiences. Although they can produce lasting and memorable learning, inductive strategies can be less time efficient than direct instruction, and—as we’ve seen—research also supports the effectiveness of direct instruction.

When will you use inductive methods? Check your stance toward education to gain a sense of what you want students to be able to do as adults. If you include outcomes such as the ability to analyze information sources, to think critically and creatively, or to solve complex problems, you need to master and employ inductive strategies. Because of their potential to address both content and thought-process goals, I hope you will use inductive strategies frequently. As a gen- eral rule, when you plan your lessons, ask yourself: “Could the students effectively discover these points for themselves if I arranged conditions appropriately?” If your answer is yes, use an inductive strategy. My own stance toward education reminds me not to tell students that which they could discover on their own.

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Content Conversations Talk in most classrooms is like a table tennis game. The ball bounces back and forth between two collective participants: the teacher and a single student. Teacher serves . . . out to a stu- dent . . . and back . . . to the next student . . . and back. This teacher-centered form of talk is prevalent in our classrooms (Reznitskaya, 2012), but it is not effective for providing plentiful opportunities to learn (Molinari & Mameli, 2013). Content conversations—or student-led dis- cussions—change the game from table tennis to basketball. The ball moves around the court unpredictably, and every player touches the ball.

Discussion as a teaching and learning strategy is as old as ancient Greece, with Plato and Socrates and the dialogic method. Interest in discussion continues strongly today, as teachers of all age levels and subject areas seek to enhance students’ learning through conversation. This may be especially true for teachers working to implement the Common Core with its increased empha- sis on speaking and listening, argumentation, and attention to evidence (e.g., Billings & Roberts, 2012). And it’s true for teachers as they work with English learners to enhance the content knowl- edge and spur their use of English (Colombo & Fontaine, 2009; Zwiers & Crawford, 2009).

Description of the Content Conversation Model There are many, many forms of classroom discussion; just for text-based discussion, there are more than a dozen formats, for example (Murphy, Wilkinson, & Soter, 2011). Discussion, in its different formats, can accomplish many purposes. The form of discussion presented here is con- sistent with dialogic teaching (Reznitskaya, 2012). For our purposes, let’s call content conversa- tions those discussions that have the following characteristics:

1. Power is shared flexibly between teacher and students; students play a central role in man- aging the discourse.

2. There is a central, well-defined task. It often takes the form of a discussion question or prompt, and that prompt is open-ended.

3. Student participation is spread; each student is expected to talk. 4. Student responses are to be elaborated, not single-word answers, and the quality of talk is

high (Murphy, Wilkinson, & Soter, 2011). 5. Students use conversational skills, or moves, to ensure understanding, to co-construct

knowledge, and to keep the conversation moving toward its goal. 6. The teacher plays an active role, but the role is different from the typical “traffic director”

role that occurs in most classroom talk. The role is one of fostering engagement, moni- toring and providing feedback on participation and discussion, and helping students learn through discussion.

Watch and think 7.2 In this seven-minute clip, National Teacher of the Year Sarah Brown Wessling and her class of senior English students hold a content conversation about the short story, A Good Man Is Hard to Find (O’Connor, 1955). Brown Wessling states that she and her students learned together through the discussion. In fact, she advises teachers to prepare for a content conversation as if they are coming to the discussion as participants.

Facilitating the shared construction of understanding through a discussion involves a sophisticated set of pedagogical skills. Check off each behavior you observe as Brown Wessling facilitates the conversation:

• Prepares the students to converse.

• Discovers what students think.

• Presents a guiding question.

• Shares leadership as her students construct a novel graphic organizer.

• Requires evidence from text.

• Monitors student participation.

• Notes the active role students must play in building on each other’s contributions.

• Decides where to embed the focus lesson.

• Thinks about how this conversation leads to that of the subsequent lesson.

(Note: I needed to watch the clip three times to observe this set of skills. Perhaps you’ll observe other skills or pedagogical moves as well. Add them to the list.)

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zxTuPVtayOI

Students of all ages can learn the skills of content conversations

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 7.4

Credit: Pearson Education

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Stages of the Content Conversation Model A content conversation begins with advance preparation. Then, during class, you move from opening the conversation with a prompt, through student-led discussion, to concluding the dis- cussion and reflecting on the process and your learning. These stages are shown in Figure 7.8.

A content conversation uses social and conversational skills that are learned, not innate, par- ticularly given typical patterns of classroom interaction. Thus, before and during content conversa- tions, you will need to teach your students specific social skills. Likely skills include, for example, keeping an eye on the speaker, using a voice that can be heard from only a foot away, active listen- ing, and making connections to the previous speaker’s ideas before moving on (Richardson, 2010).

In addition to social skills, you’ll also need to teach your students conversational moves that they can employ during the conversation to ensure that they understand, to build on and challenge ideas, and to further understanding. The Teaching Tip, Conversational Moves, gives a variety of moves that other educators have found to be productive (e.g., Ferris, 2014; Frey & Fisher, 2011; Michaels, O’Connor, Hall, & Resnick, 2010; Zwiers & Crawford, 2011). Most educators choose a small set of conversational moves and teach them through direct instruction, with modeling, guided practice, and feedback. Many teachers create charts of social skills and conversational moves for reference during conversations. You can add more skills as students gain competence. Watch and Think 7.3 shares one strategy—the fishbowl—that can help with teaching conversational skills.

You will also want to prepare for your own role as a facilitator, including practicing con- versational moves so as not to derail students’ efforts to converse. Although you will talk less during a discussion than during a lecture, you will be quite actively involved; in fact, the role of the teacher is critical to the success of the conversation (Gillies, 2014). Michaels, O’Connor, Hall, and Resnick (2010) specify a variety of moves you’ll need to master. For instance, you’ll need to keep the group together (“Did everyone hear what Dan said?”), to mark particularly pro- ductive points (“That’s an important point. Let’s hear it again.”), and to model effective learning (“Here’s a move you can use when you get confused.”) The four alternatives to questions, given earlier in Figure 7.1, can also help you step out of your sage-on-the-stage role.

Watch and think 7.3 The technique presented in this two-minute clip, fishbowl, is useful for teach- ing students of any age a wide variety of social skills, including conversational moves. Note the power of peer-assessment for learn- ing new skills. When can you envision yourself using the fishbowl technique?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=xkWl9b0FZSE

Figure 7.8 Stages of a content conversation.

Pre-conversation preparation

1. List, teach, and have students practice social skills and conversational moves. 2. Prepare your own conversational moves. 3. Set the purpose of the discussion by considering goals for content, language, and social learning. 4. Develop a question or prompt. 5. Prepare a frame to structure participation, if appropriate. 6. Have all participants prepare for the conversation.

Open 1. Arrange student seating to facilitate either a whole-class or small-group discussion. Arrange- ments where each participant can see every other participant’s face are ideal.

2. Share the goals of the conversation and present the question or discussion prompt. Check for student understanding.

3. Set the parameters for the discussion and any specific expectations regarding participation. For example, give students the time limit and remind them to practice recently taught conversational moves.

Body 4. Monitor as students discuss. Be listening for conversational moves and the social skills that are the current focus. Consider jotting down brief notes to give feedback later.

5. Support students in using the frame or structure you may have elected to use. 6. Intervene as students need help participating equally, refocusing or moving the discussion

forward.

Close 7. Draw students’ attention back to the guiding question and ask them to draw final conclusions. 8. Ask students to reflect on (a) changes in their understanding, (b) their participation in terms of

the quality of their moves, and (c) next questions and goals.

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Next, set your purposes for the conversation at hand. Fisher, Rothenberg, and Frey (2008) suggest that three types of goals are served by every conversation: a content goal, a language goal, and a social goal. Study your content standards and your literacy and English language development standards to shape your goals.

From your goals, develop your discussion prompt or question. In general, effective prompts:

• Are interesting and accessible to the students. • Capture important discipline-related concepts, principles, or issues. • Are open-ended, encouraging a number of perspectives and conclusions rather than a single

factually correct answer.

Danger zone: Don’t be tempted to create a discussion question during class, hoping that it will magically arise. It’s difficult to craft a good question, and impromptu efforts often fall flat (Dillon, 1990).

In order to succeed in the conversation, students, too, must prepare. As we saw in Watch and Think 7.2, students need, at minimum, a few minutes to gather their thoughts and select points that may be of most interest to them. Or preparation might be more extensive, depending on the task. Here are some examples of student preparation across the curriculum:

• In preparing for book club, students must read their books and create entries in their book logs (Cornett, 1997; Raphael & McMahon, 1994). In fact, in Cornett’s class, only students who have prepared may participate in the discussion.

• In preparing for literature circles, students read their texts and complete tasks for their preas- signed roles such as inference maker and importance determiner (Ferguson & Kern, 2012).

• In preparing for a mathematics conversation, students spend some time attempting a problem independently, and they bring their notes to the discussion (Lord, 2014).

• In preparing for a debate in science class, students develop an argument and conduct research to support it (Taylor, 2013).

Conversational Moves

Conversational Move How It might Sound

Revoice • “So you’re saying . . . ” • “What I heard was . . . ”

Agree • “I agree because . . . ”

Elaborate • “Could you say more about that?”

Elicit an opinion • “What did you think about the part when . . . ” • “Who else has an opinion to share?”

Clarify • “I am confused about . . . ” • “I’m not sure I understand the part about . . . ”

Provide support • “My answer is reasonable because . . . ” • “Let’s hear an example.” • “Where in the text do you find evidence for that?” • “Prove it.”

Make a Connection • “This reminds me of a time . . . ” • “This is like another text we read . . . ” • “I felt that way too when . . . ”

Build on an idea • “I’d like to add to what you were saying.” • “Another thing about that is . . . ”

Challenge an idea • “I think there’s another explanation for that.” • “I agree with ___ . However . . . ” • “I disagree because . . . ” • “That might not be right because . . . ”

Synthesize • “It seems that we are reaching a key idea that . . . ” • “One thing these points all have in common is . . . ”

Wondering • “I have a question about that . . . ” • “I am imagining whether . . . ”

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Just as you have explicitly taught your students and yourself productive skills, have care- fully planned a discussion question, and have all prepared for the discussion, you will need to help students navigate their way through the conversation. Teachers from across many subject areas tend to do this using frames or structures that are appropriate for the discipline. In sci- ence, students might construct concept maps to capture relationships among concepts in their discussion (Chen, Park, & Hand, 2013). In a social studies class of English learners, students might use their vocabulary cards to prompt themselves during the conversation (Colombo & Fontaine, 2009). In mathematics, students might complete diagrams or a math talk frame to structure their ideas. The frame starts with a question, lists students’ ideas, and ends with a statement of understanding (Casa, 2014). We watched an impromptu graphic organizer become a useful frame during Sarah Brown Wessling’s content conversation in Watch and Think 7.2. Figure 7.9 gives a sample student-led discussion from a seventh-grade social studies class.

Figure 7.9 Sample content conversation: Discussing current events in a seventh-grade social studies class.

Objectives: 1. Students will give accurate recountings of current local and world events and use specific social

studies vocabulary in their retellings. 2. Students will draw connections between current events and themes such as power and time,

continuity and change from the NCSS standards (National Council for the Social Studies, 2002). 3. Students will demonstrate the skills of clarifying and connecting.

Open 1. Students are seated around tables, in groups of five or six. 2. Teacher states, “Each of you has studied and brought in a news item for our current events

conversation today.” Students nod in agreement. 3. Teacher sets the task: “Take a look at the board, where I’ve written the three goals for our

conversation. For today’s small-group conversations, you will each briefly share your event. Just sum- marize it. As you listen to each other’s events, you’ll be hunting for themes that seem to say some- thing about the human experience this week. So our question today is, ‘What are the big ideas or themes that we find in human events this week?’”

4. Teacher sets the discussion parameters: “It should take you approximately five minutes of paraphras- ing your articles, and then you’ll move into ten minutes of hunting for themes.”

5. Again, Teacher draws students’ attention to the board and points to the skills “clarify and connect.” He states, “As I wander, I’ll be listening and looking in particular for these two skills: Be sure to clarify your understanding of others’ news events; don’t move on until you understand. And work to connect what happened in your event with those of others. Questions? Let’s go!”

Body 6. Teacher moves around the periphery of each group with a small notepad. He records students’ use of the “clarify” and “connect” skills, observes other strengths, and makes notes when he hears gaps in students’ factual knowledge or misconceptions about events. He will address these later.

7. In one group, conversation drifts to a funny meme a student found while searching for her article. Teacher taps the desk, smiles briefly, and refocuses students. He moves away from the group but watches them to ensure that they stay focused on their conversation.

8. After five minutes, Teacher prompts students to begin, if they have not yet, looking for themes, big ideas, or truths, across the articles. He gives one example to get them going: “One theme that seemed to surface is that people with power sometimes abuse it. Do you agree? Look for themes across all the articles in your group. You may find a couple. Be ready to contribute a big idea or theme to our whole-class understanding.”

Close 9. After fifteen minutes, Teacher tells students to finalize the theme they will share. 10. Each of the five groups shares a theme. Teacher invites other groups to connect and comment.

Teacher quickly records the themes on the whiteboard as students share. He asks them to predict future events considering the themes they found: “Do you think that next week holds something new in store for us? Support your prediction.”

11. Teacher uses a globe and gives a two-minute mini-lesson to correct geographic misunderstandings he heard during small-group discussion.

12. Students evaluate their participation and learning by reflecting once more on the objectives listed on the board. They note conversational elements that enhanced their own thinking. They thank their group members and move on to the next activity.

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Strengths and Criticisms of Content Conversations Research on discussion-based methods in general supports academic outcomes. For example, Murphy, Wilkinson, and Soter (2011) find at least moderate support of discussion for reading and literacy-related outcomes (such as transfer of skills to new settings). Gillies (2014) finds positive effects of discussion on content achievement, language usage, and critical thinking. Discussion can support English acquisition in terms of vocabulary, text comprehension, and quality of writing (Colombo & Fontaine, 2009; Zhang, Anderson, & Nguyen-Jahiel, 2013); these studies and others also find high levels of student engagement (e.g., Wu, Anderson, Nguyen-Jahiel, & Miller, 2013). Thus, good content conversations have the potential to support a range of valuable outcomes.

Content conversations, however, can be difficult to lead. They require both teachers and stu- dents to take on roles that are contrary to typical expectations, and they require sophisticated think- ing that takes time to support. Also, the inherent uncertainty that comes with any student-centered strategy, including content conversations, can be unnerving to teachers until they gain experience with the strategy. To get started with content conversations, try starting with brief, highly structured conversations, and remember that your advance preparation is critical to student success.

Cooperative Learning Popularized in the 1970s and 1980s, cooperative learning was formulated as an attempt to move classroom practices away from the highly individualistic and often competitive emphases of the typical American classroom. Cooperative learning includes a family of methods and structures designed to capitalize on every classroom’s diversity and to enrich students’ cognitive learning and social behaviors (Jacob, 1999; Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Related terms include peer-medi- ated instruction and collaborative learning. Often these terms are used interchangeably, although precise distinctions do exist. For instance, some say that cooperative learning requires a shared product of learning; collaborative learning does not.

Research on peer-mediated instruction (including cooperative learning) is extensive, with studies spanning a century and many countries, grade levels, subject areas, and populations (in- cluding general and special education) represented. Results are positive (Hall & Stegila, 2003). Cooperative learning is effective for encouraging content learning, social interaction, and stu- dents’ attitudes toward learning and the subject matter. Examples of its effectiveness include meta-analyses (Hattie, 2009; Kyndt, Raes, Lismont, Timmers, Cascallar, & Dochy, 2013; Mar- zano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001) and recent studies (e.g., Roberts et al., 2011; Salako, Eze, & Adu, 2013). Even very young children can use cooperative learning in its simple forms.

Description of the Cooperative Learning Model In cooperative learning lessons, students are expected to help each other learn as they work together in small groups. Groups can be temporary or yearlong. Frequently, cooperative groups include four members, but other configurations also exist. Cooperative learning is more than sim- ply assigning students to work together and then issuing group grades. According to proponents (Kagan, 1994; Slavin, 1995), cooperative learning needs to accomplish four basic principles:

1. Positive interdependence. Conditions must be arranged so that students are dependent on each other for success. This interdependence can be facilitated by providing group awards or by structuring tasks so that individual students cannot complete them alone.

2. Individual accountability. Each student must remain accountable for exhibiting mastery of the content.

3. Simultaneous interaction. Lessons should keep a maximum number of students overtly ac- tive at once. This is in contrast to traditional lessons in which only one student in the entire class speaks at a time.

4. Equal participation. Students need to make balanced contributions to the group’s work. Kagan argues that to accomplish these principles, teachers must:

• Structure teams so that they are heterogeneous. Ability, language, gender, and ethnicity may be criteria teachers use to sort students into teams where members differ.

Watch and think 7.4 This minute-and-a-half clip shows third and fourth graders use peer teach- ing, a form of cooperative learning, in math class. How does this example of cooperative learning dem- onstrate the principles of social interaction and indi- vidual accountability?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=k3GRXWfudeI

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 7.5

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• Use team-building and class-building activities to create the will to cooperate. • Use management techniques specifically suited for group work. Examples include a

quiet signal to regain students’ attention and the use of assigned roles within teams. • Explicitly teach social skills such as listening and conflict resolution techniques.

In sum, cooperative learning lessons structure resources and activities so that students re- main responsible for their own learning and become responsible for assisting their teammates in learning.

Stages of the Cooperative Learning Model Although for many teachers cooperative learning has come to mean simply allowing students to help each other, there are scores of formal cooperative learning structures that breathe life into the principles of cooperative learning. The stages listed in Figure 7.10 do not represent a single lesson. Instead, they suggest a sequence of events that take place over an extended period of time as a teacher works to establish a cooperative learning classroom.

Individual cooperative learning lessons that make use of a variety of structures can be em- bedded within this sequence. Here are four to get you started.

1. Jigsaw II (Slavin, 1995): Students in heterogeneous teams read the same chapter of mate- rial, with each member focusing on particular “expert” topics in the chapter. Students meet in groups with other experts to discuss the material and decide how to present it to group members. Back in their home teams, members teach each other their expert topics, ensur- ing that each member has mastered all topics. Students are assessed on the material, and the teacher records both individual scores and team scores that are based on the improve- ment gains of each individual student. (Focus on content mastery)

2. Inside–outside circle (Kagan, 1994): Two concentric circles form, and students face each other. Partnered with the outside circle person directly across from him or her, each inside circle student shares and then listens as the outside circle person shares. The outside circle rotates so new partners can converse. (Focus on information sharing)

3. Student-teams achievement divisions (STAD; Slavin, 1995): Based on the lesson objective, the teacher presents new information in a manner that closely relates to quizzes students will take later. Then team members practice the information together, using worksheets or other materials. Team members’ responsibility is to ensure that all members have mastered the con- tent. Next, every student takes a quiz on the material. Individuals receive scores based on their improvement over time. Team scores are determined by combining individual improvement scores. Recognition is given to teams based on their team scores. (Focus on content mastery)

Source: Zurijeta/Shutterstock

Through cooperative learning, students work together to meet goals and build social skills

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Figure 7.10 Stages of the cooperative learning model.

Form teams and 1. Select the dimensions along which students will be heterogeneously grouped. set the stage 2. Use assessment results and demographic information to place students into

groups of four that include members who differ according to the selected dimensions. For example, each group may have two high achievers, two lower achievers, and be balanced in terms of girls and boys and English and Spanish speakers. Random teams, interest teams, or skill teams may also be used.

3. Teach a defi ned and explicit set of social behaviors. Examples include active listening and responding in positive ways to peers’ contributions.

Implement cooperative 4. Select and teach a quiet signal. Examples include a raised hand, a fl ick of the management system lights, a noise maker, and patterned hand claps.

5. Teach students to distribute and collect materials within their teams.

Build teams 6. Encourage students to rely on each other by using team-building activities. Examples include team interviews and developing team names or hats.

Teach social skills 7. Directly teach students to interact in positive ways.

• Post a list of the behaviors you expect to see and model those behaviors for the students.

• Consider assigning roles such as encourager and task master to help students learn skills.

8. Monitor social skills. Reinforce appropriate social behaviors. Allow students to evaluate their own use of social skills regularly.

Use cooperative 9. Select from a variety of structures to embed cooperative learning within your learning strategies regular instruction. throughout instruction

Analyze and revise 10. Monitor students’ growth in social skills and encourage them to self-monitor through self-assessments.

• Reorganize teams as appropriate.

• Set new goals for yourself and your students based on their current work.

4. Team statements (Kagan, 1994): Each person writes an individual statement about a topic. Students share their statements and then develop a team statement that synthesizes each of the individual statements. (Focus on thinking skills)

a Sample Cooperative Learning Lesson Figure 7.11 shares a sample lesson for second graders that uses three of Kagan’s cooperative learning structures.

Strengths and Criticisms of the Cooperative Learning Model Cooperative learning offers refreshing changes to traditional classroom practice. First, it breaks the typical discourse pattern where teachers do most of the talking. It can enliven a classroom because it allows a far greater number of people to talk—to develop speaking skills—at once. Second, cooperative learning changes the typical expectation that students need to succeed only as individuals and instead builds as norms social interaction and interdependence. Third, whereas student differences are sometimes seen as problematic, cooperative learning suggests that the more diverse the group, the richer the potential outcomes. Fourth, cooperative learning

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Figure 7.11 A sample cooperative learning lesson.

Objectives: Second-grade students will synthesize information from their aquarium fi eld trip as evidenced by their descriptions of the murals they create.

Students will exhibit two social skills: listening to each other and asking the teacher a question only when no group member can answer it.

Open 1. The class gets ready to learn. • Class is seated on the fl oor in a misshapen circle.

• A fully included student using a wheelchair is sitting next to several friends who like to help out.

• The teacher directs students to choose a partner by making eye contact with a person nearby and linking up.

• She watches to ensure that all students are matched in a respectful way, and then she has them number off (1 and 2).

2. Teacher states, “Here are some plastic animals like the animals we saw on our aquarium fi eld trip. I have plenty. Partner 2, come here, choose one, talk to your partner about what you remember about the animal on the trip, and then return it to the center so that Partner 1 can choose another animal.”

3. Teacher watches the partner group with her fully included student to ensure that the student’s partner doesn’t do too much for him. She monitors others as well.

4. Teacher compliments the students: “Do you know what I noticed as you were talking? When your partner spoke, you really listened. I could tell because you were looking at your partner, nodding and sometimes smiling. You didn’t interrupt either. Careful listening is the social skill we’ll practice today and tomorrow. What does it look like to listen carefully? What does it sound like?” A brief discussion ensues and the teacher charts their responses.

5. “I can tell from your conversations that you learned many things from our fi eld trip. Today you will have a chance to share what you learned by creating a team mural. Tomorrow we will describe our murals to each other.”

Body 6. Each partner group joins up with another to form teams of four and they renumber, 1–4. 7. At their team tables, students fact-storm on their trip.

• Using a strategy called roundtable, one student writes a memory from the aquarium trip on a large sheet of paper, then passes the paper to the next member. The partner of the fully included student takes his dictation.

• Students continue writing for about 10 minutes, until the paper is full. • “Now that you have so many animals and plants recorded, see if your team can group

them in some logical way. Write on the chart.” 8. “Use your groupings to create a mural. Look toward the back of our room and you will see

many materials you may use.” • Students: “Dude! Glitter!” • Teacher continues: “Here’s the rule for making your mural. I have made a sign that

describes your job. See? Member 1, you are in control of the scissors. Only you may cut. Member 2, you are the magazine monitor. Any pictures selected from the magazine are your responsibility. You see that you may need 1 to cut for you, right? Member 3, your job is Fancy Material Captain. Glitter and crepe paper belong only to you. Member 4, markers are your job.”

• She checks for understanding on directions. Satisfi ed, teacher states, “Use your charts and get to work.”

9. Children work until lunch on their murals. • Teacher monitors to be certain that members are making their unique contributions based

on their roles. • When individuals ask her questions, she asks, “Have you asked each person in your

group that question yet?” • She applies some time pressures to keep groups productive, and she reinforces the

listening skills students demonstrate.

Close 10. The next day: To share their murals and allow the teacher to assess the fi rst objective, students use the “one stay, three stray” structure.

• All Number 1’s stand by their group mural and describe it to three visitors. • Next, Number 2’s stay and describe while the others stray to see the murals of other groups. • Teacher takes anecdotal notes on students’ presentations. • Back in their home groups, groups write one statement about what they saw and heard

about other groups’ murals. • Statements are posted near the murals. 11. Students talk briefl y in their groups to evaluate their social skills. • They focus on the chosen skill, careful listening. • They discuss the questions “What did we do well as a group today?” and “What will we

work on for next time?”

(Continued)

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Objectives: Second-grade students will synthesize information from their aquarium fi eld trip as evidenced by their descriptions of the murals they create.

Students will exhibit two social skills: listening to each other and asking the teacher a question only when no group member can answer it.

Open 1. The class gets ready to learn. • Class is seated on the fl oor in a misshapen circle. • A fully included student using a wheelchair is sitting next to several friends who like to

help out. • The teacher directs students to choose a partner by making eye contact with a person

nearby and linking up. • She watches to ensure that all students are matched in a respectful way, and then she

has them number off (1 and 2). 2. Teacher states, “Here are some plastic animals like the animals we saw on our aquarium

fi eld trip. I have plenty. Partner 2, come here, choose one, talk to your partner about what you remember about the animal on the trip, and then return it to the center so that Partner 1 can choose another animal.”

3. Teacher watches the partner group with her fully included student to ensure that the student’s partner doesn’t do too much for him. She monitors others as well.

4. Teacher compliments the students: “Do you know what I noticed as you were talking? When your partner spoke, you really listened. I could tell because you were looking at your partner, nodding and sometimes smiling. You didn’t interrupt either. Careful listening is the social skill we’ll practice today and tomorrow. What does it look like to listen carefully? What does it sound like?” A brief discussion ensues and the teacher charts their responses.

5. “I can tell from your conversations that you learned many things from our fi eld trip. Today you will have a chance to share what you learned by creating a team mural. Tomorrow we will describe our murals to each other.”

Body 6. Each partner group joins up with another to form teams of four and they renumber, 1–4. 7. At their team tables, students fact-storm on their trip. • Using a strategy called roundtable, one student writes a memory from the aquarium trip

on a large sheet of paper, then passes the paper to the next member. The partner of the fully included student takes his dictation.

• Students continue writing for about 10 minutes, until the paper is full. • “Now that you have so many animals and plants recorded, see if your team can group

them in some logical way. Write on the chart.” 8. “Use your groupings to create a mural. Look toward the back of our room and you will see

many materials you may use.” • Students: “Dude! Glitter!” • Teacher continues: “Here’s the rule for making your mural. I have made a sign that

describes your job. See? Member 1, you are in control of the scissors. Only you may cut. Member 2, you are the magazine monitor. Any pictures selected from the magazine are your responsibility. You see that you may need 1 to cut for you, right? Member 3, your job is Fancy Material Captain. Glitter and crepe paper belong only to you. Member 4, markers are your job.”

• She checks for understanding on directions. Satisfi ed, teacher states, “Use your charts and get to work.”

9. Children work until lunch on their murals. • Teacher monitors to be certain that members are making their unique contributions based

on their roles. • When individuals ask her questions, she asks, “Have you asked each person in your

group that question yet?” • She applies some time pressures to keep groups productive, and she reinforces the

listening skills students demonstrate.

Close 10. The next day: To share their murals and allow the teacher to assess the fi rst objective, students use the “one stay, three stray” structure.

• All Number 1’s stand by their group mural and describe it to three visitors. • Next, Number 2’s stay and describe while the others stray to see the murals of other groups. • Teacher takes anecdotal notes on students’ presentations. • Back in their home groups, groups write one statement about what they saw and heard

about other groups’ murals. • Statements are posted near the murals. 11. Students talk briefl y in their groups to evaluate their social skills. • They focus on the chosen skill, careful listening. • They discuss the questions “What did we do well as a group today?” and “What will we

work on for next time?”

Figure 7.11 (Continued)

meets many of the principles addressed in Chapter 6. It is highly interactive, it capitalizes on human nature by allowing students to be actively involved throughout the lesson, and it allows students to form connections to the subject matter and with other students.

Still, cooperative learning brings some difficulties. Slavin (2011) notes that most coopera- tive learning found in classrooms today is informal and may not include the elements (e.g., individual accountability) that most likely contribute to enhanced student achievement. And Hattie’s (2009) synthesis finds that, although cooperative learning can be effective, competitive approaches are also more effective than individualistic learning conditions.

There are some practical concerns. Cooperative learning lessons can take more time than traditional presentations because students are simultaneously learning social skills. Cooperative classrooms require diligence from the teacher in terms of classroom management. It takes skill to harness students’ energy and ensure that students are working productively. It can also be a chal- lenge to guide students in solving their social difficulties when a teacher’s temptation is to quickly solve the problem and move on. Finally, it is the teacher’s responsibility to structure lessons that require every student to contribute to the group’s work. One of the greatest challenges of coopera- tive learning is to bar the possibility that students can freeload.

When will you use cooperative learning? Informal techniques such as partner sharing are easily integrated into traditional instruction. Try the three cooperative techniques given in the Teaching Tip. Individual lessons that employ cooperative structures are also possible. Structuring your entire class- room around the principles of cooperative learning will probably require you to receive additional training or to study some of the excellent resources that describe cooperative learning methods. As you consider cooperative learning, remember the power of your role as instructional leader. You must

Cooperative Learning Quick Starts

Use quick collaborative activities to increase interaction, language, and learning. Here are three to get you going.

1. Peer teach: Pause a few times during a lesson. Have one partner reteach the content to the other. They switch roles next time.

2. Traveling partners: Before the lesson begins, have students sign up for traveling partners. Each re- cords the other’s name. Or you designate the partners. They should not sit near each other. When it is time during the lesson, signal students to travel to their partners. Partners might work a problem, discuss an issue, or check over their notes. Signal when it’s time to head back to their seats.

3. Four-two-one: At the end of a lesson, have students individually write down what they think are the four most important words from the lesson. In partners or small groups, have students share their words and then devise a list of just two important words. Everyone must agree. Finally, in partners or small groups, they pick the one word that captures the lesson best (Rogers, Ludington, & Graham, 1998).

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arrange events so that you can manage students’ behavior, monitor their social skills, and ensure that they truly are helping each other succeed. Think through your activities, anticipate trouble spots, and plan some alternative responses to keep your cooperative lessons productive. Cooperative learning is sometimes used as part of a larger approach, as in project-based learning.

project-Based Learning As its name suggests, project-based learning (PBL) has at its base a project, or a complex, ill-formed, realistic setting that typically involves multidisciplinary learning and extends over time. PBL origi- nated hundreds of years ago in Europe, when architects in training were given projects, like designing the plans for a church, to use their new knowledge and build skills such as problem solving and inde- pendent work—skills that would be required by their profession (Knoll, 2012). Kilpatrick’s project method popularized PBL in the United States in the early 20th century, and a great deal of enthusiasm surrounds PBL today for learners of all ages. Currently educators appreciate the potential of PBL for (a) developing 21st-century skills such as deeper thinking, problem solving, collaboration, multiple literacies, and digital skills and for (b)  engaging students in learning that they see as immediately relevant and motivating.

As a side note, PBL can also refer to problem-based learning, which is also a student-cen- tered, inquiry-driven approach. However, problem-based learning typically has a narrower fo- cus: a single ill-structured problem (Wirkala & Kuhn, 2011). Such problems might take less time for solution and require fewer connections across disciplines. Others see problem-based learning as a subset of project-based learning (Larmer, 2014a). For this reason, the acronym PjBL is sometimes used to distinguish project-from problem-based learning.

Description of the project-Based Learning Model Project-based learning is a carefully planned and systematic approach that engages students in learning knowledge, skills, and dispositions by addressing authentic questions and designing

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 7.6

Watch and think 7.5 This six-and-a-half-minute clip walks us through a single project—Soil Super- heroes—in a Maine middle school that uses project- based learning extensively. Listen for how the teachers planned the project. What were their major consider- ations? What do you see as the benefits of this project? What conditions need to be in place as you take on project-based learning?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=2O8eCdkg0vE& index=1&list=PL3B4723DD 57BCB41A

Planning for PBL Success

1. What project is appropriate for your students and your standards? Study your content standards, the habits of mind, and skills you intend for students to learn. Current advocates focus on 21 st-century outcomes such as digital literacy, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking (e.g., Edutopia, 2011; Nargund-Joshi & Lee, 2013). Check local issues, and use what you know about your students’ interests to form the basis of the project. You might also find ideas by check- ing out the literature or the Web for other teachers’ projects. In the words of one teacher, “It’s important to have a vision, not a plan” (Mitchell, Foulger, Wetzel, & Rathkey, 2009, p. 342). You must have a clear idea of where students need to end up, but you can finalize the plan together.

2. What final presentation or product will students complete to demonstrate their content knowl- edge and skills? How will you assess it? Consider developing a rubric and plan to teach it to students early on.

3. How much choice and voice will your students have? The more the better, say PBL advocates. Decide whether they might have input into the nature and format of final product or presentation. How much latitude will they have in selecting and pursuing learning activities? Students new to PBL will need more structure and support than will students with more PBL experience.

4. What knowledge and skill will students need to complete the project? In addition to content knowl- edge, consider skills like those related to technology, research, and group interactions. Plan to scaf- fold the skills as students need them through direct instruction, perhaps in mini-lessons.

5. What resources and learning activities are likely to support students’ inquiry along the way? Consider access to primary-source materials, varied resources, and field-based experiences.

6. Which formative assessment techniques will you employ to check students’ ongoing mastery and provide feedback to improve their learning? Who might you include on the formative assessment team? How will you teach the students to give each other meaningful feedback? What criteria will be used to assess student progress? How will students be guided in incorporating feedback?

7. How will you introduce the project? Think about activities that will make an impact on students and build their interest and need to know.

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final products related to a realistic or real-world context (Markham, Larmer, & Ravitz, 2003). It combines learning and doing by using extended inquiry to drive growth and mastery of skills (Markham, 2011; Solomon, 2013). Projects are not simply culmi- nating activities; they are the instructional surround for the entire approach. To be of high quality, projects must fulfill an educational purpose; they must tackle issues and concepts that are central to the curriculum. The projects must also be real and be per- ceived by the students as meaningful (Larmer & Mergendoller, 2010; Tamim, & Grant, 2013). Examples of recent projects include Tour Across America, wherein students bridge literacies as they track a fictional band on a national tour (Hill, 2014); Fossil Finders, wherein students col- laborate with a university and an institute to conduct research into Devonian-age fossils (Conner, Capps, Crawford, & Ross, 2013); and Searching for Sasquatch, where anthropology students evaluate claims scientifically (Sullivan, 2013).

In general, projects are driven by an overall guiding question, and students generate related questions that capture what they want to know. They conduct inquiry, usually in collaborative teams, using a variety of sources. Teachers, acting primarily as facilitators, scaffold students’ skills so that they can learn content and skills in a sequence appropriate for the students and the project. Formative assessment occurs along the way, often with the support of people with rel- evant expertise such as scientists, cartoonists, or instructional designers. The project concludes with some product or presentation that is shared with an audience wider than the classroom.

Given the sophisticated design of project-based learning, thorough planning is essential. The Teaching Tip gives major planning questions for a successful PBL experience. Note the use of backward design (from Chapter 5, Planning for Instruction): The final product drives the planning process, and assessment is embedded throughout.

Stages of the project-Based Learning Model Project-based learning occurs in three phases (English & Kitsantas, 2013; see Figure 7.12): the launch, guided inquiry and solution creation, and the conclusion. The launch may last just a

“I am always doing what I cannot do yet, in order to learn how to do it.”

—Vincent van Gogh

Figure 7.12 Stages of project-based learning.

Open (The Launch)

1. Present the issue in a way that engages the students and builds their need to know. 2. Present the guiding question. 3. Access students’ prior knowledge. (Example: Chart what students know about the issue.) 4. Determine students’ questions related to the issue and guiding question. (Example: Record

their questions on an inquiry chart.) 5. If teams will be employed, set up teams now to address the questions. 6. Set goals. 7. Create a planning calendar.

Body (Ongoing Inquiry)

1. Connect students and resources to allow students to pursue their goals and questions from the launch. (Examples: Trips to the field, visits from experts, synchronous conversations via tools such as teleconferencing and chat, use of print- and Web-based primary and secondary sources.)

2. Provide instruction as the need for information and tools arises. (Example: It’s more efficient to teach tech tools before students need to use them with content.)

3. Monitor students’ progress through formative assessment. Provide feedback on student learning as they move toward the final product or presentation. Ensure that feedback comes from multiple sources, such as peers, other teachers, and practitioners.

4. Assist students in monitoring their use of learning strategies and help them adjust their strategies for maximal productivity and learning.

5. Assist students in preparing for their final presentations.

Close (The Conclusion)

1. Guide and assess students in their final presentations. Ensure that there is a wide and authentic audience for the final product.

2. Facilitate students in assessing each other and learning from each other’s work. 3. Help students reflect on their learning processes and outcomes. Help them assess their

progress toward their goals from the launch. 4. Assist students in setting learning goals for the next experience.

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portion of a single class session. During the launch, the teacher introduces the project in a way that engages the students and builds motivation to learn. Students meet the guiding question. Primary-grade students recently explored guiding questions like “Is the planting season the same in north Texas and Canada?” and “If we see a full moon in Texas, is there a full moon in Wales?” (Hopper, 2014). In the launch, the teacher also accesses students’ prior knowledge and helps them determine what they need to know in order to complete the project. Students might com- plete a planning calendar to pace their work and take them to their goals.

The second phase—guided inquiry and solution creation—is the longest phase. Students (usually in small teams) conduct a number of activities, or smaller inquiries, that build toward the final product and address the guiding question. Activities are iterative, meaning that pro- cesses are repeated, with one activity’s results feeding into the next activity. During this phase, the teacher scaffolds skills with instruction where appropriate, connects students with resources, and helps students manage their learning. Indeed, the crucial aspect of PBL is that students im- prove their ability to regulate their own learning (English & Kitsantas, 2013; Stefanou, Stolk, Prince, Chen, & Lord, 2013; Tamim & Grant, 2013). To assist students in self-regulation, the teacher might ask students to monitor their time use and their application of learning strategies.

Formative assessment occurs regularly during the inquiry phase. Students receive feedback from each other, their teacher, and often other experts with specialized knowledge. Formative assessment should help students adjust their work as it builds toward their final presentation or product (Edutopia, 2011).

The final PBL phase, the conclusion, has two components. Students share their product or solution to the problem, and they reflect on their mastery of the learning outcomes and their learning processes. The audience for their solution or final product should reach beyond the classroom to include participants such as industrial representatives and community stakeholders. Students receive summative feedback on their work. English and Kitsantas (2013) underscore the importance of this final phase; without reflecting on their PBL, students are less likely to transfer their new learning strategies, knowledge, and skills to future efforts.

a Sample project-Based Learning experience In 2014, Fearless Block 3 and I (you saw us in chapter 6 on p. 117) engaged in a project-based learning experience I call the Back Bay Museum Project. Preservice teachers in an arts-rich cre- dential program, the students were preparing to teach K–6 science. They engaged in our PBL unit on two levels: as students experiencing PBL to learn content, and as teachers learning to lead simi- lar projects in their own classrooms. Even though my students were adults, the project is appropri- ate as written for grades 3 and up. In fact, when Block 3 moved into their student teaching, one of them led a similar PBL experience with her multi-age primary-grade class to study the rain forest.

During the planning phase, I developed a list of learning goals that addressed my course content (science methods), our arts-rich vision, and digital literacy:

1. NGSS Crosscutting Concepts: Students will explain crosscutting concepts such as “ systems and model systems” and “scale, proportion, and quantity” using an Upper Newport Bay animal as an exemplar.

2. Research Skills and Dispositions: Students will conduct scholarly research into top- ics of scientific import and demonstrate habits such as persistence and a preference for evidence.

3. Engineering Design: Facing the design problem of creating a proportional, 3D model of an Upper Newport Bay animal, students will generate multiple solutions that reflect criteria and constraints, consider multiple solutions, and optimize the solution.

4. Creative Expression through Original Artwork: Students will create papier-mâché sculptures that are realistic in proportion and features but fanciful in their use of color.

5. Written Communication: Students will write informative text with precise, discipline- specific language that considers the context and audience (museum signage).

6. Digital Literacy: Students will select, learn, and use a variety of tech tools as appropriate for the work of collaborating, conducting research, and sharing findings. Examples: Wikis, Internet sources, YouTube videos, bubbl.us, Popplet, and QR codes.

7. Global Thinking: Students will reuse (“upcycle”) postconsumer goods in their sculptures and consider other uses of upcycling to address sustainability.

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Based on these goals, I developed the specifications for the end product: a museum display of proportional and aesthetically pleasing models of animals that inhabit the six habitats of Up- per Newport Bay. Each sculpture was to be accompanied by a caption card that both informs and entertains and contains a QR code that links the viewer to additional multimedia informa- tion (such as a video of the animal in motion). Our guiding question became, “How can we heighten awareness of the beauty and biological diversity of the animals of the Upper Newport Bay?” Figure 7.13 shares the PBL experience, and the photo shows a sample sculpture, Kim- berly Simpson’s neon skimmer.

Strengths and Criticisms of project-Based Learning Project-based learning is intuitively appealing. With its real-life emphasis, PBL creates “sticky” (memorable) learning experiences (Krauss, 2013). It’s difficult to argue against learning in real- life contexts that encourage students to become independent and interdependent learners who can utilize a whole array of tools in service of their goals. After teaching the Back Bay Museum Project, I glance at my own list of habits of mind (remember developing yours in Chapter 5?),

Figure 7.13 The Back Bay Museum Project.

Open (The Launch)

1. Teacher introduces a local yet unfamiliar (to most) wonder, Upper Newport Bay, using a presentation with photographs and maps. She includes compelling statistics about California’s wetlands and the unique role that estuaries play in environmental health. She includes environmental issues and engineering solutions undertaken to maintain the bay.

2. Students share their experience with Upper Newport Bay and other wetlands. 3. Teacher presents the guiding question, “How can we heighten awareness of the beauty and

biological diversity of the animals of Upper Newport Bay?” 4. Teacher shares vision of final product: A museum display that will travel to the university’s

library. She shares rubrics for the final product and each component of the project. 5. Students select one animal each for further study. They use a wiki to make their choice. 6. Teacher leads students in creating a chart of questions and plans to conduct research on their

animals according to NGSS crosscutting concepts.

Body (Ongoing Inquiry)

1. Throughout the unit, students conduct independent research on their animals. They create online graphic organizers and receive formative assessment on their organizers and caption cards.

2. Students bring in recycled materials such as paper tubes, milk cartons, and cereal boxes to form the armature (base) of their sculptures.

3. An arts educator joins class to teach papier-mâché techniques, and teachers monitor students’ design efforts during several work sessions.

4. Students and their teachers visit Upper Newport Bay for a walking and canoeing tour to learn more about their animals and bay habitats.

5. Teacher assists students in monitoring their progress on the sculptures and research project, and they prepare for the museum display.

Close (The Conclusion)

1. Students prepare the display, arranging animals and caption cards for best viewing and audience interaction.

2. We hold a gallery walk, with students using their mobile devices to access the information given in QR codes. They complete a passport to the bay, where—as with a real passport— they note their travels, in this case by recording multiple examples of animals from different habitats that demonstrate NGSS crosscutting concepts.

3. We hold a class discussion about the learning that resulted from PBL. A common theme is that students were surprised by their own capacity to persist and create 3D models from unlikely materials. They discuss implications for their teaching.

4. With the assistance of an arts education major who will curate our museum display, we move the sculptures to their new display space on the fourth floor of our university library, where we watch visitors linger and appreciate the diversity of our local wonder, Upper Newport Bay.

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162 Chapter 7

Source: CSUF News Service

and I think each habit was addressed powerfully in the experience. No wonder educators are beginning to discuss PBL as a great way to help students develop “grit,” or persistence and pas- sion in pursuing long-term goals (Larmer, 2014b).

Indeed, a number of benefits for PBL are documented in the research. It does appear to support student engagement (Hill, 2014; Tamim & Grant, 2013). Importantly, PBL can sup- port traditional achievement outcomes (e.g., De La Paz & Hernández-Ramos, 2013; Gultekin, 2005; Katsanos, Tselios, Tsakoumis, & Avouris, 2012). There is experimental research that doc- uments students in PBL conditions significantly outperforming those in other instructional con- ditions (e.g., Karaçalli & Korur, 2014; Loyens & Rikers, 2011). In addition to course content, students in PBL also tend to learn interdisciplinary content (e.g., Burand & Ogba, 2013) and outcomes such as the four c’s (Karaçalli & Korur, 2014).

There is also promising research that suggests that PBL can support inclusive education, pro- viding success for a wide range of students. For example, some studies show PBL narrowing the achievement gap for students with learning disabilities and allowing all students to learn from each other (e.g., De La Paz & Hernández-Ramos, 2013; Hill, 2014). PBL can also support the develop- ment of self-regulated learning (e.g., Stefanou, Stolk, Prince, Chen, & Lord, 2013). The research on PBL is not extensive and has some flaws that limit our conclusions, but we can conclude that when it is implemented well, project-based learning has great potential for supporting students’ engagement, content knowledge, self-regulated learning, and a variety of other outcomes.

Despite PBL’s potential, teachers who wish to implement it face a number of challenges. Because PBL has thus far been implemented on a relatively limited scale (David, 2008), it can be difficult for teachers to find collaborative support at their sites (e.g., Hill, 2014). Because it places teachers in the facilitative role, PBL requires teachers to have very strong content knowledge. Teachers also face the curricular pressures of weighing breadth of coverage against depth and the need to address prescribed standards; substantial planning times; and securing a range of re- sources, usually including digital tools and perhaps including site visits (Tamim & Grant, 2013). It also takes considerable pedagogical skill to manage simultaneous learning activities while simultaneously helping students exercise independence and become better learners.

To minimize difficulties and realize the benefits that can come with project-based learning, you might start by coplanning a limited-scale PBL experience. You might also keep structure high and use more teacher direction in your early PBL experiences.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 7.7

Kimberly Simpson’s neon skimmer (approximately eighteen inches in length, with moveable wings)

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parting Words Classroom teaching is so demanding that it is easy to retreat to instructional methods that do not require us to consider best practices, to enact our stances toward education, to stretch as professionals, or to stray from the ways we were taught as children. However, teaching is more than telling. Skilled teachers can use a number of instructional strate- gies to suit their purposes and encourage different kinds of growth for their learners. Make learning and using a number of instructional strategies a priority, perhaps selecting one or two based on your work from the Before You Begin Reading

exercise in this chapter. When you try any new strategy, think very carefully about what you will say at each point, what you will expect from the students, and what you will do if things do not go as planned. Expect that you will need repeated opportunities to practice new strategies; in fact, research on staff development suggests that a strategy may not feel natural until you try it about a dozen times. A dozen times! The harder you work to build your instructional reper- toire, the better able you will be to help your students grow and develop.

Opportunities to practice 1. Record yourself teaching or ask for permission to observe

another teacher. Tally the number of questions the teacher asks and how many the students ask. Analyze your data of question–answer patterns according to research results given in the Classroom Questioning section of this chapter. What is your evaluation of the questioning you observed?

2. Make a prioritized list for yourself of the strategies you will work to master. Busy? I suggest you choose, for a start, direct instruction and one other strategy. Study the stages of the models as if you are studying for an exam. Commit them to memory and then bring them to life through intense effort to

model them each a couple times. Work with a colleague and discuss your experience.

3. Write two contrasting lessons using strategies from this chapter. Use an objective from your classroom or the following one: “Students will retell three major events from a story [name one] in the correct sequence.”

4. Figure 7.14 includes planning formats for many of the instruc- tional models and strategies in this chapter. Use them as you plan lessons that incorporate different strategies. Remember to include cognitive, affective, and psychomotor objectives as appropriate. Also, include assessment to match each of your objectives.

extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms Use the names of strategies given in this chapter to conduct your Internet search for teaching techniques. Examples include the following:

Bucks Institute of Education: Project Based Learning. Great support materials for PBL, including sample projects.

Cooperative Learning Institute. Read about current research and projects related to cooperative learning by David Johnson and Roger Johnson.

GlobalSchoolNet. This network connects learners around the world for collaborative, technology-rich projects.

Glossary of Instructional Strategies. This site includes more than 1,200 strategies and techniques.

Instructional Strategies Online. This site groups dozens of methods within a handful of strategies. A valuable resource, it provides background, step-by-step directions and plenti- ful resources to help you master a variety of techniques. One example from this chapter is concept formation.

National Institute for Direct Instruction. The institute’s site contains many research reports and support materials for a  variety of audiences interested in using direct instruction to boost student achievement.

Instructional Models and Strategies 163

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164 Chapter 7

Figure 7.14 Planning formats.

Direct Instruction Lesson

Objective(s): Materials:

Expectations for behavior:

Open 1. Anticipatory set:

• Focus:

• Objective:

• Purpose:

Body 2. Input:

• Provide input:

• Check for understanding:

3. Guided practice:

Close 4. Closure:

5. Independent practice:

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Instructional Models and Strategies 165

Figure 7.14 (Continued)

Learning Cycle Lesson

Concept or rule to be discovered:

Objective(s):

Materials:

Open 1. Engage (use a real-world phenomenon to hook the students; elicit questions; determine background knowledge):

Body 2. Explore (work with concrete materials; determine emerging concepts and terms):

3. Explain (formally develop concepts and terms from the explore phase; use readings, direct presentations, and other methods to ensure mastery of the objective):

Close 4. Elaborate (provide a novel problem to which new knowledge can be applied or make some other real-world connection):

5. Evaluate (Have students self assess. Evaluate concepts and skills):

(Continued)

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166 Chapter 7

Concept Formation Lesson

If specifi ed, concepts or generalizations to be discovered:

Objective(s):

Materials:

Open 1. Introduce the topic and ask a question that will generate a list of terms:

Body 2. List (prompt students to generate an extensive list related to the topic):

3. Group (prompt students to group items from the list):

4. Label (prompt students to name the groups):

5. Optional: Regroup (prompt students to fi nd other ways items can be grouped):

Close 6. Call students’ attention to the concepts or generalizations that arise from their groupings. Prompt:

7. Extend learning through an additional assignment, such as a drawing, writing, or speaking opportunity:

Figure 7.14 (Continued)

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Instructional Models and Strategies 167

Pre Conversation Preparation

Open 1. Arrange students to see each other:

2. Share goals and question:

3. Set parameters and expectations:

1. Plan social skills and conversational moves:

3. Write the question or prompt:

4. Prepare frame or structure (if appropriate):

5. Set students’ preparation task:

2. Plan goals:

Content:

Language:

Social:

Close 7. Students reflect on goals and prompt:

8. Students reflect on:

(a) understanding

(b) participation

(c) next questions, goals

Body 4. Support use of frame:

5. Monitor and give feedback:

Content Conversation Lesson

Figure 7.14 (Continued)

(Continued)

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168 Chapter 7

Cooperative Learning Lesson

Content objective(s):

Social skill objective(s):

Materials:

Prelesson a. How are teams formed?

questions

b. What quiet signal will you use?

c. What team-building and class-building efforts have you taken or will you take?

Open 1. Focus students’ attention and allude to the lesson’s content and activities:

2. State expectations for cooperative work and teach social skills:

Body 3. Use a cooperative learning structure to present information or encourage discovery learning. Samples from Chapters 5 and 6 include the following:

blackboard blitz inside–outside circle round table

brainstorming jigsaw roving review

four corners numbered heads together stand to share

gallery walk one stay, three stray values lineups

group problems peer interviews

4. Monitor students’ use of social skills. Sample prompts:

Close 5. Summarize the learning. Prompts or cooperative strategy:

6. Process students’ use of social skills:

Figure 7.14 (Continued)

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Instructional Models and Strategies 169

Open (The Launch)

1. Present issue:

2. Present guiding question:

3. Access students’ prior knowledge:

4. Determine students’ questions:

5. Set up teams (optional):

6. Set goals:

7. Create a planning calendar:

Body (Ongoing Inquiry)

8. Connect students and resources:

9. Provide embedded instruction:

10. Provide formative feedback:

Self-assessment:

Peer assessment:

Teacher assessment:

Practitioner assessment:

11. Monitor and assist students with use of learning strategies:

12. Prepare for final presentations or products:

Close (The Conclusion)

13. Final presentations to wide audience:

14. Provide summative assessment on presentation and process:

Self-assessment:

Peer assessment:

Teacher assessment:

Practitioner assessment:

15. Set goals for next project and learning:

Project-Based Learning Lesson

Figure 7.14 (Continued)

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Before You Begin Reading

Student Assessment

8

Learning OutcOmes

You will know you have finished this chapter when you can:

1. Determine whether a practice supports or violates principles of assessment.

2. Define terms related to assessment basics, such as norm- and criterion-referenced measures, and  formative and summative assessment.

3. Discuss the international, national, state, and local-level assessment landscape.

4. List the steps of the classroom assessment sequence and share an example to illustrate the sequence.

5. Describe three classroom assessment measures and evaluate their usefulness for different purposes.

Warm-up exercise fOr assessment

Think back to your years as a student. How did your teachers know whether and what you learned? What kinds of feedback did you receive? Take three minutes to jot down as many different assess- ment strategies as you can recall experiencing.

Now mark each of these statements with agree or disagree:

1. Teachers knew me as a multifaceted person with varied strengths and skills. 2. Teachers were interested in my own assessments of my work. 3. Teachers encouraged me to set my own learning goals. 4. The feedback I received from tests and other assessments helped me learn. 5. Teachers changed what they did in the classroom based on student assessment data.

Finally, evaluate your answers for statements 1 through 5. Were your experiences with assessment as a student positive? Would it have been better if teachers had assessed your learning differently?

Here is a chance for you to use effective practices from both the past and present to make a differ- ence for today’s students. Use your conclusions to help make sense of the following chapter and to build your own system for assessing student progress.

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“The greatest magnifying glasses in the world are a man’s own eyes when they look upon his own person.” —Alexander Pope

Assessment is the magnifying glass we use to look upon our efforts in education. Through assessment, we gather, analyze, and use information about schools’ work and students’ progress. We use the assessment magnifying glass for many purposes, such as checking the health of our schools, communicating our efforts to the public, and comparing ourselves to other nations. Our primary purpose of assessment, though, is student growth.

Principles of Assessment Assessment of student learning is multifaceted and complex, and to do a good job at it, we must use a number of principles to guide our actions, no matter the level or type of assessment. In our assessments, we need to:

1. Measure what we value. 2. Include students. 3. Be fair. 4. Use what we learn. 5. Add to the bigger picture.

These five principles are introduced briefly here and reoccur as themes throughout the chapter.

1. Measuring what we value. At every level (globally, nationally, professionally, and indi- vidually) we give serious deliberation to what we should accomplish through education, and we embody those wishes as goals in a variety of forms such as philosophies and mission statements. Assessment is the vehicle we use to ascertain our progress toward our goals and to adjust our course of action. Assessing what we value entails ensuring that our assessments address all of our goals—not just a narrow range of them—and both short- and long-term targets.

2. Including students. Self-assessment has demonstrated positive effects for both achieve- ment and self-regulation (Harris & Brown, 2009). Although assessment often appears to be done to students rather than with students, the ultimate goal in assessment is self-assessment (Costa & Kallick, 2000). Only when they are effective self-evaluators will students be autonomous indi- viduals who can motivate their own learning and action. Thus, our efforts must include assess- ment of learning (to check progress), for learning (to guide next steps), and as learning (to help students grow as self-evaluators).

3. Being fair. To provide a true picture of what students know and can do, assessments must be systematic. They must provide valid and reliable information for all of our students. A valid assessment measures what it was intended to measure and allows us to draw accurate inferences. Confounds to validity include, often, English language proficiency and reading skill. Either of these variables might affect a student’s score on the fourth-grade science item found in Figure 8.1. A reliable measure gives consistent results under different conditions and with

Watch and think 8.1 As you watch this three- minute clip on assessment at School of the Future, determine how many of the five principles of assess- ment are in evidence.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=mvQMfPZNre4

Assessment principle: Measure what we value.

Goals

Assess Teach

Source: National Center for Education Statistics Kids’ Zone. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/eyk/index.asp?search=1&flash=true& Q=995,912,896,81,285,898,68,935,977,992&Sub=Science&Grade=4th%20grade.

Figure 8.1 Sample fourth-grade science assessment item.

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172 Chapter 8

different raters. To be fair, assessments also need to be unbiased and equitable. Using multiple measures increases the odds that we build fair, accurate, and rich portraits of student progress.

4. Using what we learn. Assessment results must be useful. By providing information about students’ progress toward goals, assessment data should inform our instruction and other next steps such as schoolwide program revision. Assessment should also guide the selection of future learning goals.

5. Adding to the bigger picture. Information about student progress is collected over time and from many sources. Assessment efforts need to add to the bigger picture of what we know about each of our individual students. Each assessor fits into a variety of assessment systems and must contribute to the bigger picture(s) of what we know about our students as groups as well, and patterns of assessment results must also be used to check the quality of opportunities being provided to all subgroups of our student population so that we can ameliorate the inequities revealed by our assessment results. Each assessor must also develop and implement effective assessment systems at her own level of influence.

Using the Principles of Assessment in Your Grading It’s very important that we apply principles of assessment to our evaluations (see the Teaching Tip for the difference between assessment and evaluation). Applying the principles of assess- ment to assign grades to students’ performance will require systematic and careful thought. In general, you need to assign and then grade the things that matter; you need to capture a rich portrait of what students know and can do; you need to be fair and systematic, including the students; and you need to be efficient. Here is some advice that can help you bring principles of assessment to life each time you evaluate student performance.

1. Study the grade report used for your level before you begin teaching and entering grades. Check the alignment of the grade report with your content standards. Determine whether each item is assessed every term. Use that information to guide your long-term planning. Use the items of the report to structure your grading, but also collect other information that is important to you and may not show up on the grade report.

2. Inform students of criteria for grades in advance. Students who receive challenging assignments and have clear grading criteria perform better than those who don’t (Matsumura & Pascal, 2003). In every case possible, allow student input into grading criteria, perhaps using strategies such as backward planning.

3. Think about the role of daily homework in students’ overall grades. If a student aces every test but refuses to do homework, should the final grade be an F? If so, you will be award- ing a grade for something other than content mastery, which was demonstrated through exam performance. Is that other criterion (effort?) reasonable and clearly specified? When non- achievement factors are combined with achievement measures, the validity of a grade is thrown in question (Black, 2013).

4. Similarly, check grading policies for students with significant academic disabilities. How will you denote that a student may be performing consistent with capability but still be earning a failing grade? Many teachers worry about the demoralizing effects on students who consistently earn failing grades despite their best efforts, yet these teachers appreciate the impor- tance of consistent standards.

5. Be careful of how much weight you place on assignments that are completed outside of class. Unless you specify that family members should be involved in completing a major project, you probably need to be guarded in the importance you award it. For instance, some teachers are tempted to weight a science fair project heavily despite the fact that it is completed almost entirely at home. Under these conditions, the teachers cannot be sure whose work they are grading. Addi- tionally, not all homes have the resources to support students in projects such as these. Be sure to provide in-class instructional support for any major project and have checkpoints along the way.

6. Be careful of how you award extra credit; use it to reward appropriate performance. As a counterexample, I have witnessed teachers award extra credit points when their students donate the novels they purchased to the class library. In a sense, students buy a portion of their grade if they can afford the price of a novel. Similarly, some teachers award extra credit points at the end of a term if students did not use their allotment of bathroom passes. In both of these cases, nonacademic performance (financial donations and bladder control) is rewarded with academic

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Student Assessment 173

grades. Additionally, if you award extra credit, ensure that its weight as a portion of the grade reflects your priorities.

7. Don’t write a grade on every piece of paper. Some assignments are just for practice. In fact, many teachers judge homework assignments as complete or not and reteach to address errors. Or they collect and grade a sample of homework. Also, feedback needs to be timely for it to be useful to the learner. Don’t collect stacks of assignments if you cannot return them for weeks.

8. When you grade papers, be specific in your feedback. “Great job” feels good, but it doesn’t give advice on how to repeat the performance for next time. Remember from Chapter 6 to give specific evidence related to the target as you provide feedback. If you write praise, make sure it is based on the quality of the performance and not on your opinion as an authority. “Your use of color creates a sense of excitement” is more relevant and helpful than “I love your use of color.”

9. Instead of entering percentages in your grade book, translate grades into numbers that are easier to work with. Some teachers use a 1- to 12-point system; others use a 1- to 5-point system. If you keep a paper grade book, consider adding the points as you record them so that your work is done at the end of the term. Using smaller numbers not only makes figuring totals easier, it avoids penalizing students for low scores the way entering tiny percentages can. (Math- ematically, it is difficult to overcome even a single 23%.)

10. After you figure grades, check again that marks accurately reflect your global assess- ment of each student’s growth. Be prepared to defend every grade you report to families. Be open to the possibility that you may have misgraded. Be ready to say what students will need to do differently for different marks.

11. Be careful in the words you write in the comment section of a grade report. Remember that those words will be the ones that follow students for years after they leave you. Include only relevant comments. Be constructive. Point out every student’s growth.

12. Work with grade-level and department teams to develop common, consistent, and fair approaches to grading student work.

Assessment versus Evaluation

Assessment is the act of gathering information about student progress. Evaluation assigns a judg- ment, or value, to that information. Grading is thus an evaluative activity. Assigning accurate and meaningful grades is a difficult endeavor, fraught with many logistical and ethical issues (Deddeh, Main, & Fulkerson, 2010; Pope, Green, Johnson, & Mitchell, 2009). Grades should be well supported by assessment results, so think about whether and how you’ll assign grades as you consider any assessment issue.

TeAchinG TiP

Assessment Basics As you consider your important role as an assessor and pursue effective assessment, several basic concepts may be of service.

Different Assessments for Different Purposes Although schools focus on the cognitive domain, our student learning goals do fall into several domains (cognitive, psychomotor, and affective).

Because domains of outcomes vary, so must our assessments to measure students’ progress. Stiggins (2008) suggests that teachers use assessments to measure a variety of targets, including targets for:

• Knowledge and understanding • Reasoning • Performance skills • Proficiency in creating products • Dispositions

click here to assess your mastery of chapter Learning Outcome 8.1

Read an example of the multidomain nature of the Next Generation Science Standards.

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174 Chapter 8

In addition to classroom assessments, students face a variety of other assessments. Achievement tests are common, as are aptitude tests (which measure aspects of ability), interest inventories, and diagnostic measures that might screen for health or learning conditions. Each of our many assessments needs to match our purposes.

norm- and criterion-Referenced Assessments Measures can compare individuals’ results to a group or to an external standard. Norm- referenced measures compare an individual’s performance with that of a norming group. How well an individual does depends on the achievement of others. Think of grading on a curve: A score of 75 percent might bring you any grade from A to F depending on how your classmates do. A common norm-referenced score is a percentile, the score below which that percentage of the scores falls. A score at the 90th percentile means that 90 percent of the people who took the test scored below that score. Another example is a grade equivalent score (GE), which tells the grade and month (1–9) of the average person who achieved a given score.

Criterion-referenced assessments instead compare each individual’s score to a set score or level of performance (a standard). One’s progress on a criterion-referenced measure is not influenced by others’ scores. Your score of 75 percent would earn a C (by common convention), regardless of your peers’ scores. A common criterion-referenced practice is pass/fail grading using a predetermined cut score. A driver’s license test is an example. Another is the determi- nation of students’ grade-level proficiency, where scores fall into performance levels such as “advanced,” “proficient,” and “basic” depending on predetermined criteria.

Both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced scores provide useful information; using both gives us a more precise picture of student progress. For instance, at the doctor’s office, it’s helpful to know both a child’s weight measurement and its percentile. The former (say, 72 pounds) gives an exact, criterion-referenced measure, and the latter (say, 68th percentile) allows us to compare the child’s weight to that of the child’s age mates. Knowing both pieces of information is helpful to the child, the parents, and the doctor for making future decisions about things like nutrition.

Standardized and Local Assessments Standardized tests are developed, administered, and scored under systematic conditions. They are meant to provide results that can be compared across large numbers of students. Examples include the annual achievement tests taken by students across the nation, mandated by NCLB, and intelligence tests such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children. Local assessments, on the other hand, are developed, implemented, and analyzed with the local context in mind. District writing exams are an example of a local assess- ment. Both types of assessment—large-scale and local—can contribute unique information to our understanding of students’ progress. The trick is to be smart in considering the kind of infor- mation that each can provide.

Formative and Summative Assessments Assessments whose primary purpose is to inform us of students’ postinstructional performance are summative. Statewide achievement tests are an example. Even though we do use the results to shape future planning, the achievement tests’ immediate and primary focus is to report students’ performance for the year. Summative assessment is assessment of learning.

Formative assessment is assessment for learning. The primary purpose of formative assess- ments is to give current information about students’ progress that helps us shape (or “form”) our actions to better meet students’ needs. Research indicates that formative assessment has a strong positive effect on student learning (Hattie, 2009; Popham, 2008). Indeed, much inter- est today is centered on the power of formative assessment to improve teaching and learning. Formative assessment can occur before instruction, providing diagnostic information, and during instruction, providing progress monitoring and opportunities to modify the pace, con- tent, and approach of our lessons in response to students’ unfolding needs. Students should be active in formative assessment: “Formative assessment is a planned process in which teachers or

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Student Assessment 175

students use assessment-based evidence to adjust what they’re currently doing” (Popham, 2008, p. 6; emphasis added).

Assessment for learning involves students in determining their current performance, setting goals, and ascertaining progress toward those goals. “When students and teachers become partners in the classroom assessment process, both working in the service of student success, research from around the world reveals that the result is profound achievement gains for all students” (Stiggins, 2009, p. 420).

Balanced assessment systems include both formative and summative assessments aligned with goals and instruction. Formative assessment provides guidance along the road, and summa- tive assessment tells us when, whether, and where we’ve arrived. Both are necessary for guiding student growth (Kennedy, Chan, Fok, & Yu, 2008).

The Assessment Landscape Your work as an assessor puts you and your students on the map. Let’s examine the landscape of assessment from afar and up close.

international Assessment Landscape At the international level, student assessment allows us to compare our students’ attainments to those of students around the world. Analyzing international results can provide insights into our practices and policies and suggest avenues for improvement. In fact, when you hear that the Common Core standards are internationally benchmarked, it’s largely because the devel- opers analyzed demands of international assessments—two in particular—and reflected those demands in the standards (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014e). The two major international assessment programs are the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Programme for International Assessment (PISA), each with dozens of participating countries.

PISA is a triennial assessment of 15-year-olds’ capacity to analyze, reason, and commu- nicate effectively in the areas of mathematics, science, and reading. PISA’s literacy emphasis is on applying knowledge as students pose, solve, and interpret problems in a variety of set- tings (OECD, 2013b). The test also asks students to assess their attitudes, motivation to learn, and learning strategies. PISA is increasingly employing computer-based assessment tools and exploring adaptive testing. Adaptive testing matches the level of the test to students’ perfor- mance so that they need not complete all items including ones that are too easy or too difficult for them. U.S. students’ performance on PISA was below the international averages in math- ematics, and their science and reading scores were near international averages (not much change over time here) (OECD, 2013a). As a side note, the gender differences explored in Chapter 4 are alive across the globe in PISA results. As is the case with U.S. measures, the international dif- ferences in scores within a gender group (male or female) are larger than the difference between gender groups, and certain subgroups need particular attention. These subgroups include the highest-performing females in the area of mathematics and the lowest-performing males in reading. Overall, females continue to outscore males in reading, with the gender gap widen- ing in eleven countries. Males continue to outperform females in mathematics, but not in every country, and not to the same degree (OECD, 2013b).

Administered every four years, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) examines the mathematics and science knowledge that fourth- and eighth-graders are likely to have learned in school (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012c). For the past two test administrations (2007 and 2011), U.S. students scored above the average scale score in science and mathematics at both grade levels. Figure 8.2 gives international comparisons related to the fourth-grade science question—a TIMSS question—given in Figure 8.1. Go to the NCES Kids’ Zone site and try some questions yourself. Comparisons of these TIMSS and PISA results suggest that U.S. students did better at displaying factual knowledge than they did at reasoning in complex problem solving.

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national- and State-Level Assessment Landscape The National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), deemed the nation’s report card, is the longest-running, largest standardized assessment employed across the United States. Participation is now mandated by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (No Child Left Behind). Every four years, a sample of fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade students in every state completes the NAEP in several subject areas. Questions include both constructed response and selection-type items. Visit the Nation’s Report Card site to view a wealth of information such as long-term trend data, your state’s profile (including expenditures per pupil, percentage of students with individual education programs, and percentage participation in English profi- ciency programs), and released test items (click on “sample questions”).

Although mandated, the NAEP is not considered by most as a high-stakes test because its results have no tangible consequences. Instead, NCLB’s accountability requirements are tied to mandated statewide achievement tests. Beginning in grade 3, students are assessed annu- ally using standardized tests that measure progress toward state content standards. Students’ achievement falls into performance levels such as “advanced,” “proficient,” “basic,” and “below basic.” Each school—and each subgroup of the school’s population—must make adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward NCLB’s goal of 100 percent of students attaining grade-level proficiency. Schools that do not make AYP are subject to sanctions and possible takeover. Revisions under consideration for the reauthorization of NCLB focus more on growth-based models and less on punishments or sanctions.

We can draw a number of conclusions about the standardized testing landscape in the United States. First, tests are developed, administered, and analyzed by people external to the local schooling context; this is not the case everywhere (Darling-Hammond & McCloskey, 2008). Second, our tests focus more on recall of factual information through selection-type items than do the tests of countries that score well on PISA. In such countries, tests focus more on open- ended items that require extensive writing and analysis and application of knowledge (Darling- Hammond & McCloskey, 2008). Third, our tests affect the curriculum by changing its scope (typically narrowing it), the forms of knowledge it embodies (typically isolating information into discrete bits), and our instructional approaches (typically moving them to teacher-centered techniques) (Au, 2007; Laitsch, 2006).

Perhaps for these reasons, many oppose standardized testing in the United States. Vocal crit- ics (e.g., Kohn, 2001; Valli, Croninger, Cambliss, Graeber, & Buese, 2008) condemn standard- ized tests as incapable of measuring important outcomes, of limiting our vision of what is impor- tant, of weakening student-teacher relationships, and of being biased against groups such as English learners (Menken, 2008), students from ethnic and racial minority groups, and students from low-income homes (Johnson, Johnson, Farenga, & Ness, 2008). Some seriously doubt the

Figure 8.2 Percent correct responses on the question, “Some children were trying to find out which of three bulbs …”

Source: National Center for Education Statistics Kids’ Zone. Retrieved from: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/eyk/moreinfo.asp?flash=true&id=81& QNum=4&Display=international.

Watch and think 8.2 In this one-and-a-half- minute clip, Sir Ken Robinson shares his conclusions about deleteri- ous effects of standardized assessments. To what extent do you agree? What counterarguments or dilemmas might be raised?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=AqXDfx2q5rw

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ability of standardized tests to measure the types of learning and intelligence that relate to suc- cess in the real world. Sternberg (1997a,b), for instance, argues that successful intelligence—the ability to adapt to one’s environment to accomplish goals—is not measured by standardized tests. Sternberg also asserts that standardized tests emphasize conformity in thought instead of valuing diverse approaches to learning.

Those who offer support of standardized testing (e.g., Phelps, 2005) advance a number of arguments in favor of testing. They state that public support for high-stakes testing is consis- tently positive; as education is a public endeavor, our profession must remain accountable to its constituents. Proponents also point to benefits such as the power of standardized tests as diag- nostic and motivational tools. Some proponents recognize the limitations of standardized tests and suggest that we focus efforts on improving our testing practices.

Because assessment is goal-driven, the Common Core State Standards Initiative brings with it the tremendous opportunity to reconsider standards-based, standardized testing in the United States. With learning expectations similar across our nation comes the opportunity to develop assessment measures that check students’ mastery relative to that of their peers in other states— and address some of the shortfalls of our current statewide assessments. Two main consortia, with federal funding, are developing assessments to measure Common Core learning: the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and Smarter Balanced Assess- ment Consortium (SBAC). Although there are differences between the assessments, both consor- tia have as major goals the accurate assessment of college- and career-ready learning, a tighter link between instruction and assessment to include formative assessment and information about student growth over time, and computer-based delivery models that can capitalize on adaptive testing and novel item types. Shortly before press time, however, it appears that the shared vision of assessment is blurring, as only twenty-seven states are currently planning on using either of the two assessments (Gewertz & Ujifusa, 2014).

The School-Level Assessment Landscape Stories of schools across the nation that are in fact working diligently to increase success for all students—and succeeding admirably—abound. Examples include case studies from individual schools and consortia that include the entire range of student population variables (e.g., Allen, Ort, & Schmidt; 2009; Baker, Gersten, & Lee, 2002; Brookhart, Moss, & Long, 2008; Frey & Fisher, 2009; Mokhtari, Thoma, & Edwards, 2009; Reeves, 2003). A number of common threads run across these success stories. Promising assessment practices include:

• Teachers and other participants (students, families, and administrators) work together at the local level, as school teams, for student progress.

• Team members maintain a very sharp focus on student learning goals and on continuous improvement.

• Teacher teams together develop and administer frequent formative assessments. One ben- efit is that this deepens teachers’ knowledge of their content and of assessment.

• Teams regularly discuss student assessment data and then modify instruction to improve learning.

• Teachers include students in assessment for and as learning. Students set their own goals and monitor their growth toward those goals.

• Teachers move toward writing intensive, performance-based assessments.

When asked during your job interview, “Do you have any questions for us?” ask about the school’s approach to student assessment. If you have a choice, join a staff that is deeply engaged in the shared pursuit of student growth through a schoolwide effort to learn and to improve deci- sion making through assessment.

classroom Assessment Step by Step We’ve zoomed in from the international perspective on assessment to the school level, locat- ing you precisely on the assessment map. Now let’s delve into the student assessment role over which you have the most control: classroom assessment. This step-by-step process describes

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the classroom assessment process whether you are part of an effective staff team or working independently. You’ll see that the process embodies our principles of assessment. As a refresher, the principles state that we need to:

1. Measure what we value. 2. Include students. 3. Be fair. 4. Use what we learn. 5. Add to the bigger picture.

The five steps described here take you from goal setting through assessment and instruction— and back again. The graphic in Figure 8.3 expands the goals → teach → assess cycle presented earlier.

1. choose Your Assessment Targets As Figure 8.3 shows, classroom assessment starts in the planning phase (Gronlund, 2004). Begin the assessment process by selecting learning targets. Because we need to measure what we value, start with the broad view for yearlong targets. If you want your students to “Demonstrate originality and inventiveness” (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009, p. 3), for example, this goal becomes an assessment target. View the school’s report card for potential targets, as you will be responsible for assessing students in its required domains. Also review mandated assess- ments such as your statewide assessment. Both the blueprints that lay out content and format for these exams and released items are widely available online.

In surveying, a benchmark is a point of reference for measurement. Schools set benchmarks too. Benchmarks are intermediate goals that are measured throughout the year using the district’s choice of measurement tools. They serve as a reference point for students’ rate of progress as they prepare for year-end testing. Herman, Osmundson, and Dietel (2010) argue that benchmark assessment stands between the classroom’s formative and the state’s year-end summative assess- ment because benchmark assessments give both summative information on students’ progress to date and formative information for planning instruction. Check your district’s benchmarks in order to help you set your goals and begin planning for assessment.

Source: Inspired by Ainsworth and Viegut (2006).

Figure 8.3 Classroom assessment cycle.

Determine assessment

targets (learning goals).

Postassess; analyze results.

Preassess; analyze results.

Adjust learning targets.

Plan for inclusive,

responsive instruction.

Teach.

Monitor, reflect, adjust.

Teach.

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Then get more specific by setting targets based on content standards. Ainsworth and Viegut (2006), like others, suggest that we first examine our standards to prioritize them. Many states or schools offer or devise lists of “power standards” that receive the instructional emphasis. Next, study your standards in detail to analyze their demands. Ainsworth and Viegut offer a helpful four-step process for analyzing the demands of content standards.

1. “Unwrap” a standard by underlining important concepts and ideas (what students need to know—the nouns) and circling the verbs (what students need to be able to do with the information).

2. Create a graphic organizer such as a diagram or bulleted list to represent the unwrapped standards. Include a little information about the instructional context in which ideas will be presented.

3. Determine the big ideas from the unwrapped standards. Big ideas are generalizations that transfer across time and culture (recall the “big idea” unit-planning strategy from Chapter 5).

4. Write essential questions that will be answered through instruction. Look at your big ideas and infer the questions that they answer.

Figure 8.4’s four panels give a highly abbreviated example of these four processes for a single fourth-grade geometry standard from the Common Core Standards (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014e).

Instructional time is short and integrated learning can be powerful learning, so also con- sider standards from other areas that can be addressed in tandem. Examples include English language development standards, information and communication technology (ICT) standards (like ISTE’s student standards), social skills, and writing standards.

The unwrapping approach is useful for determining targets for many time frames—for an entire year, a unit, or a single lesson. Whether you use the unwrapping method or a different one to analyze the standards, the point is to dig deeply into exactly what students need to know and be able to do when they master the standards. Without careful study, it may be tempting to give

Figure 8.4 Unwrapping a fourth-grade mathematics standard.

1. Unwrap the standards.

CLASSIFY two-dimensional (2D) fi gures

based on the presence or absence of

parallel or perpendicular lines, or the

presence or absence of angles

of a specifi ed size. RECOGNIZE

right triangles as a category, and

IDENTIFY right triangles.

2. Create a graphic organizer.

Concepts: Attributes of 2D fi gures

• Lines: Parallel, perpendicular

• Angles: Right, other sizes

Concept: Classes of 2D fi gures

• Triangles

—Right triangles

Skills: Be able to do

• Recognize

• Identify

• Classify

Context: Geometry unit with architecture focus

3. Determine the big ideas.

1. Two-dimensional fi gures are composed of lines and angles arranged in characteristic ways.

2. Two-dimensional fi gures can be identifi ed and classifi ed by their attributes such as lines and angles.

4. Write essential questions.

1. How do the lines and angles in 2D fi gures vary?

2. How is it useful to identify the lines and angles in 2D fi gures?

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the standards a cursory glance and treat them as items on a check sheet to quickly check off and move on rather than teaching and assessing them deeply.

2. choose Your Assessment Strategies Whether you are assessing learning for an entire unit or a single lesson, you next determine how you will assess students’ mastery of each target. As you select your assessment strategies, remember that there are many options available to you; the sampler in the next section of this chapter lists ten.

Select strategies that match the intent of the standard for what students should be able to do with information. Be sure to select assessments that match your objectives. As a general rule, go deep and go varied. Work toward requiring students to apply information in real-world contexts and to represent their knowledge and abilities in a number of ways.

In developing or selecting your assessments, consider the role that ICT can and should play. Computer-based technologies expand our options for assessment dramatically. They allow for richer products such as digital videos and presentations. Inventive computer-based assessments contextualize context within realistic problems in virtual worlds and mirror conditions of life and learning in the 21st century (Svihla, Vye, Brown, Phillips, Gawel, & Bransford, 2009). Digi- tal technology also can help us provide universal access for students during our assessments by allowing for differentiated lesson input (e.g., larger text, speech readers, languages other than English) and student output (e.g., speech-to-text programs and modified keyboards). Computer- based approaches to assessment can also simplify your assessment life through item banks that allow the creation of multiple forms of a test, and computer-based tests can provide immediate feedback for students.

Three questions to consider as you develop or select your assessments are:

• What is my range of options, from traditional to alternative? • How can I be fair with my choice of assessments? • How can I assess before, during, and after assessment?

Both traditional and alternative assessments can provide useful information. Traditional mea- sures include paper/pencils tests with their selection-type or constructed-response items. Alternative (or authentic) assessment measures offer a rich complement to traditional assess- ments by providing context-embedded, multifaceted portrayals of what students know and can do. Examples include performance assessments and portfolios and their digital siblings such as eportfolios (e.g., Bures, Barclay, Abrami, & Meyer, 2013) and wikis (Eddy & Lawrence, 2013). Because they provide rich contexts and require multifaceted responses, alternative assessments are inclusive of a range of student needs, including those of English learners (Medina-Jerez, Clark, & Medina, 2007) and of students with special needs (Layton & Lock, 2007; Vacca, 2007). No measure, though, relieves its user from the burdens of judging it against the principles of assessment. To be fair, consider assessment strategies that allow all of your students to demon- strate what they know and can do. Consider the validity of your measures given your purposes and each of your students. Also select assessments that you can score reliably. A top concern of teachers in one study was “score pollution,” where teachers’ perceptions of students’ behaviors or characters influence the grades teachers give (Pope et al., 2009). Being fair may require you to use more than one measure and differentiate your assessments.

Being fair also entails being inclusive. For instance, you may need to include additional visual supports or examples, read directions aloud, or provide extra work time.

Create Free Online Quizzes

You and your students can create quick quizzes online for free and embed them into your Web sites or blogs. Search the term “ create free online quizzes” and you’ll find sites such as Bubblr (which allows you to make quizzes from YouTube videos), EasyTestMaker, Google Forms, ImageQuiz, MyQuizCreator, Socrative, and Quizdini.

TeAchinG FOR TOmORROw TiP

Read more about examples of when students might need inclusive assessment.

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We should consider adjustable classroom assessments that allow all students to reveal what they know (Gregory & Kuzmich, 2004). The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip provides one example of adjustable assessments: tiered assessments (Tomlinson, 2001; Wormeli, 2006).

Finally, choose assessments that allow you to check student progress at each phase of instruction. Check to determine whether there are mandated assessments such as bench- mark tests or publisher tests for the content standards at hand. Many mandated assessments serve summative purposes. That won’t be enough. You need both formative and summative assessments, ones that give you information about students’ thinking before, during, and after instruction.

Formative Assessment—Preassessments On the day before her lesson on the Eighth Amendment, a social studies teacher hands each small group an envelope of ten statements she selected from the supplemental workbook and cut into strips, five with true statements about the Eighth Amendment, and five with false. Strip number 3 reads, for instance, “The Eighth Amendment prohibits the federal government from punishing citizens for their crimes.” The students work in their groups to sort the statements into two stacks: true or false. Statement 3 goes in the false stack. The teacher circulates and notes that most students already know about the protection against cruel and unusual punishment, but few know about the protection the Eighth Amendment provides against excessive fines. She focuses tomorrow’s lesson more clearly on that provision. This teacher’s engaging ten-minute activity (a true/false sort from Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 2007) is an example of formative assessment that can be used prior to instruction. Other ideas for rapid preassessments are homework, group problems, and brainstormed lists. Student inter- views, traditional pretests, and journal entries are other examples of preassessments. Consider whether it is appropriate to use the same assessment as a preinstructional and postinstructional measure. Be careful, though, that your preassessments do not discourage students by presenting pages of items of content they don’t know.

By assessing students’ prior knowledge, teachers’ lessons have a greater chance of con- necting to what students know. Results on preinstructional assessments may tell you, for instance, that students do not have the background knowledge necessary for success in the unit you were planning or that they have already mastered the standards you intended to teach. In either case, had you not preassessed students, you would have wasted valuable instructional time and effort. Preassessments are also important in helping you to determine special inter- ests and needs students may have, so that you can differentiate your instruction to provide all students with powerful learning. Adjust your learning targets based on the results of your preassessments.

Formative Assessment as Progress Monitoring—Assessing during Instruction Select a variety of strate- gies to find out what students are learning as you teach. Any assignment or activity that you provide for practice can serve as a formative assessment. Class discussions (with you taking notes), homework pages, worksheets, daily quizzes—on paper or using student responses systems— in-class writings, and blog entries are a few ways that you can gather data to monitor students’ progress.

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

tiered assessments

1. Determine what full proficiency of the content standard would look like. What evidence would you accept as mastery?

2. Use that level as the minimum acceptable level; all students must demonstrate mastery at that level.

3. Adjust the complexity or challenge of the assessment for students who are working at higher levels of readiness. For example, students at lower levels of readiness might

demonstrate proficiency by graphing linear equations where variables are whole numbers and they are given the graph. Students at higher levels might graph variables that are fractions or absolute values, and they might generate the graph themselves.

4. Learning menus and learning contracts, where students choose their assessments on occasion, are also adjustable assessments (Wormeli, 2006).

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To provide informal progress-monitoring information and make mid-lesson adjustments, you should also employ active participation strategies where every student responds. One quick and engaging tool is the use of wipe boards, which are a form of response cards, as described in the Teaching Tip. Response cards, including wipe boards, support engagement, behavior, and achievement. They provide a greater range of students with immediate access to teacher feed- back. Students can flash colored cards or complete drawings instead.

Partner talk is another active participation strategy that provides informal assessment infor- mation. You might pause during a lesson and ask students to talk with a partner: “Tell your part- ner one thing you know from the lesson and one thing that makes absolutely no sense. You have two minutes, and then be ready to report.” This progress-monitoring strategy can allow each per- son to safely express his fragile, newly forming knowledge and provide you with new directions for attacking difficult concepts. It also provides a context for language use and development. Active participation strategies can be used during every instructional phase to prove assessment information, as shown in Figure 8.5.

Formative and Summative Assessment—Assessing after Instruction Ensure that you select postlesson assessments that will allow you to determine the level at which students master your objective. Some checks on objectives will be brief and informal, and some will be much more complex and formal. One “quick check” strategy is to collect and analyze short student work samples. For example, to close a lesson, you have your chemistry students write brief responses to the prompt, “What is the difference between endothermic and exothermic reactions?” You collect their responses and sort them into two stacks: Those who recorded a correct difference, and those who did not. You count how many are in each stack and determine whether to reteach or move on. This use of a postinstruction assessment is formative because the results are used to shape instruction for the following day.

Postinstruction assessment that is used in a summative way instead provides a (relatively) final picture of what students know and can do related to the learning targets standards at hand. In choosing your summative assessments, consider traditional tests created by publishers or by you and your team, and consider performance-based alternatives such as multimedia projects or in-class demonstrations. Most teachers grade students on a mix of formative and summa- tive assessments. Others (e.g., Deddeh et al., 2010) argue that in truly standards-based systems, formative activities—though very important—are for practice only and that term grades should be based entirely on summative assessments. Many such teachers allow students more than one attempt on a summative assessment. For example, algebra teachers I know allow students to retake an exam (actually an alternate form of an exam), no matter the initial grade, as long as students complete a self-analysis of their performance and prepare for the retake. Teachers who employ this practice argue that students master content at different rates and that it increases students’ motivation to learn and achieve.

Wipe Boards

Recall, from Chapter 6, that there is research support for the use of response cards as an active participation strategy. For an inexpensive class set of wipe boards, place card stock into a plastic page protector and hand it, a dry erase marker, and a tissue to each student. I have found, to date, eighty-four uses for these boards. Here are a few:

• Every student can now “do the problem on the board” and hold up work for you to quickly assess. • Everyone can spell out the words at a spelling bee now; this way the students who need the most

opportunities to practice spelling get to keep spelling long after they’d typically be “out.” • Place colored card stock and white paper in the page protector. Students can flash the colored side

for “true” and the white side for “false” when asked a question. • Slip a hundreds chart, worksheet, map, or periodic chart into the page protector. Students can

follow your directions, practice naming countries or tracing routes, circle nonmetals . . . in short, all students can stay actively involved while leaving a record of learning that you can quickly check before they erase.

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3. include Your Students Figure 8.6 is a self-portrait my son Alex drew near the beginning of his kindergarten year. “Good detail,” said his mother. “Lots of realistic subtleties! Smart kid!” In the right-hand portion is the self-portrait Alex completed near that year’s close. “Yikes!” said his mother. “Less detail. No pupils, no digits, no feet, no hair! No growth in fine motor abilities!” I struggled with my inter- pretation of those portraits until a wise teacher suggested that I ask Alex to analyze the portraits.

Alex easily explained to me the significance of the second portrait. There was less detail, yes, but, he held up both arms, made fists, and flexed his biceps, “Mom, look how strong I am!” Alex’s most treasured change of his kindergarten year was that he had become physically more capable, much stronger: Superman strong! Had I not asked Alex to attach meaning to his work, to self-evaluate, I would have been left with an unnecessarily limited conclusion about

Figure 8.5 Using active participation strategies to assess student learning throughout all phases of instruction. Refer to Figure 6.6.

Preinstruction 4. Share a story

Assessments 12. Quick writes

20. Values lineup

28. Brainstorming and fact-storming

Drawings: Students draw a picture of the content and use drawings to describe their knowledge.

Four corners: Students respond to prompts that have four possible answers and then go stand in a corner of the room that matches their response. They discuss with corner mates or others.

Peer interviews: Students interview each other on prior experiences with the topic.

Prior knowledge interviews: Teacher observes students completing a task and asks a few gentle questions.

During- 1. Choral response

Instruction 2. Whip

Assessments 7. Flash cards

8. Finger signals

9. Wipe boards

10. Letter and number tiles

14. Peer coach

15. Student-led recitation

16. Numbered heads together

17. Toss the ball

18. Talk to your partner

27. Sorts

29. Partner journals

Post-Instruction 11. Comprehension check

Assessments 13. Fuzzy points

22. Charts and diagrams (individual, group, or whole class)

25. Student quiz

30. Blackboard blitz

31. Gallery tour

Graphic organizers: Alone or with assistance, students create visual displays of content information to illustrate their understanding of key concepts and relationships.

Watch and think 8.3 The students in this four- minute clip understand the criteria of excellent work and as a result can pursue excellence as a goal. What tool does the teacher use to ensure that students and family members under- stand grading criteria? How does the teacher use that tool to empower students?

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his progress. By means of an update: I recently read about the difference between symbolic drawings (those meant to communicate ideas solely to the artist) and realistic drawings (those meant to capture actual physical realities) (Brookes, 1996). Although too late to assist me in interpreting Alex’s kindergarten portraits, this understanding between symbolic and realistic drawings is serving me well today as I help students construct meaning in a variety of ways.

Students as Assessment Partners Alex’s self-portrait experience reminded me of a critical prin- ciple of assessment: We need to involve students as full partners in the assessment process. Our responsibility is to help students gain the dispositions and skills that will allow them to set goals and monitor their progress in working toward those goals. In doing so, we need to help even the youngest students move from making decisions on assessments without conscious thought to the strategic and reflective levels of metacognitive practice where they thoughtfully employ a set of strategies to monitor their own thinking and plan for self-improvement (Bingham, Holbrook, & Meyers, 2010).

Figure 8.7 gives the assessment cycle again, this time with student input at each step of the way. As you plan to include your students as assessment partners, ask about each phase of the cycle:

• How might they have some choices in what they learn and how it will be assessed? • How can students set their own goals related to the specific content? • How can they track their progress throughout the learning? • How can I help them reflect on their learning and set new goals?

Figure 8.8 provides numerous examples of how you can include your students’ voices and choices in your assessment by helping students set goals, make assessment choices, self-reflect, and evaluate instruction.

Figure 8.6 Alexander’s kindergarten self-portraits.

Alex’s Early Kindergarten Self-Portrait Alex’s Late Kindergarten Self-Portrait

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Figure 8.7 The classroom assessment cycle with students as assessment partners.

Determine assessment

targets (learning goals).

Postassess; analyze results.

Preassess; analyze results.

Adjust learning targets.

Plan for inclusive,

responsive instruction.

Teach.

Monitor, reflect, adjust.

Teach.

Students self- assess.

Students actively

participate.

Students self- assess.

Students set goals.

Students self- assess.

Students give input.

Students make some choices to

lead toward goals.

Students actively

participate.

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

including families as assessment partners

• Solicit family input on learning goals. • Frequently provide newsletters about student learning. Include

samples of students’ learning products on your Web page. Maintain e-mail contact regarding assessment information.

• Try a dialogue journal where you, a family member, and the student communicate about student progress.

• Include family members in regular assignments. One idea is to weekly have students describe to a family member three things

they learned. The family member records the three things they learned (in English, the home language, or in another format), perhaps adds a comment, and signs a form. Or ask family mem- bers to react with specific feedback about students’ work with a brief written comment. Then give the students the last word by adding a final comment on their learning and family reactions.

• Invite family members, care givers, or friends into your class to listen to oral reading, translate, or work with students who need extra support during assessments.

Peers as Assessment Partners In our efforts to enhance students’ skills as evaluators, we can help them to evaluate products from their peers as well. Through peer assessment, students learn to assess the quality of a product or performance without reliance on the teacher. Peer assessment can be informal, such as when students edit each other’s work or review homework problems together. It can also be more formal, as when students rate the social skills of group members at the close of a cooperative learning experience.

Families as Assessment Partners Assessment must include not only students and their peers but families as well. Professional guidelines for teachers (such as the National Board for Profes- sional Teaching Standards, 2002) make it clear that teachers and schools need to take the lead in including families in the process of schooling, including the assessment phase. Families’ role is far greater than simply ensuring that students get to bed on time and eat a hearty breakfast before the big tests. Your communication with family members about assessment should be goal-driven, multifaceted, and inclusive of their perspectives. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip gives a few ideas for including families as members of the assessment community.

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Figure 8.8 Involving students in assessment.

Goal Setting • Students discuss previous years and create a chart at the beginning of the year of topics they would like to study.

• Students provide input into the course content, choosing units and lessons based on assessment results and their interests.

• Students examine their records (portfolios, work samples, and report cards) to set class and personal goals.

• Students keep individual records of their progress. They discuss progress and revise goals with their teacher.

• Students end an examination by answering the question, “What would you like to learn next?”

• Students write a note to their teacher explaining what she should focus on as she assesses a piece of writing or a performance.

• The teacher invites students to write long-term goals and seal them in envelopes. The teacher may mail these letters back to students when they reach a certain age.

Student Choice • Students select some forms of assessment. Teachers who implement multiple intelligence theory often allow students to choose from among seven or eight assessment formats.

• Students work in groups to list what they consider the key content to be assessed.

• Students develop some questions or prompts for the assessment.

• Students select writing prompts or test items from a larger bank.

• Students respond to prompts that allow for a broad range of appropriate responses (for example, “Devise a method of sharing equally”).

• Students have some say over the assessment conditions (for instance, students are allowed to move to the library if they need isolated conditions or are allowed to have a prompt read aloud to them).

Self-Ref lection and • In small groups or in their journals, students discuss their thinking or analyze a problem. Self-Evaluation • Before submitting work, students analyze their growth, in writing or in a conference.

• Before submitting work, students turn the paper over and write to their teacher: “What would you like me to know as I read this paper?”

• Students study good and poor examples of the product to be created and assessed. They develop rubrics for use in scoring their products.

• Students use rubrics or a checklist from the teacher to assess their own work before submitting it.

• Students grade their own papers and hold onto the grade. They compare their analysis with the teacher’s analysis and discuss.

• Students reflect on their progress over time by comparing work samples from different time periods.

Evaluation of • Students rate problems and exercises for appropriate level of difficulty (too easy, Teaching and just right, or too difficult) and for appropriateness of content. Assessment • In their journals or on anonymous slips of paper, students tell the teacher what

worked well in facilitating their learning and what may have worked even better during particular lessons or units.

• Students periodically rate the teacher’s instruction, giving specific praise and criticism. Using a specific format can help structure feedback into a format most useful for the teacher, but open-ended questions are important as well.

• The teacher regularly provides students with choices for future activities based on the class’s assessment of current activities.

• The teacher shares his instructional goals with students and revises the goals based on ongoing assessment.

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Another example is student-led conferences where students facilitate a discussion of their progress among family members, teachers, and themselves. Student-led conferences shift the responsibility of accountability for learning onto the students by helping them to reflect on their accomplishments and set goals for themselves (Buchino, 2011; Kinney, 2012).

Tech tools also keep us in touch with families regarding assessment. Many teachers use blogs, Web sites, and school-based e-mail to keep in touch with families regarding student progress. Some schools have autodialing systems that notify families about upcoming events— including tests and major assignments. Also, in virtually every state, schools have student infor- mation systems, or centralized data-tracking systems that allow personnel to monitor students’ progress over time and to provide more efficient communication and decision making based on student data. Students and families typically have access to these systems through password- protected sites.

4. employ Your Assessments and Analyze the Data Once you’ve developed or selected your assessment tools and strategies, employ them through- out the cycle: before, during, and after instruction. Adjust the assessments you use based on your progress monitoring, and adjust your instruction based on your assessments. Keep students actively engaged in instruction and monitoring their own progress.

As you plan to analyze your data, keep your eye on the learning targets that the assessments are to measure, and remember the purpose of each assessment.

Informal Data Analysis: Quick Scans When the stakes are low, as for many preassessments and for progress monitoring through active participation strategies, a quick analysis of whether students are on track is probably sufficient; you and the students simply need to know whether the class is making adequate progress and gain a rough idea of the concepts or skills that might be impairing progress. Students can complete a quick scan to self-monitor. For instance, at the end of a period where your students were tackling a tough problem in small groups, you might ask students to rate their own use of learning skills on a couple questions (“I helped make decisions and solve problems” and “I took risks by exploring something new to me”) and then set goals for tomor- row based on their answers.

As another quick scan, a brief glance at the report generated from a clicker pre-quiz (using a student response system) for a sixth-grade geology unit is enough to reveal that two-thirds of the class needs more information about processes that shape the earth’s surface (Figure 8.9. The answer is false. Water is the dominant process that shapes the earth’s surface.).

Figure 8.9 Quick scan analysis through student response data.

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For yet another quick scan, you can sort student papers into two stacks: “Getting It!” and “Not Yet!” (as in our earlier chemistry example). If you needed more detailed information from the chemistry students’ quick writes, you could further sort the “Not Yet!” examples into stacks based on students’ apparent misconceptions. For example, one group may have understood something about energy entering and leaving reactions, whereas one group did not even mention energy. Then you could plan to follow through based on those types of errors.

Formal Data Analysis Quick data scans are appropriate when you need a rough idea of students’ current progress and needs. At many times more formal analytical approaches are appropriate. Formal approaches allow you to be systematic (fair) and to pinpoint more finely students’ needs and growth.

One of the most prevalent and useful scoring tools is a rubric. A rubric is a scoring guide that specifies the criteria against which an item will be assessed. Rubrics can be used for scor- ing many kinds of complex works. Writings, performances, portfolio entries, constructions, and digital projects can all be assessed through rubrics. A holistic rubric (one that addresses the overall characteristics of the entry and yields a single score) is found in Figure 8.10.

An analytical trait rubric assesses individual traits, or components, of the performance separately (Arter & McTighe, 2001). An analytical trait rubric contains two kinds of informa- tion: the scale and the dimensions. The scale—usually posted along the top of the rubric— represents the range of performance levels, such as 1, 2, and 3, or “standard not met,” “standard met,” and “standard exceeded.” The dimensions are the individual categories upon which the work will be assessed. They are usually placed along the side. One example is content, organiza- tion, and convention. Another example is creativity, accuracy, and presentation.

If you use an existing rubric to score students’ work, be sure to share it with them in advance, teaching them its properties and studying examples so that they understand the charac- teristics of quality work (see Teaching Tip). Students are far more likely to understand and value a rubric deeply if they have helped create it, so at least occasionally it can be productive to help students create the rubrics by which their work will be assessed.

Figure 8.10 A sample holistic rubric for scoring portfolio entries.

Score 3 Score 2 Score 1

Entry briefly describes the item Entry describes the item that Entry is solely a simple that follows but devotes more follows and reflects on it in description of the item that attention to careful analysis. brief ways. follows. Description may be

quite long.

Entry reflects on the author’s Entry includes superficial or Entry includes no thinking in meaningful ways. limited information about the information about the author’s

author’s thinking. thinking.

Entry addresses content-area Entry addresses content-area Entry reveals no content-area knowledge, or content information is inaccurate.

concepts accurately and in ways concepts in limited, accurate that enrich the reader’s ways. understanding of the item that follows the analysis.

No Guessing Allowed: Post Sample Works

The more time students spend guessing what you want, the less time they spend learning. Also, guessing makes people feel dependent rather than powerful. Obtain samples of student work at each of your specified performance levels (e.g., “Not Yet,” “Getting There,” and “Got It!” or maybe “Developing,” “Competent,” and “Exemplary”). Post these works on the wall—or online—with a copy of the rubric.

TeAchinG TiP

Read more about error pattern analysis, this time with standardized test results.

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Another formal approach to data analysis is error pattern analysis. For skill areas where accuracy is important—such as spelling, beginning reading, writing, mathematics computation, and speech production—error pattern analysis helps you and the student examine the student’s work for patterns of inaccurate or missing concepts and skills. It is based on the notion that most of the errors students make are not random; they reflect some incorrect hypothesis or mental rule (McMahon-Klosterman & Ganschow, 1979). By analyzing patterns in incorrect responses, you and the student can find the source of the misunderstanding and build accurate concepts and skills to improve performance. For instance, in mathematics, you might analyze a second grader’s work in subtraction with regrouping to discover that he doesn’t regroup tens into ones; he just subtracts the lesser number from the greater number. Here are some general steps for error pattern analysis no matter the subject or grade level.

1. Gather student work samples and, if possible, copy them for markup purposes. In the case of reading, speech, and language, you may use recordings (audio or notes) of the students’ production.

2. Mark items as correct or incorrect. (Mark the errors.) 3. Glance at the correct items to be sure they are correct for the right reasons (not just lucky

guesses or application of an incorrect rule that happens to work). 4. For incorrect items, cluster the errors students make. In writing, you may note subject/verb

disagreement, for instance. In spelling, you may note that the student is not doubling the final consonant before adding a suffix when necessary.

5. Prioritize the error patterns. Determine which should be addressed first.

Error pattern analysis is a very powerful strategy for diagnosing and correcting the kinds of mistakes students make, because it is efficient; through it we correct not individual errors but the misunderstandings that lie beneath them. This is a useful process to teach students as well.

Electronic gradebooks and spreadsheets are also helpful tools for understanding class- room assessment data. If students’ names are entered in rows and data (such as individual quiz items) are entered as columns, you can sort the data to identify different patterns. For instance, you can see which students are scoring near the top and bottom of the class to be sure to plan appropriate follow-up for those groups, and you can analyze patterns within the data, such as the item people tended to miss most often. In Figure 8.11, it’s clear that Student C needs particular support and that the concepts from Items 4 and 5 need more attention for the entire class. These applications also calculate statistics that can be useful in analyzing students’ performance.

Figure 8.11 Sample spreadsheet with sorted data.

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By contributing to these discussions and by working with grade-level or department teams to analyze student work, and by using student information systems, you contribute to the larger picture of student progress as measured through assessment.

5. Use what You Learn Use your assessment results to guide what happens next in your classroom. For example, despite the fact that teachers in two studies could accurately discern error patterns in students’ work, they did not base their plans for instructional intervention upon those error patterns (Cooper, 2009; Riccomini, 2005). Be sure to use what you learn. The Teaching Tip gives one idea for reteaching after a multiple-choice test.

If students demonstrate deep mastery of the content, you may need to increase your pace or skip ahead. If many do not, you have some choices to make: Should you stick with the pac- ing guide or stop and reteach? This is a common dilemma. It can be helpful to understand the structure of your curriculum. For instance, some curricula “spiral” or revisit content at deeper levels in subsequent units, so students will be given further opportunities to master information. You can also pull small groups of students during a few minutes of reteaching time, use family volunteers to work with individuals throughout the day, work with them outside the class period, or provide other opportunities for independent content learning outside the school day, such as Web-based instruction. You can differentiate homework, too, to ensure mastery. Finally, use what you learn to help you start the cycle anew: to plan the next set of learning targets.

A Sampler of Assessments You may choose from hundreds of available assessment techniques and tools. This sampler describes in a nutshell ten classroom assessment techniques.

Traditional Tests Traditional paper-and-pencil measures can be furnished through adopted textbook series or writ- ten by teachers (most typically alone or in teams with other teachers, but students can also con- tribute items). Some common types of questions on traditional tests include selection-type and constructed-response items. Objective items tend to be time-consuming to write but quick to grade and are subject to little interpretation from the grader. Open-ended questions include short-answer items, essay questions, and less traditional variations such as graphic organizers and pictorial rep- resentations of students’ knowledge. Teachers’ time investment with open-ended items tends to be not in the writing phase but in the assessment phase. Open-ended items require more judgment from the grader than do objective items. If you write your own tests, consider the following:

• Include a mix of selection-type and constructed-response items so you have a richer picture of student knowledge.

click here to assess your mastery of chapter Learning Outcome 8.4

Test and Then Reteach

• Analyze the results of a paper-and-pencil test and look for the four to seven major error patterns or gaps in students’ thinking.

• Form flexible groups that are composed of students with similar gaps. • Spend a bit of time working with each group, providing instruction tailored directly for the need

they displayed on the test.

For instance, on day 1, your students take the district’s multiple-choice benchmark test in mathemat- ics. The test is computer scored and returned to you on day 3. On day 4, you spend twenty minutes in small-group time, discussing only item 1 of the test. Your groups are a, b, c, d, or e, depending on their selected answer to item 1. On the next day, you meet again for item 2, and so on for the four problems students missed most.

TeAchinG TiP

Watch and think 8.4 In this five-minute clip, we see teachers using a variety of assessments in order to best assess what their students know and can do related to the standards. Listen to the strong arguments advanced for choosing and using a variety of classroom assessment measures.

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• Make the response format efficient for students so that it is less tiring and so that there is no question about what they wrote. (For example, have them circle T or F rather than writing the word.)

• Make the prompts clear and specific so that students understand the parameters. • Keep your tests short. Any test is just a snapshot. • Include common errors among the choices. This can increase the validity of your measure

(Wormeli, 2006). • When you assess constructed-response items such as short answers and essays, grade one

question at a time (for example, read all answers to number 5) rather than reading through each paper, student by student. Also take frequent breaks to avoid grading fatigue, and look back to the first paper you graded to ensure that your scoring didn’t drift over time. These strategies can help protect the consistency, or reliability, of your assessment.

Attitude Surveys Usually developed by teachers, attitude surveys are paper-and-pencil scales that assess students’ preferences and feelings toward a topic or skill. Some prompts are closed-ended. For instance, students can rank-order lists of subjects in terms of their preferences or agree/disagree with a set of items. In Kagan’s (2001) Spend-A-Buck, students “spend” their hypothetical dollar as they wish to vote for certain items on a scale. For young students, a survey item can be read aloud while the students circle one of a continuum of faces, very happy to very sad. Open-ended items allow for a broad range of student responses. An example is “What I would like you to know about me as an artist is ______________.” Many teachers use attitude surveys near the begin- ning of the year to become acquainted with their students.

Products Students submit items to demonstrate their understanding or skill. Examples include student- composed newspapers, digital stories, brochures, dioramas, posters, works of art, multimedia presentations, and scientific or practical inventions. Products are often assessed using rubrics.

Portfolios Portfolios are collections of work samples over time and from a variety of contexts, together with students’ reflections on those work samples (Hebert, 2001; Stefanakis, 2002). Some items are typically chosen by the teacher, and some are student selected. Students write reflections about the entries in order to discuss their learning. Portfolios can be hard copy or they can be electronic. Two benefits of the electronic portfolio are its portability and multimedia format. To get started with portfolios, consider these three questions:

1. What is the purpose of the portfolio? (Examples: To show growth over time, to showcase best work, to determine whether a learning standard has been met)

2. How will the portfolio be assessed? (Related questions: What are the criteria for assess- ment? Will it receive a single holistic score, or will it receive multiple scores? Who will assess it?)

3. What should be included? (Consider the purpose again and list items—both teacher- selected and choices for students—that can meet your purpose.)

Journals Used primarily for informal assessment, journals can be completed by children as young as kindergartners. Students can respond to prompts from the teacher in pictures, symbols, or writ- ten words. They may also write with no prompt from the teacher. One of the primary benefits of journals is that they have a broad range of applications. Students can use them to describe their thinking, to document their experiences, to ask questions, to converse with a peer or the teacher, and to analyze their growth. A sample journal prompt is “How do you use mathematics in your daily life?” (Newmann, 1994).

For the past several years, I have been working both with K–6 students and my own future teachers to explore the potential of mixed-media journaling. We’ve taken our cue from

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a long history of “journalists” (by different labels), such as da Vinci, Lewis and Clark, and Marie and Pierre Curie, who have documented their thinking not just in written word but in varied images and diagrammatic text as well. Examples of “spreads” (or “works”) in our learning journals include an “I wonder” spread where journalists write and illustrate their questions about the natural world, and “experimentation spreads” where journalists inves- tigate the physical properties (such as solubility) of different art mediums. Initial findings suggest that in addition to fueling learning, the journals bring insights into self and content mastery (Guillaume, 2014).

Performance-Based Assessments Students demonstrate competence by applying knowledge in a real-world setting, through a per- formance. Discrete skills such as cutting, counting, shooting a basket, or focusing a microscope can be assessed through student performances, as can more complex behaviors such as reading and social problem solving. Performance-based assessment is a major trend in assessment for the 21st century (Darling-Hammond & McCloskey, 2008).

Teacher Observations Teachers observe students working and interacting under typical classroom conditions. Exam- ples include students’ use of science process skills, their play behavior, and their ability to work as part of a team. To be systematic in their observations, teachers keep anecdotal records that describe their students’ behaviors. Some teachers take notes on individual students, date the observations, and then collect them in file folders. This system allows teachers to analyze indi- vidual students’ performances over time.

interviews In clinical interviews, teachers work with one student, or just a few students, at a time. Students typically complete a task that allows the teacher to probe their reasoning. For instance, in an interview to assess a student’s prior concepts in science, a teacher might sit with the student and display a house plant. The teacher may ask the pupil to describe the plant and to hypothesize about the functions of the plant’s parts. In a reading interview, a teacher might ask the student to point out and discuss features of the text that help convey the text’s message.

Drawings and Diagrams Drawings and diagrams allow you to tap into students’ knowledge through visual means. Draw- ings used over time are often highly effective at demonstrating change in students’ thinking and abilities. One example is provided in Figure 8.12. The left side shows Zachary’s portrayal of a squid when he was 4 years old. The right column was completed five years later. Both pictures demonstrate that he had some understanding of the external structure of a squid, and we see significant growth over time. Further, we see that he has some ideas still developing, even in his later drawing. For instance, the chromatophores (spots) are actually grouped, not randomly spread over the squid’s body. Less formal “doodles” can be created as symbolic representations of students’ emerging concepts and serve as a novel formative assessment tool.

Graphic Organizers In addition to drawings, students can also complete a variety of graphic organizers (introduced in Chapter 6). One widely used organizer is the concept map (Novak, 1990, 1991, 1998). Research on concept mapping indicates that it support students’ achievement and helps them organize and represent their knowledge (Edwards & Fraser, 1983; Novak & Gowin, 1984). As the sample concept map in Figure 6.9 shows, a major concept or term is given at the top of the map. Beneath it, subconcepts are presented hierarchically. Each concept is related to one above it with a line or an arrow and a verb phrase that specifies the nature of the relationship between the two concepts. Often concepts are connected to more than one other concept. In general, the more concepts listed on a map, and the more accurately and richly connected they are, the better developed the author’s thinking about that topic.

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Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 8.5

Parting Words Assessment and evaluation of student progress is a messy business. Something as simple as writing a letter grade on a student paper requires us to ask ourselves difficult ques- tions such as, “What does this letter represent? Is it growth over time, or does it show that this is one of the best papers in the stack? Does it deserve this letter when the writing is so flawed, despite that it shows understanding of the con- tent?” Teaching is a complex moral endeavor, and the weight

of an evaluator’s role should be great. However, there is also incredible power that comes through assessment. When you conduct valid assessments, you peer through a window into students’ thinking and gain entrée to avenues that can pro- pel your students’ growth and development. When you help them improve as self-assessors, you teach them dispositions and skills that will be useful to them daily as autonomous beings.

Opportunities to Practice 1. Pull out your stance on education from Chapter 2 and the two

or three overarching goals you developed in Chapter 5 as a result of your stance. Reread your stance and goals with an eye toward assessment.

a. As you develop your assessment system, think about what kinds of information you will need to gather as a result of your view of what is important. How can you gather that information in ways that remain true to your convictions?

b. In evaluating your assessment system, consider the follow- ing: How does this system reflect your view of the good society? Of the purpose of education? Of teaching? Of

learning? If you find little concrete evidence to link your stance toward education with your system for assessing student learning, you probably need to spend a bit more time revising the system—or the stance—to more accu- rately reflect your professional views.

2. Use the assessment analysis in Figure 8.13 to evaluate the potential of one of the instruments in use in a classroom, and try it with any newly discovered assessment strategy.

3. If you are currently teaching, try one of the assessment strate- gies from earlier in this chapter. Reflect on the experience. If it provided useful information, what would you need to

Figure 8.12 Compare the two drawings and view Zachary’s knowledge as emergent: What does he know about squid structure? How has it changed over time? What does he need to understand next?

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do to arrange your classroom to include this strategy in your assessment system?

4. Survey your students on their opinions about assessment. Use the survey to determine how they prefer to demonstrate their learning. Ask about how teachers help them learn to assess their own work. Share your results.

5. Try one of the Teaching Tips from this chapter. Examples include using a student response system or wipe boards for formative assessment and writing an online quiz.

6. You saw Alex’s kindergarten self-portraits in Figure 8.6. Now look at Figure 8.14 for the final version, completed at the end of his K–12 years. Make a list of all the ways his portraits have changed from kindergarten to grade 12. Have they retained any commonalties? (By the way, when I showed Alex the kinder- garten portraits, he said, “Now I don’t feel so bad about how this one looks.” He appreciated his growth over time!) Where would you guide him next as an artist?

Figure 8.13 Assessment analysis.

Instrument:

Intended Purpose:

Check Use(s): _____ Before Instruction _____During Instruction _____After Instruction

Criterion Evidence or Notes Usefulness for Intended Purpose

1. Instrument measures valued outcome(s). Domain(s): a. Cognitive b. Affective c. Psychomotor

Valued outcomes: 1. low medium high

a. low medium high b. low medium high c. low medium high

2. Instrument’s use can include students as assessment partners a. Goal setting b. Student choice c. Progress tracking d. Refl ection on learning e. Families as partners

a. low medium high b. low medium high c. low medium high d. low medium high e. low medium high

3. Instrument contributes to fair assessment a. Every student b. Valid c. Reliable

a. low medium high b. low medium high c. low medium high

4. Results from the instrument have a high potential of being useful.

4. low medium high

5. Instrument is likely to provide information that contributes to the bigger picture of student progress.

5. low medium high

Overall evaluation of the instrument for intended use:

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extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms Assessment Tools from Teacher Tools at i4c. Many links to rubric builders, test makers, and alternative assessment formats.

CRESST. National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing. Check Products and Focus Area to get started.

Educational Testing Service. Go to “Tests and Products” to read about many of the tests you and your students may take.

FairTest. The Web site of the National Center for Fair & Open Testing, which promotes “fair, open, valid and educationally beneficial evaluations” and “works to end the misuses and flaws of testing practices.” You might start with “Fact Sheets” and “News.”

Kathy Schrock’s Guide to Everything: Assessments and Rubrics. This guide contains many examples of rubrics, rang- ing from Common Core content to Twitter-based assignments. There are many other resources, too, including graphic orga- nizers and report card comments.

Looking at Student Work. Gives strategies for teachers to work together and with families to examine student work for a num- ber of purposes. The site includes protocols and strategies for analyzing student work.

The Nation’s Report Card. The National Assessment of Education Progress program. Read the findings by state or subject matter. Try the long-term trend results, and break them down by subgroups. Click on “Sample Questions” to try released items in a variety of subject areas and grade levels.

No Child Left Behind. The first site that should appear is the government’s Web page for the act.

PISA. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): Programme for International Student Assessment. Read about what this international assessment measures, which sixty-five countries participated in 2012, and how students fared. You can see sample questions and compare achievement across countries.

Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC). One of the major consortia developing an assessment for the Common Core. Check “Resources for Educators” for information like sample items.

Rubistar. Create your own rubrics at this site. Perhaps you’ll start with the tutorial. This site has ads.

Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC). One of the major consortia developing an assessment for the Common Core. Perhaps you’ll start with the “Smarter Balanced Assessment” tab to read about the components of the exams and item specifications.

Also try searching with search terms for specific issues and strategies in assessment. Examples include:

• Authentic assessment

• Classroom assessment (sites give assessment techniques)

• Formative assessment

• Gradebook programs (many sites have free downloads)

• Performance assessment

• Portfolio assessment

• Standardized testing

• Statewide achievement testing

Figure 8.14 Alex’s drawing.

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Before You Begin Reading

Warm-Up ExErcisE for managing thE LEarning EnvironmEnt

Think of a store or other business that you hold in high regard: a place of business where you actually do not mind spending your time. Got it? Jot down some brief notes in response to each of the prompts.

1. Describe the physical space. What aspects of it appeal to you? Do any make your life more difficult? Which?

2. Describe how time is used within this store or business. What aspects please you? Which irritate you?

3. Describe typical interactions in this business. What do you expect? What happens when interactions are not up to your expectations?

4. You wrote the responses from the perspective of a customer. How (if at all) would your responses have changed if you wrote from the boss’s perspective? From an employee’s? Analyze whether your responses can teach you anything about the way you would like to manage your classroom.

Managing the Learning Environment

9

LEarning oUtcomEs

By the time you finish this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Argue for the importance of creating a sense of classroom community and give a strategy for doing so.

2. Analyze a classroom’s layout to determine whether its use of physical space is productive and efficient.

3. List considerations for management of classroom resources.

4. Give examples of instructional and noninstructinal routines that can maximize learning time.

5. Describe and give a rationale for your own management plan for community, space, resources, and time.

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You have so much to accomplish with your students! As you teach them content, you must manage them as groups within a tight space, with limited materials, and with never enough time. Classroom management is the organization and maintenance of relationships, physical space, resources, and time in service of student learning. The work you’ve begun as an inclu- sive and responsive teacher continues right through your classroom management. That is, you continue to focus on improving your understanding of yourself and your students; build relation- ships of acceptance, trust, and support and communicate high expectations; and use inclusive and responsive management approaches that value students as individuals while pushing them toward success (Gay, 2006). The research provides three very clear directions for effective class- room management.

1. Effective managers conduct all classroom management within the context of trusting, caring relationships and toward the goal of helping students manage themselves, individu- ally and as a community (Bondy, Ross, Gallingane, & Hambacher, 2007; Brophy, 2010; Marzano & Marzano, 2003; Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004).

2. Effective managers maintain a structured, predictable, and task-oriented learning environ- ment (Brown, 2004; Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008).

3. Effective managers maximize learning time by engaging students and minimizing disrup- tions (Good, 2014; Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007).

Effective classroom management not only makes life more pleasant for everyone, it teaches important social skills and translates into student achievement (Bohn, Roehrig, & Pressley, 2004; Freiberg, Connell, & Lorentz, 2001; Freiberg, Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009). In fact, in their groundbreaking review of the literature, Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1993) analyzed the relationship between student achievement and 228 variables; they found classroom management to be number one on the list of variables that affect student achievement.

This chapter encourages you to develop a classroom management plan that shapes a produc- tive and humane learning environment. Research indicates that classroom management systems must be coherent, consistent, positive, and proactive (Miller & Hall, 2009).

Creating Community: Managing Classroom Ambience An inclusive and responsive teacher provides an environment where students (a) are personally comfortable and valued (Gay, 2006) and (b) behave appropriately from a sense of responsibil- ity for themselves and for each other rather than from fear of punishment or desire for a reward (Metropolitan Center for Urban Education, 2008). Such a community recognizes each person’s experiences and perspectives. Your central task is to meld a group of individuals without com- mon ground or goals into a classroom community. Kohn (1996, p. 101) defines the classroom community as

a place in which students feel cared about and are encouraged to care about each other. They experience a sense of being valued and respected; the children matter to one another and to the teacher. They have come to think in the plural: they feel connected to each other; they are part of an “us.”

A positive school community can support student outcomes ranging from attendance, engage- ment, motivation, achievement, and commitment to moral and democratic values and reasoning (Watson & Battistich, 2006). Developing community begins with an understanding of classroom participants.

“Every second is of infinite value.” —Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Watch and Think 9.1 In this three-minute clip, teacher Marcos Torres tells what he has learned about classroom management throughout his years in the classroom. He has moved from an autocratic to a democratic model of management. To what extent are you compelled by Marcos’s stance? Which concrete elements can you envision as bringing this vision to life? Consider, for example, the routines and procedures he might use in a democratic classroom.

http: //www.youtube.com/ watch?v=oGo39WDm3J4

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Know Thyself The task of understanding others begins with us recognizing the limits of our own understandings (Grant, 2012). In a testament to the importance of self-awareness, an ancient Greek inscribed the advice “Know thyself” (γνώθι σεαυτόν) on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Just as is the case with our instructional decisions, facets of our identity such as our own upbringings and personality quirks influence our classroom preferences. Factors such as our generation, gender, ethnicity, and social class affect our management decisions, often in subtle or unconscious ways (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). As an example, teachers commonly use nondirective strategies like hints (“Everyone should be working right now”) despite the mismatch this may create for the many students whose families (such as many African-American families) use more directive approaches to discipline (Brown, 2004; Ware, 2006). Building cultural proficiency, including self-awareness, is an important goal; see the Teaching Tip for some self-assessment questions that might help you become more aware of some culturally related aspects of self that have implications for your classroom management.

To create community, ensure that the classroom reflects your students as individuals and, over time, the group you become together (e pluribus unum: out of many, one).

E Pluribus . . . Use a variety of strategies to ensure that your room recognizes every member. You can help members get to know each other through strategies such as oral history interviews, artifact inter- views, and ice breakers such as “Find someone who . . .” mixers. You can use bulletin boards where each student has a place to pin treasures like sports awards, community service recogni- tions, pictures of pets, and personal mementoes. You can invite students to share their school- appropriate music choices for playing during transitions or work periods. You might hang a world map under the title “Everyone Is from Somewhere” and ask students to add push pins for their families’ roots. Middle school students might enjoy a photo booth (with props?) during Week One.

Understanding Yourself: Culture and Classroom Management

1. High- or low-context culture? • In your culture, can you count on people to say what they mean? (low context) • In your culture, can you count on using your knowledge and reading many cues in a situation

in order to get the message? (high context) 2. Monochronic or polychronic?

• Do you prefer things to happen one at a time, with a place for everything and everything in its place? (monochronic)

• Do you prefer a buzz of activity—it’s better when lots of things are happening at once? (polychronic)

3. Past, present, or future? • Which do you and your people value most?

4. What’s the nature of time? • Is it limited, so we need to be careful not to waste it? • Is it infinite, so we should all stop rushing?

5. What are the power distances where you live? • To what extent do the differences in power that people yield shape life’s events?

6. Individualism or collectivism? • Which do you value more: independence or loyalty to the team?

These questions are simplifications, and they address just a slice of our identities. Still, they can help us understand values that shape our classroom management decisions. Think about your answers to these questions as you plan for managing people, time, and space in your classroom.

TEAChing Tip

Read a classroom example of including families’ lives in classroom life.

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. . . Unum It’s also important to use activities to forge a sense of the group. Many strategies are worth a try. Make a list of a dozen or more quick jobs that students can accomplish as managers; contributing from day 1 to the functioning of the classroom increases students’ sense of ownership and can save you hours of instructional time. You might together brainstorm a list of community charac- teristics that members appreciate. Students might create a class Magna Carta (Freiberg, 1996). You can hold regular community circles, or classroom meetings, where students recognize each other’s efforts and address an agenda of issues they select. Meetings are productive for all and have been shown effective for increasing the social inclusion of students with special needs (Frederickson, Warren, & Turner, 2005). You can invite students to plan and create a whole-class bulletin board, maybe to accompany the current unit or season. Students might enjoy making a class scrapbook, time line, blog, or Web site to capture its unfolding history. One classroom job can be photographer; have this manager collect photos of students that can be shared in celebra- tory slide shows. Eating together nearly always builds community and provides an opportunity to talk about food rituals from students’ worlds. You can also capitalize on those moments in history that bring you together. For example, when it snowed one day (very unusual!), my sixth graders and I spent a cold twenty minutes outside enjoying it rather than attending to the lesson in my plan book. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip shares other strategies for forging a sense of community.

Creating Community Using a Range of Strategies As Robin’s tip indicates, you’ll need to actively employ a broad range of strategies to build classroom community. The range includes your modeling of genuine respect and regard, the choices you make for the physical environment, your procedures and routines for conducting business, and the ways you communicate with the students and require them to communicate with each other.

Classroom community begins to develop through the tone, or ambience, you create from the first day of school. Ambience refers to the mood or atmosphere of your classroom environment. Some classrooms are subdued and businesslike, some are homey, and others are full of noise and

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

robin’s tips for Building community

Robin Mackey thoroughly enjoys her job teaching middle school students’ English language development (ELD). Robin focuses on rigor and student engagement within a context of community. Here are sixteen of Robin’s strategies for creating community.

1. I tell students I care for them like a mother hen cares for her chicks.

2. I teach and enforce manners; I do not banter with students. 3. I have a sense of humor and tell stories to the students about my

childhood and random silly things in order to be human to them. 4. I share my feelings and let them know they have the power

to hurt or heal with their words—other students and me. 5. I ask forgiveness for my mistakes individually or to the

whole class. 6. I use positive touch—hand on shoulder, knuckles, or

handshakes. 7. I attend student extracurricular events when possible.

8. I call home during class to encourage absent students. 9. I make a banner with all my advisement students’

pictures on it and hang it where students display their exemplary work.

10. I bring treats to celebrate student accomplishments. 11. I post birthdays in my window, and I give birthday goodie

bags and certificates. 12. I use participation cards to ensure equal participation, and

I leave plenty of wait time. 13. We watched YouTube videos in Gujarati of a hip-hop song

my student Adya liked, and she taught us how to sing it. 14. We use pertinent adolescent topics to discuss grammar and

writing. 15. I never forsake my teacher read-aloud time of great

literature, especially ones with engaging “voice.” The room is always silent and students beg me to continue reading.

16. I post sentence frames created to help students to paraphrase, disagree, and use other academic conversation skills.

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excitement. Classroom ambience can vary widely and still encourage student success. Although what works best for each of us varies, you probably want to establish an ambience that

• Encourages students to take risks by providing for emotional safety and a sense of belonging.

• Provides for intellectual stimulation by including appealing displays, plenty of resources, and interesting objects.

• Fosters social interaction by providing space and opportunities for students to work together. • Conveys a sense that school is a pleasant experience. • Communicates your stance toward education without you saying a word.

Metaphors and other analogies can provide a starting point for helping us think about ambience. You may recall, for instance, the metaphors for teaching suggested in Chapter 1’s Opportunities to Practice, Exercise 2. Refer back to your stance on education as a guide for the kind of atmosphere you would like to establish. Skim your stance and compose a single- sentence simile: “I want my classroom to feel like a ______________.”

Analogies provide very different directions for the kinds of physical arrangements, displays, furnishings, routines, and activities that teachers select in managing their classrooms. Imagine, for example, how differently a home and a hospital classroom would appear at first glance.

home hospital • Overall atmosphere is cozy and warm • Overall atmosphere is neat and calm

• Displays are personalized and cluttered

• Wall displays have coordinated backgrounds

• Desks are arranged in groups for interaction

• Desks are arranged in rows for efficiency

• Each group has materials at the center • Materials are placed out of sight

• Several ongoing projects are out in view • All surfaces are clean and shiny

• Lots of personal touches: fabric curtains, lamps, colorful rug, radio, potted plants, and rocking chair

• Colors are limited but carefully used

Select a physical arrangement, time schedule, routines, and instructional activities that build community and convey your convictions about what education should accomplish. Students can contribute. You might ask students as homework to create a map of the perfect classroom, given the furniture and resources available to you (Thorson, 2003). It is ultimately the people—the way they treat each other and the way they care for their space—who define the ambience. Additionally, you can help students feel like they belong by making careful choices about the games you play; see the Teaching Tip.

Turn to Figures 9.7 and 9.8 now to begin planning for your own management system, including ambience. Community develops, in part, through your decisions about managing the classroom’s physical space.

Try out six analogies for classroom community.

Think Twice about Winners and Losers

Inclusive and responsive teachers base decisions on solid knowledge of their specific students. Mild competition can enhance engagement (Marzano, 2007), but not everyone enjoys it. Survey your stu- dents to determine how many of them enjoy friendly classroom competition. In my experience, about one-half the students in a class enjoy competition. Work their preferences into the classroom in ways that help them feel welcome and yet do not detract from the sense of community. You might undo the sense of community you try so hard to maintain by using a game if students focus more on winning and losing than on the learning. Try some alternatives: “Let’s see if we can beat our best class time (or scores).” “To win this game, each team needs five examples.” “Each presentation will receive an award. Be listening to see what each one does best.”

TEAChing Tip

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Managing the physical Space Watch and Think 9.2 illuminates the power of the physical space of the classroom. Physical space can constrain our activities and learning, or it can fuel them. Broome (2013) traces an art teacher’s efforts to design her art classroom during a school renovation, and in the process of redesign it became clear that—designed well—the classroom is not just a space where stu- dents learn to make art. Instead, it is a place that provides for physical safety, psychological security and pleasure, cognitive growth, social contact, and symbolic identification (“This is us; here we are”). I believe the same can be true for all classrooms; our physical spaces must be our partners in learning (Crawford, 2004).

Consider the range of learning goals for your students and use your physical space to match those goals. Visualizing the classroom as “learning space” (Faltis, 2001) and breaking away from the traditional “teacher up front, students facing forward” pattern may allow you to identify many areas in the classroom where teaching and learning can occur. Think about the different kinds of space you and your students will need. At the elementary level, these spaces typically include an area for desks or tables for seatwork, at least one area from which you can teach the whole class, small-group work spaces, and an area for messy tasks. Secondary classrooms typi- cally make fewer provisions for student movement or a variety of activities in part because class- rooms tend to serve more specialized purposes, such as cooking rooms and science laboratories.

Although your physical space should be carefully structured, it should also allow for flex- ibility (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008). Teachers at all levels should remember to use student seats flexibly, rearranging the room as dictated by instructional activi- ties. Because a variety of grouping patterns can be effective for supporting student engagement you will no doubt want to be able to rearrange student seats so that they can work total group, alone, in partners, and in small groups (that’s TAPS from Chapter 4).

Also consider using your wall space, windows, and ceiling (if allowed) to their fullest advantage. Enrich the environment with special-interest areas such as a puzzle center (you, too, high school teachers), a class library, or a music center. Ensure that you minimize distractions and overcrowding and that activities and traffic can flow easily (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008).

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 9.1

Rich resources are more fully utilized when they are organized efficiently.

Source: John Foxx Collection/Imagestate.

Watch and think 9.2 This four-minute clip unveils a classroom makeover for middle school teacher Steve in San Francisco. Designers at the Third Teacher+ helped Steve and his students study their goals and preferences and then reconsidered the crowded classroom space so that the environment matched teaching and learning goals.

Simply changing the physical space empow- ered Steve as a teacher and allowed for improved exploration, creativity, and better communication. What are the concepts and ideas that can transfer from Steve’s classroom to your own management plan? You might jot your notes on Figure 9.9 as you watch.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ml17ynz8FG4

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As you arrange for the different areas in your classroom, be certain that you can monitor students at all times and that they are free from the threat of physical danger. For instance, do not allow them to stand on a chair stacked on a desk so that they can reach a top shelf. In addition to safety, your choices for arranging the physical space can be used to enhance the spirit of cooperation. Glance around the room and see what the arrangement says about the balance of power, about student choice, about meaningful study, and about a sense of the group. Finally, when considering each option for the layout of space and resources, ask yourself two questions:

• Is it productive? • Is it efficient?

is it productive? Productivity requires that:

1. The space allows for a balanced variety of activities. You address students’ physical, social, and emotional needs when you provide for shifts in movement. For young students es- pecially, plan to balance seat time with floor time, whole-group instruction with individual or small-group work, and quiet activities with more boisterous ones. Design an area that allows for privacy within safety constraints and crowded conditions.

2. People can see and hear each other. Charney (2002) contends that for students to feel safe they must feel seen; arrange your classroom with few visual barriers. You need to be able to see students, and they need to be able to see you—and each other. Research indicates that face- to-face seating arrangements facilitate student interaction, and that students ask more questions in such arrangements (Marx, Fuhrer, & Hartig, 1999). You’ll recall from Chapter 7 that student- generated questions facilitate learning.

When it’s time for students to look at you for whole-class instruction, some may need to turn their desks toward you. Teach them to quickly rearrange their seats so that they can par- ticipate in the lesson. So that students can hear other members of their group during cooperative lessons, you can teach them to use “six-inch voices,” which are voices that can only be heard from a distance of six inches.

3. The students are able to focus their attention on the task at hand. Sit in the students’ desks and look up to check visibility of the screens and other instructor stations. Try anticipating potential problem areas from these new vantage points. Is your directed lesson competing with a colorful bulletin board or the aquarium behind you? Are some students looking into the light because they face windows? Is the noisy science center positioned far enough away from your math group to allow students to focus on their work? Will the students working on the computers distract the others?

is it Efficient? Efficiency in the physical layout allows you and the students to complete tasks without delays. Efficiency requires that:

1. You can get to each of the students quickly. Physical proximity is important for encourag- ing appropriate behavior, providing assistance, and ensuring safety. Fred Jones (2000) empha- sizes that the greater the physical distance between students and teacher, the less likely students are to remain on task. Arrange your room so that you can quickly get to each of the students by positioning furniture to create wide walkways. Jones suggests that tables and desks be arranged so that the traffic pattern forms a loop, or circuit. Figure 9.1 gives a sample floor plan with the loop marked.

2. The students can get to each other. Student access to peers is helpful in efficient distribu- tion of materials and in small-group and partner work.

3. You and the students can get to the materials. Much time can be wasted as stu- dents wait for paper or other supplies. Position materials for easy access, near point

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Managing the Learning Environment 203

Figure 9.1 Sample floor plan with teacher’s loop marked.

Computer stations (on carts) Door

Waste can

Projector suspended from ceiling

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Interactive White Board

Kidney table

Teacher's loop

B u lle

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a b o ve

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Low book shelf

Director's Chair

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of use. Store things as close as possible to the area where they will be used. Then train students how and when to distribute and use the materials. In cooperative learning class- rooms, each group typically has a supply sergeant who is responsible for gathering and collecting materials. In classrooms where students share the leadership, students can ap- ply for some fifty manager tasks—which they complete in sixty to ninety seconds—that would otherwise need to be handled by the teacher (Freiberg, Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009).

4. You and the students can get other places easily. Arrange furniture and work areas to avoid traffic jams. Think about areas that tend to draw crowds (the pencil sharpener and the drinking fountain, for instance) and provide wide margins for each. Position student seats so that these high-draw areas do not interfere with their work. Be certain that all students can reach the exits quickly in times of emergency. Figure 9.2 reviews sections of the classroom’s physical space and provides guidelines to consider for each area.

While the ideas are rolling, you may want to turn ahead to Figure 9.9 and design the physi- cal layout of your classroom.

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Figure 9.2 Checkpoints for a classroom’s physical space.

Work Areas Checkpoints

Desks or tables • Match seating arrangements with your stance and the instruction you hope for seatwork to provide. • Rows can be effective—especially for new teachers—if the instruction is good and

desks are used flexibly. Rows may be useful, at least for the first days of school, until students have learned your expectations about talking and work times. But don’t let rows interfere with the development of a sense of community.

• In row configurations, short and shallow (many columns with few desks) is typically better than narrow and deep (few columns with many desks).

• Row clusters, in which two or three desks are pushed together and yet still point forward, save space and encourage interaction. Two large, nested horseshoes serve a similar purpose and create a sense of group belonging.

• Small clusters of desks (usually four) that face each other promote social interaction. Slant the groups for better views of the front board.

• Try a single large circle for classroom meetings.

• If possible, avoid using all the floor space for desks.

• Be certain that students fit their desks. Make a switch or call the janitor if they do not.

Whole-class • Position your media equipment so that all students can see when seated instruction station at their desks.

• Use a small table or cart to keep instructional supplies available.

• At the elementary level, save enough floor space so that you can pull the entire class “up to the rug” or “over to the rocking chair” to work with all students in a more intimate setting. Reading aloud and class discussions are often more effective when students are seated in close proximity. A change of pace can be good for behavior and materials management, too. Consider alternatives if students object to sitting on the floor.

Areas for small- • If space allows, use a round or horseshoe table for small-group instruction. group instruction • If space is tight, consider using space outside the classroom door or borrow from

another area such as your library. Make the area off-limits if you are instructing there.

• Position yourself so that you can see all students. Keep your back to the wall.

Special-interest • Include learning centers such as a class library, an author’s corner, a science areas center, a technology area, a pet area, or an art area. Even a small counter space

works. Try a claw-footed bathtub filled with pillows for reading or a tropical rain forest for independent work.

• Students and their families sometimes like to contribute materials for these areas, but you will need to teach students to handle materials carefully.

• Include a private area for quiet reading. This space or another may be used for students who need to be temporarily removed from the group.

• Special-interest areas can be permanent or can evolve with the interests and needs of your class.

Work spaces for • Place the painting or art center near the sink for easy cleanup. Teach your students messy tasks to place newspaper under their work and to properly care for materials.

• Space outside the classroom door can be used if you can monitor all students.

• Position materials for active lessons away from your whole-group instruction station so that you can monitor from afar as individuals go up to gather materials.

• Place the materials distribution center away from students’ work desks, to the extent possible.

• Obtain a large sheet of heavy plastic or an easy-clean rug if you need to protect carpet.

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Managing Resources: The Stuff of Teaching Managing a classroom means managing many resources. Three considerations for resource management include information flow, digital equipment, and communications.

information Flow One prominent management issue is managing the information flow. Traditionally, paper was the problem. Now, as we move toward paper-reduced or paper-free environments, some of the burden has been alleviated. However, teaching still requires us to manage an intense flow of infor- mation—assignments, communications, and records—regardless of the form of the information. Many new teachers—even those who felt otherwise well prepared—struggle to stay afloat of their paperwork. An important early lesson is to devise systems for managing the information flow. Effective managers develop, for example, homework folders that go home and get reviewed periodically by families, they work with volunteers to organize upcoming materials and check in papers that come from home, they devise planners in which students record their assignments, and they identify spaces where students submit their work. They have electronic assignments filed directly to the grade book, and they’ve set up cloud-based solutions such as Evernote or Dropbox for document sharing. Implementing systems for managing resources allows teachers to streamline their efforts and spend more time on instruction than on checking homework.

Morris (2000) provides an example of a system that can be useful for many such necessary management tasks: student numbers. He assigns each student a number, and this number is used for several purposes. For instance, students collect and mark homework as completed using their numbers rather than names. Their papers can be quickly collected and placed in numerical order for easy entry into the paper or electronic grade book. Materialscan be marked with students’ numbers for quick identification. In one-to-one classrooms, mobile devices can be numbered so that students work with their same machine daily and are accountable for its condition. Students can “sound off” by number at a fire drill to ensure that all are present. Numbers can be recorded on cards, craft sticks, or in smart phone applications to ensure that students are called on equitably.

Digital Equipment Digital learning plays an increasingly large role in U.S. classrooms, and it brings with it a wave of new opportunities and challenges. In terms of opportunities, technology brings an expanded array of learning activities and resources; it tends to shift instruction to more student-centered practices; and it can result in higher attendance rates and student engagement (Bolick & Cooper, 2006). Its challenges include (a) an added layer of complexity that comes with managing another set of materials and (b) the inescapable learning curve that accompanies any new materials like hardware and software. Research reported by Bolick and Cooper indicates that, initially, it takes time for teachers to master new hardware or software, but as teachers gain skill with the technol- ogy, it can come to save time and enhance student learning.

The more carefully you work out the physical details of incorporating technologies, the smoother their use can be. Many rooms are equipped with projection systems, document cam- eras, and interactive whiteboards. If these are permanent, consider their location as you choose your instructional stations. Remember a basic rule of classroom management and discipline: Face your students. Keep your back to the wall. Arrange the equipment so that you can see the students’ faces as you use it. For instance, place the document camera near the front of the room, with the screen behind you and the students in front of you. If the equipment is movable, ensure that it is secured safely on carts and that you have a routine for where to store it when it is not in use. One classroom manager job can be projection specialist. At a signal, the specialist can quickly move the equipment into place and return it afterward.

Although the number of computers in each classroom continues to rise, some teachers still must face the question of how to integrate a single classroom computer meaningfully into instruction. The single computer can be used both as a teacher tool and as a student tool. The teacher uses it as a tool for preparing instructional materials, communicating with families, and

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 9.2

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keeping track of student progress. If the computer can be connected to a projection system so that all can see the screen, it becomes the teacher’s whole-class instructional tool. The teacher can use the computer to model the writing process or to do shared writing, to draw concept maps, or to present still photos or short video clips that enrich the lesson. If no projection system is available, students can view images before instruction in small groups.

A single computer can also be used as a student learning tool. Individual students can pro- vide input to larger products such as brainstorming lists. They can work in small groups to cre- ate documents, drawings, or maps. Individual students can use the computer to reinforce their lessons, for instance through drill programs that practice previously presented objectives, or by hearing content presented in their home language. Computers can be used as assessment tools. To ensure that all students work on the computer, their teacher creates a schedule and posts it so that small groups or partners can check and monitor their own visit. The teacher also may hang a check sheet near the computer so students check off their names as they complete their computer activities.

If your classroom has several computers, think about where to place them. Some teachers place them all in a row along a wall of the classroom in order to create a work zone. Place the machines so that you can see each of the screens, and be sure to protect them from potential haz- ards like water, chalk dust, and pencil shavings; that is, keep them far from the sink and the pen- cil sharpener. Watch that the cords and cables are safely secured. Having flexible seating so that students can move to be near machines helps with cord hazard control. Number the computers so that you can direct students to them easily. Keep log-in and other directions posted near the computers using words, images, and perhaps QR codes that take students to the Web for audio or multimedia directions. Train ICT student experts as one of your rotating classroom jobs so you don’t spend your time unjamming a printer when you should be supporting student learning.

Ubiquitous computing, where every student has full-time access to a laptop or mobile device, is on the rise as many districts adopt one-to-one programs. One teacher advantage of ubiquitous computing is that it simplifies management; there is no need to schedule carefully to match students with limited devices. Lessons for managing devices in one-to-one settings come to us from schools that have adopted devices like iPads and Chromebooks (e.g., Heitin, 2013). See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip for suggestions for managing the one-to-one classroom.

Think security when you consider storing other expensive equipment such as calculators, cameras, wireless devices, handheld microscopes, and response systems. Such equipment is best kept locked. At minimum, store it behind closed cupboard doors near the teacher’s station where students are unlikely to wander, particularly if a substitute teacher is in charge. Each piece should have a protective case and be labeled so that it can be matched with its peripheral equipment and stored efficiently.

Tips for Managing the One-to-One Classroom

1. You’re the boss, not the devices. Develop your own plan for when students can be on their devices and the Internet. Teach them to close lids or covers or put machines to sleep when you need students’ focus on you. Consider software that allows you to view and control students’ screens when appropriate. Examples are the Nearpod app and the Hapara dashboard.

2. Teach device-related procedures explicitly. Use direct instruction (Chapter 7) to ensure that students understand how to operate, troubleshoot, and care for their devices. Put students in charge of the procedures related to distributing, collecting, charg- ing, and cleaning the devices and peripherals such as external microphones and headsets.

3. Provide mini-lessons on hardware and software. Choose single skills or functions and teach them in five-minute lessons. Your students can lead such mini-lessons too. Record the lessons, perhaps using a screen capture tool or video, so that students can access them repeatedly.

4. Have Plans B and C ready. Anticipate snags such as dead batteries and the network going down and teach students what to do when they encounter these snags.

5. Build an expectation of exploration. When you first introduce a tool, allow students to explore its functions and capacities in a brief, unstructured “play time.” Then have them share what they learned. Also, allow students to choose the tools they use to achieve a learning goal. You might require a multimedia presentation, but you can allow students to create it using any tool of their choice, from Animoto to Zentation. Expect them to surprise themselves and you with their discoveries.

TEAChing FOR TOMORROw Tip

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For equipment that you share with other teachers, such as laptops on a cart, be sure to learn about the checkout procedure. Check all equipment upon receipt so that you are not held responsible for equipment that you received damaged or incomplete. Test it all before you use it. Charge all batteries, ensure that the appropriate software is loaded and that Web sites are avail- able and bookmarked or collected somehow, such as on a bookmarking site. Match cables and cords to their respective machines. Enlist equipment managers to help with this process and to check the equipment all back in, piece by piece, when it’s time to return it.

Communications Families and other team members are some of your greatest resources. Plan carefully to imple- ment your plans for family partnerships (from Chapter 3). Develop a plan for family and friends who can volunteer. Keep an instructional activity (such as flashcards) ready for volunteers to work with individual students. Have materials in need of preparation ready, too, in case your volunteer prefers that sort of contribution.

Also make a plan to maintain records of your communications with family members to ensure that you are regularly and equitably engaging families as educational partners. A varied communication system might include a number of strategies from face-to-face visits, paper notes, dialog journals, phone calls, the class Web site, e-mail, social media like Twitter, and apps like Remind101 or ClassDojo. At the schoolwide level, student information systems and learning man- agement systems (such as Edmodo, Haiku, and Schoology) make efficient use of time and foster timely communications with students and families. Also keep a contact log for family phone calls and other communications. Word-processed tables and spreadsheets can both be used for this pur- pose, although spreadsheets make it easier to manipulate your data for different purposes. List the date, time, student, family member, description of the issue, and plans for resolution if appropriate. You also need a plan for communication with team members in addition to family members. For instance, you may be in a position where you have the opportunity to co-teach (e.g., Forbes & Billet, 2012). I find co-teaching incredibly rewarding, but it takes time to plan and reflect with co- teaching partners. How will you maintain effective contact, for example, with education specialists in service of your students’ needs? And how will you communicate with specialized team members? DuPaul, Weyandt, and Janusis (2011) note that one overlooked component of treatment for stu- dents with ADHD is the formation of partnerships among school professionals who can work col- laboratively to help students. Such partnerships require planning, time, and effort; they usually don’t happen spontaneously. Consider how you can foster them through careful planning.

Experienced classroom managers sometimes use their resource management systems so effort- lessly that it can be hard to appreciate them. Watch your mentors carefully and jot down some notes about how the teacher manages the scarce resources and plentiful paper we find in most classrooms.

Managing Time Alarming studies (e.g., Jones, 1987) indicate that teachers lose up to half of their instructional time through inefficient management. Imagine wasting half of the precious time you have with your students. Use your classroom time as gold; wasting a single minute costs everyone in the class, and those costs can never be recouped.

Maximizing Academic Learning Time Using your time as gold means that you need to maximize the time your students spend engaged in learning and minimize the time they spend in other ways in your classroom. The total amount of classroom time can be divided into three nested subsets: allocated time, engaged time, and academic learning time. These aspects of time are presented in Figure 9.3, which makes it clear that your job as a time manager is more sophisticated than just ensuring that students are busy at something. You want the bull’s-eye in Figure 9.3—academic learning time—to expand so that it crowds the other two circles. Your job as a time manager is to ensure that students are experienc- ing success in work related to lesson objectives. Students are not using their time well if they are staring at the right page in the text but have no idea what it means.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 9.3

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Figure 9.3 The target for classroom instructional time use.

The amount of time assigned to study a particular subject area or objective. Use local guidelines to appropriate amounts of time to each area of study.

The amount of time spent on instruction for a particular objective. Within the allocated time, maximize the amount of time spent addressing the objective.

The amount of time students spend engaged in study of a particular objective and experience success in mastering that objective. Within the time they are engaged in work toward a lesson's objective, check concrete evidence that students are actually learning.

Allocated Time

Engaged Time

Academic Learning

Time

Source: Pearson Education

An effectively managed classroom results in greater academic learning time.

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Keeping Track of Time

It’s easy for teachers and students to lose track of time during small-group or independent work time. Help students learn to gauge time by calling their attention to time requirements. Displaying a timer seems to be far more potent then telling them to watch the clock, and it removes you from the burden of timekeeper, where your announcement “Time’s up!” is likely to be met with a chorus of “No!” Some teachers use a kitchen timer or their tablet or smart phone timers. Interactive whiteboards have a timer function, too. If you have a projection system for your computer, try a free online timer. ClassTools has a timer with soundtracks like The A-Team. You can upload your own tracks. Time manager can be another classroom job.

TEAChing Tip

Maximize learning time by using everything you know about providing engaging, responsive instruction. Think carefully, for example, of your use of video in the classroom, as it is sometimes poorly used (Hobbs, 2006). Hobbs recommends that, in order to use media well, teachers should:

• Set clear instructional purposes. • Make use of functions such as pause and review to enhance learning. • Stay mentally engaged throughout the showing (do not do other things). • Avoid noninstructional uses such as video as a reward, time filler, or a way to control stu-

dent behavior.

Maximizing learning time also includes helping students learn to manage their work time. The Teaching Tip gives one suggestion for doing so.

You also maximize learning by minimizing the amount of time spent on business items. One guaranteed way to minimize wasted time is by using routines for recurring events (Marzano, 2007). Routines offer the added benefit of providing predictability, confidence, and security, especially for students who are accustomed to strict family structure, are lacking in structure at home, or have physiological needs for clear and calm behavioral support (Gootman, 2001). You will need both noninstructional and instructional routines.

noninstructional Routines An initial investment in teaching your students to run the business of your classroom will save vast amounts of time over the course of the year. It will save you from 2,043 questions about where homework belongs or whether it is okay to sharpen a pencil. Research indicates that effective managers devote considerable time in the first days of the year teaching their proce- dures and routines (Bohn, Roehrig, & Pressley, 2004; Marzano, 2007). The Teaching Tip gives advice based on this research to get you off to the right start.

Figure 9.4 lists some of the recurring “business” events that occur in classrooms for which you may wish to establish and teach set procedures. Teach the most immediate routines (what students should do when they enter the classroom in the morning, how you will take roll, what is expected in each area of the classroom, what happens at the end of the period) early on. Over time students can master each of the routines that will help them run the classroom, even in your absence. The beauty of good routines is that they set the expectation that students are respon- sible and capable of running the show, they help students feel secure in the predictability of their environment, they reinforce your expectation that student learning is your highest priority, and they save you from countless mundane decisions.

Watch and think 9.3 In this two-and-a-half- minute clip, a fourth-grade teacher demonstrates many noninstructional routines. I listed six management strategies in these two minutes. How many can you name? Would you change his routines for your own classroom? How?

Off to the Right Start

During the early days of the term, be sure to:

✓ Set high expectations for what all students can learn. ✓ Offer engaging learning activities. ✓ Help students get to know each other and set goals. ✓ Establish your routines and procedures. ✓ Praise specific student success and behavior. ✓ Encourage student self-regulation.

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Figure 9.4 Recurring events that might benefit from a routine.

• What to do when class begins

• What to do when class ends

• How to enter and exit the classroom

• Taking attendance

• Opening exercises

• Getting lunch count

• The rules for having water at desks or getting a drink of water

• When to use the restroom

• How to behave in each area of the classroom

• When and how loud to talk

•

•

When to sharpen a pencil

• Where and when to get paper and other supplies

• How to head a paper

• What to do if a computer stops working

• Where and when to submit completed work

• How to gather work for absent students

• How to complete homework when returning from an absence

• What to do if the teacher steps out of the classroom

• What to do when a visitor comes

• Who will and how to help a substitute teacher

• Who will and how to run errands for the teacher

• What to do in case of emergency

How to distribute charge, and collect mobile devices

When you teach a routine, do it purposefully with a carefully chosen instructional strategy. I have seen some teachers gracefully coax their students into routines solely through subtle mod- eling. More often, direct instruction is employed to efficiently ensure that each student under- stands and can use the routine. The younger the student, the more direct instruction may be necessary. Through direct instruction, you:

• Present critical information on the routine. • Check for student understanding. • Practice the routine with the students. • Observe students as they practice the routine independently. • Provide feedback on students’ performance.

Reteaching repairs misunderstanding at any point (Wong, 1998). You will select noninstructional routines based on your own preferences and the ages of

your students. Let’s explore alternatives for one of the most common noninstructional routines: taking attendance.

Some teachers choose to call out students’ names for daily roll so they have the opportunity to greet students as individuals: “Good morning, Tran. Good morning, Chelsea.” Calling stu- dents’ names in this way establishes daily positive contact with all students. However, calling each student’s name aloud daily only to listen for a rote response (“Here!”) is a waste of instruc- tional time, especially for secondary teachers who have limited time with each set of students

Read a grade-three ex- ample of a teacher teach- ing a routine through direct instruction.

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and must take attendance five or more times per day. If name-calling during roll is not used as an instructional or interactional tool, consider an alternative that takes far less time:

• Students can register their attendance on the computer that will send the information to the office, or an attendance manager can take roll and enter it in the computer or run it to the office.

• As students work in their journals or complete some other task right after the bell, you can glance over your seating chart and the classroom to silently check and record absences.

• If students are in groups, one member can report absences for each group. • Students enter the room and move personal markers—such as clothespins, cards, or magnets

with their names on them—to a new area to indicate that they are present. One first-grade teacher I know photographs her students during the first week, cuts out the figures, and glues magnets to the back. Students move their photos each morning. She simply glances at the few remaining names or photos to determine absences. These photos can also be used for mathematics experiences like graphing or working with numbers (e.g., Mattone, 2008). See Figure 9.5 for an old-school example of how this strategy can be used to instructional advantage.

instructional Management and Routines In his influential research, Kounin (1983) studied how teachers organize and manage their les- sons and found that three aspects of lesson movement correlated well with management success:

• Smoothness. Does the lesson flow from start to finish, adhering to a set focus? Is it free from abrupt changes in what students are asked to do?

• Momentum. Does the lesson move along without lags created by the teacher overexplaining (the yack factor) or overdwelling (the nag factor)?

• Group focus. Is the teacher able to concentrate on the entire group of students as a unit?

In the same way that routines can help with noninstructional issues, routines can also help smooth instructional movement wrinkles. Typical creases that can be ironed out through careful attention to instruction include the following:

• Pacing • Transitions • Providing assistance • Making every minute count

Pacing Pacing refers to the speed at which instruction is delivered. Pacing often presents dif- ficulties for new teachers because it demands an understanding of student development, and in-depth knowledge of students grows primarily through experience. A well-paced lesson devotes just enough time to developing concepts and ideas (Sangster, 2007). Lessons must prog- ress slowly enough to ensure student understanding but quickly enough to:

1. Maintain student interest and attention. 2. Minimize opportunities for misbehavior. 3. Make efficient use of time within a crowded classroom schedule.

To gauge the pace of your lessons, build in opportunities for quick progress-monitoring strategies through the lesson. Active participation strategies (recall Figure 6.6) like student response system quizzes, unison response, wipe boards, or hand signals give you information about student progress that will allow you to adjust your pace. You can also gather informal data by watching students’ behavior. What do their postures tell you? Their facial expressions? The key for pacing is to monitor and adjust. As you observe a variety of experienced teachers, you will note that they pace their lessons differently, depending on their learning targets, their students, and their own preferences. In general, I prefer an air of productive hurrying. I like stu- dents to glance at the clock, surprised that our time is up, when I close the lesson and say good- bye. Archer (2010) similarly recommends a “perky pace” rather than a “pokey pace” because it gives students more opportunities to respond and thus to learn (Archer & Hughes, 2010, p. 193). To ensure that lessons do not drag, tell students how much time they have for each task and stick fairly closely to your stated limits. Especially during group work, students of all ages seem

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to take as much time as they are given to complete their work. You may bend your rule a bit if they groan at your one-minute warning (“Okay, but in two minutes you will be ready to report. Hurry!”), but if you double your initial time allotment, you will teach students that they need not focus and work productively or that you can be swayed easily to relax your requirements. Send the message that time is golden. In doing so, be certain to use each spare moment to instructional advantage. Have a plan if your lesson runs short, as in the Teaching Tip.

Transitions Transitions are the periods between one activity and the next. Teachers at all levels need to switch activities efficiently within lessons. Teachers with multiple subjects also must manage transitions between lessons. Murphy must have a law to account for the fact that students—no matter the age—can remain attentive during an entire lesson and then hang from the ceiling in the two minutes between one activity and the next. In fact, transitions are one of

Figure 9.5 Take roll and teach . . . at the same time.

Cheese Pepperoni

Football Horseback

Riding Baseball Swimming Basketball

As students enter the room, they move their marker in response to a question. Their answers build a class graph, which is discussed during opening exercises or a relevant lesson.

First Grade: Pizza Preferences Sixth Grade: Sports Choices

Kim Ryan

Bill

JoySue

Lori

Joe

Amy

Ted

Liz

Eva

Lisa

Phil

Jim

Jim

(Markers are clothespins with students' names. Graph is two pieces of string taped to board.)

(Markers are tiles attached to magnets. Graph is cookie sheet or magnetic whiteboard.)

Omar

Chang

Tia

José

Malik

Yaelan

Khari

Hanna

Bruno

Zach

Lia

Trang

Julia

Hakim

Emilia

Luis

Azim

Mircea

Jean

Joan

Roy

Kate

Seev

Fran

Ann

Nick

Raoul

Lou

Pol

Anna

Franz

Pablo

Hans

What to Do When—Yikes!—the Lesson Runs Short

As new teachers learn to gauge pacing, lessons occasionally take less time than expected. For every lesson you plan, have a brief, stand-alone activity ready in case the lesson runs short. Practice pages and extension activities are examples. Be certain that the extra activity is meaningful.

If you really get stuck, try some of the sponges in Figure 9.6 on page 215 or the independent activities listed in the upcoming subsection “Making Every Minute Count.”

TEAChing Tip

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the top three management trouble spots (transitions are joined by the first and last five minutes of the period or day; Freiberg, Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009). To encourage smooth transitions:

1. Anticipate transitions as trouble spots. Have your own materials ready. Be watchful and businesslike.

2. Plan for transitions as a mini-lesson: What exactly do you need students to do in switching activities? Tell them. Monitor their behavior and redirect as necessary (“Stop. You forgot the part about silence. Let’s try again.”).

3. Practice completing transitions in limited time. Challenge students to prepare for the next lesson in less than sixty seconds. Invite them to beat their previous times. Make it a wager if you are the betting type. Some teachers time their students during transitions and other routine events. Seconds not wasted can be spent during preferred activities later (Jones, 2000).

4. Use a change in space to ease transitions: “Finish up your comprehension questions and meet me on the rug by the time I count down from twenty.”

5. Make transitions serve double duty. For example, some teachers have primary-grade stu- dents sing as they move from one activity to the next. This keeps the students instruction- ally focused and limits the transition period to the length of the song. A high school teacher may play one song on the computer to signal the start and finish of the transition. Other options include reciting math facts and picking up trash as students move from one activity to the next.

Providing Assistance Students lose learning time during independent work periods when they sit and wait for the teacher’s help. Make a plan so that you can provide assistance to all students who ask—before their hands fall asleep in the air. The first way to ensure that you provide timely individual assistance is to monitor the kinds of assistance that students request. Imagine that you just gave instructions for a social studies assignment and eight students surround you, papers rustling, questions poised. Their presence is a sign that you need to reteach: You dis- cover that they do not understand how to read the scale on the map. Stop answering individual questions and reteach the entire group. (See the Teaching Tip.) Or poll the class and pull aside a small group for further explanation of the map’s scale. If you have developed a safe environ- ment, students generally will not mind taking you up on your offer to join them in the back for an encore.

After ensuring that students as a group understand concepts and your directions, think about how you can make sure that students get the help they need with as little time away from learn- ing as possible. Following are four strategies teachers find useful:

1. Use praise–prompt–leave (from Figure 7.2). When you address a student’s question, give a specific compliment for what he has done right, prompt him quickly on what he needs to do next, and leave. Providing efficient help allows you to interact with more students. Jones (2000) admonishes us to spend no more than twenty seconds as we provide assistance to individuals.

2. If students are seated in groups, teach the students that there can be no individual ques- tion for the teacher, only a group question. That way, students are expected to ask two or three peers before they ask you. (“Ask three before me.”) You not only save time but also display the expectation that students can and should help each other.

3. Check the work of one person in each row (or group) who is likely to succeed quickly. Put her in charge of answering the questions in her row.

4. Use a signal other than the raised hand. Students can stand a red card or a plastic cup on their desks, for example, if they need your assistance. Teach them to work on another section of the task until you arrive.

Making Every Minute Count You want students engaged in learning even when you are not providing formal instruction. Make every minute count by:

• Having a plan for what students should do if they finish early. • Using “sponges” to soak up spare minutes.

Watch and think 9.4 In this five-minute clip, fifth-grade teacher Ms. Noonan shares two ideas for effective transi- tions: Word of the Day and Grab Bag Quiz. But wait! There’s more!

Observe carefully and you’ll see Ms. Noonan use five more management techniques to enhance en- gagement: two attention getters, effective nonverbal communication, a prompt for unison response, and hand signals for active participation.

Finally, Ms. Noonan demonstrates effectively what it looks like to use transitions as a mini-lesson. She provides instruction, checks students’ efforts, and provides specific feed- back on their efforts. Watch what happens when she does.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=EJiwA0jqFQo

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Students work at different rates, and, at least at the elementary level, at some point each will approach you and say, “Teacher, I finished. What should I do now?” Develop some instruction- ally sound responses and teach students—even kindergartners—to select and complete learning activities without your assistance. Some teachers call these anchor activities. Write (or draw) acceptable choices on a chart, post the chart, and teach students to follow the chart. Then if they ask, “What should I do now?” you just point to the chart. Add new choices occasionally. Depending on students’ age, some widely applicable choices include the following:

• Complete product option contracts (one strategy for differentiating instruction, p. 61). • Add to the class’s Great Quotes Graffiti Board. • Play a thinking skills game (e.g., chess, checkers, or a board game). Have an interactive

whiteboard? Try content-related or problem-solving games accessed through the Internet. Examples include Set and the New York Times daily news quiz. Search “interactive sites” for games related directly to your content.

• Read a good book. • Study the globe. • Practice skills (e.g., printing, spelling words, math facts, and vocabulary cards). • Work at a station (e.g., for science, art, building, puzzles, or technology). • Work on a spread in your learning journal.

Just as you can count on students finishing at different rates, you can bet there will be down- time, or brief periods when your class is waiting for an assembly, class pictures, or a guest speaker. Soak up those spare minutes with sponges, which are activities that encourage learning but do not require much preparation. For example, when the first assembly runs late and your class is waiting to join the second one, you might ask students of any age, “Have you lived a million seconds?” Students can also estimate their age in minutes, days, weeks, or months. Then you can quickly check their predications by visiting Math Cats Age Calculator. Calculations are completed so quickly that the site is sure to spark some interesting questions for exploration. The first assembly is still not out? Discover what happened on this day in history by checking the headlines at dMarie Time Capsule. Some additional sample sponges are given in Figure 9.6. Write sponges in a computer file, on index cards, or in a small notebook in advance so that you can choose one and get right to work. Students can even be taught to select and lead sponge activities. While you are thinking about time management, you may choose to use Figure 9.10 to make a tentative plan for using classroom time well.

Your Own Management plan You have an empty room, a class list, and sets of texts. Where do you go from here? How will you establish a cohesive community? The topic of classroom management is a perfect opportu- nity to revisit Chapter 1’s proposition on teaching, “Teachers can be effective and yet not just alike.” Yes, you need to consider your students’ developmental, cultural, and unique needs, and yes, you should use evidence-based practices to manage your classroom, but you will also man- age your classroom in a way that bears the mark of your own style (Crawford, 2004). When you know yourself well, and when you keep your stance clearly in mind, you can develop a manage- ment system that works for you.

Figures 9.7 through 9.10 can help you establish an initial classroom management plan that is consistent with the major points of this book and that can set you on your way to establishing

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 9.4

Rule of Thumb for Reteaching

Choose a number, five or fewer, as your limit. Let’s say four. If four of your students ask you for the same kind of help, do not answer individual questions; reteach the group: “I did not make this as clear as I had hoped. Many people are asking about ______________. Let me explain in another way.” Stick with your limit.

TEAChing Tip

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Managing the Learning Environment 215

Figure 9.6 Sponges for spare moments.

1. Read student requests from a book of poetry (anything by Shel Silverstein is a sure bet).

2. Practice logical questioning with a game of 20 Questions.

3. For young students, play Simon Says to hone listening skills. Or, play it in a different language.

4. Count as high as you can as a class by ones, twos, fi ves, tens, threes, or sevens. A variation is to count by ones and say buzz to replace multiples of a given number: “8, 9, buzz, 11,” for example, for multiples of five.

5. Individually, in pairs, or as a class, list as many compound words, state capitals, homonyms, mammals, cabinet members, African countries, prime numbers, chemical symbols, or anything else.

6. Sharpen estimation skills by estimating and checking an unknown quantity, amount, or duration of an event. For example, “How many seconds can you stand on one foot? With your eyes closed?” “How many beans fi t into my hand?” “What is the total value of the seven coins in my pocket?” “How many insects are on earth?” Use the World Almanac or a book of world records for information.

7. Write brief group stories. One person writes the opening, folds back all but the last line, and passes it to the next author. Try searching "collaborative storytelling apps” for digital versions.

8. Practice classifi cation skills with “Who’s in My Group?” Call students who meet an unstated criterion of your choosing (such as black hair or earrings or laced shoes) to the front of the room to be members of your group. The rest of the class guesses the rule. Be tricky and use more than one criterion. Or, allow students to make the rule and call up the groups. For older students, draw the dichotomous key to demonstrate your grouping.

9. Pull out a set of simple objects and list scientifi c observations about them. See how long of a list you can create. Then see if students locate a particular object in the pile purely by reading or listening to peers’ observations. Work on improving the quality of their observations over time.

10. Pull down a map and play “I’m Thinking of a State (or Region or Island)” by allowing students to ask questions to discover your state. Allow a student to lead the next round. Or, in a less structured activity, fi nd out how many countries are represented in the travels (or ancestries) of your students. Where is the farthest north anyone has traveled? East?

11. Tell students a story. Invite one of them to tell a story or do a trick.

12. Do some genetics research: See how many can curl their tongues, for instance. Who has a hitchhiker’s thumb? Attached earlobes?

13. Try some at-your-seat gymnastics. Can students clasp their hands behind their backs if one arm reaches from next to the head and the other comes from below? Can they rub their stomachs and pat their heads at the same time? Drum their fi ngers starting with the pinkie, then starting with the thumb?

14. Talk about the world. What have students read on the Web today? In the paper? Seen on the news?

a productive and humane learning environment. Because some teachers, particularly second- ary teachers, “float” from room to room rather than being assigned a single room, Figure 9.11 may be useful in helping you think about some key management issues within a single period (inspired by Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham, 2002). You will revise your plan in response to your students and your growing expertise, so use this draft to brainstorm. You may wish to first try the exercise employing Figure 9.12 at the end of this chapter if you have not yet had many opportunities to observe classrooms.

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216 Chapter 9

Figure 9.7 The big view: Guiding forces in my management plan.

1. The law:

Reread Figure 1.2 on teachers’ legal responsibilities. Notes:

Check with administrator or mentor for expectations and sources for local laws.

Things to keep in mind:

2. The setting:

Check your work in Figure 1.1 to refresh your thinking about the specifi c locale and the expectations it provides.

Things to keep in mind:

3. My stance toward education:

Glance at your work in Chapter 2 to refresh your memory of your big view of teaching.

Complete the following stems:

A good society

A community

The purpose of education

People learn by

Good teachers

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Managing the Learning Environment 217

Figure 9.8 My plan for creating positive classroom ambience.

I want my classroom to feel like a ________________. I will foster a sense of community by:

Physical arrangements to create that tone Work space (tables and desks):

My instruction station:

Small-group instruction area:

Special-interest areas:

Wall and ceiling space:

My work space and storage areas:

Other furnishings and strategies I will use to create that ambience:

Checkpoints

Does the room provide for

 Emotional safety and a sense of belonging?

 Intellectual stimulation?

 Social interaction?

 Pleasant experience?

 Student responsibility?

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218 Chapter 9

Figure 9.9 My plan for arranging classroom space.

The Perfect Classroom: A Map

Checkpoints Comment: Rationale

Is it safe? Can I monitor?

Does it encourage community?

Is it productive?

Is it efficient?

Does it make full use of available resources?

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Managing the Learning Environment 219

Figure 9.10 My plan for using classroom time well.

Check with administrator or mentor for requirements or guidelines on allocated time.

Sample Classroom Schedule

Routines

Some of my noninstructional routines:

Taking attendance:

Opening exercises:

Expected behaviors for each area:

Two more routines to use (review Figure 9.4):

Instructional routines:

Providing assistance:

Sponges:

Independent work activities:

Involving Partners

Routines for involving family and other partners:

Routines for communicating regularly with families:

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220 Chapter 9

Figure 9.11 Management plan for a single period of the day.

1. Opening Procedures

Attendance procedure:

Location of attendance materials such as tardy and absence slips:

Procedure for getting work to students returning from absences:

Instructional activity for students during attendance:

2. Rules and Procedures

Leaving the room:

Using classroom resources (e.g., computers):

Getting assistance:

Working with peers:

Submitting work:

Expectations on format of assignment, allowable resources, late work, extra credit:

Recording assignments:

What to do if teacher is occupied by a visitor:

3. Dismissal Routines

Signal for clean-up time:

Expectations for the room’s condition upon students’ leaving:

parting words Your painstaking efforts to maintain a pleasant and productive learning environment will not always result in a happy citi- zenry living in educational paradise. Sometimes a negative tone can arise if the teacher struggles with discipline, if the students begin to treat each other with disrespect, or if the class fails to establish a sense of group purpose. Chapter 10 provides additional suggestions for keeping the atmosphere positive, for talking through issues to encourage respect, for building community, and for managing students as a group. If you notice that your classroom is beginning to feel unproduc- tive or unpleasant, try running through some of these steps:

1. Get a sense of perspective. What are you trying to accomplish with your students? What is interfering with your class’s attempts to build a productive environment? A trusted outside observer may be able to offer a fresh view.

2. Rebuild a sense of community. Try a classroom meeting during which you set new goals as a class. Choose some high-interest activities and perhaps some positive consequences that reward students for working as a group. Allow students to make the space their own.

3. Reestablish your expectations for student behavior. Open your eyes wide and remind your students that you care so much about them that you cannot allow them to treat each other or their classroom in harmful ways. Clearly outline the kinds of behaviors you need to see and, if necessary, employ logical consequences to help students with their behavior.

4. Change something. Add quiet music. Rearrange the desks. Record yourself and listen to your tone. Rework your routines. Flip the schedule. Laugh at the nuisances that would otherwise drive you to distraction. Have lunch with your students.

5. Never give up.

Opportunities to practice 1. Analyze classroom management in action using the observation

sheet given in Figure 9.12. Look for specific evidence related to each of the categories. Here are four options:

• Analyze a lesson clip online, such as at Tch, the Teaching Channel.

• Observe an experienced teacher’s room environment and classroom management. In addition to completing Figure 9.12, write down some questions (Andrea’s Habit of Mind #2: Wonder and Ask). At the end of the observation, chat with the teacher about your questions. Jot down a few

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 9.5

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Managing the Learning Environment 221

Figure 9.12 Observing classroom management.

Management Area Observation Notes

Ambience

1. This classroom feels like a _________. 2. What things does the teacher actually do and say to create

the tone? 3. What are the big ideas about teaching and learning that

seem to be conveyed by the classroom ambience? 4. Community: How does the environment establish the

norms of shared governance and concern? 5. How does the tone establish a. Emotional safety? b. Intellectual stimulation? c. Social interaction and responsibility? d. School as a meaningful and pleasant experience?

Physical Space

6. Observe how the teacher has structured the physical layout of the room.

• Floor space • Wall space • Instruction station • Special-interest areas • Other spaces 7. Observe how the teacher has arranged instructional

materials and resources, including computers or mobile devices. 8. How does the environment promote physical safety? 9. Productivity: How does the environment allow for a. A balance and variety of activities? b. All students to see and hear the teacher? c. All students to focus on instruction? 10. Efficiency: How does the environment allow for ease in a. The teacher reaching each student? b. Students reaching each other? c. The teacher and students reaching materials and other

areas of the room?

Time

11. Find the classroom schedule. How does allocated time encourage learning?

12. What evidence is there that students are experiencing success during engaged time?

13. How does the teacher use noninstructional routines effectively? List some routines you observed to be particularly effective.

14. If you observe instruction, check a. Pacing b. Transitions c. Provision of assistance d. Provisions for students who finish early

Overall

15. List two or more things you learned about classroom management by observing this teacher and classroom.

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222 Chapter 9

great ideas that are consistent with your own thinking about management. Incorporate them into your own plan.

• Organize a learning walk (Brown, 2014). Plan to visit a few classrooms with agreeable teachers. Put together a small team of walkers (perhaps your peers) who will travel together, spending less than ten minutes in each classroom, debriefing in the hallways between stops, and closing with a reflective conversation. Be sure to jot down evidence during the walk. You may want to focus your observations on just a few elements of Figure 9.12, such as the physical space or time. Question 15 could form the basis of your concluding reflective conversation.

• If you are already teaching, ask a colleague or mentor to observe your own management, or video-record a lesson and analyze the recording.

2. Alfie Kohn (1996) is critical of schools’ overreliance on pun- ishment and rewards and the illusion of choice it presents for students. Read some of his works on his self-titled Web site. To what extent do you agree with him? What would it take to change the practices that he sees as inhumane?

3. Start a file for promising classroom management ideas. How about a board on Pinterest? Or try using an electronic sticky board, perhaps, at lino, or add links to them on your profes- sional Web site if you’re building one. Encourage a share session with peers. Observe more classrooms for ideas on man- agement. Remember that every strategy you consider needs to measure up to the tough standard of your stance toward educa- tion and must encourage student learning in humane ways. Plenty of management strategies around today fall short of those criteria.

4. Pick any tip from the chapter and try it out.

5. Look at the list of Habits of Mind you created for Chapter 5. How can you teach them through your management plan?

6. After you finish your management plan, ask a friend to interview you for a classroom teaching position. One of the prompts should be, “Tell us about how you plan to manage your classroom.” Another should be, “How are you planning to manage the class to ensure that students meet high academic expectations?”

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms American Federation of Teachers: Tools for Teachers. The classroom management section has many resources, including a 3D classroom mapping tool.

Educational Technology and Mobile Learning. Educational Web tools and mobile apps for teachers. When you wonder what’s available in the world of ed tech, start with this site; it’s an incredible resource.

Educator’s World: Classroom Management. The site includes a large variety of well-written tips from different sources. Under the “Teachers” tab, take a look at “Responsive Classroom” and “New Teachers.”

Interesting Ways: The Curious Creative. Tom Barrett’s crowd- sourced blog, where contributors share interesting ways to use audio in your classroom, use QR codes in the classroom, and so on. Be prepared to get lost in great ideas.

National Education Association: Classroom Management. The articles are good, and there are many discussion boards that address classroom management issues. Two examples are

Expert Advice and Works4Me. The online community appears quite active.

New Management. Rick Morris’s Web site. Morris is known for his positive, practical management strategies that empha- size meeting the basic needs of power, love, fun, freedom, and safety. This site gives articles and tips, but it also sells Morris’s products.

Teaching Channel. You must complete free registration to access the large, high-quality showcase of videos about classroom management and other teaching topics. The Tch community states that its mission is to “revolutionize how teachers learn, connect, and inspire each other.”

Search also for specific terms related to classroom management, including:

• Building classroom community

• Classroom procedures and routines

• Inclusive classroom management

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Before You Begin Reading Think back through your elementary and secondary schooling experiences. Recall a teacher who was known as being a successful classroom disciplinarian.

1. What was the teacher’s reputation?

2. What was your relationship with the teacher like? What about other students’ relationship with the teacher?

3. What motivated students’ behavior in the teacher’s room?

4. How did the teacher prevent misbehavior?

5. How did the teacher respond to misbehavior?

6. What “key(s)” to successful classroom discipline did that teacher seem to hold?

(Note: If you prefer, analyze a teacher who was not successful with classroom discipline. You can learn from that experience, too.)

Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior

10

Learning OutcOmes

By the time you complete this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Place classroom discipline within the larger schoolwide and societal context.

2. Explain why self-understanding is critical to your success with classroom discipline.

3. Simply state the overarching goal of classroom discipline efforts.

4. Describe the qualities of a classroom environment that supports student discipline most effectively.

5. Explain why relationships are central for effective discipline and list discipline strategies that support healthy relationships.

6. Give your plan for preventing misbehavior.

7. Describe a systems approach to discipline and give at least two strategies that will help you implement a systems approach.

8. Describe your discipline plan as it currently stands.

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224 Chapter 10

True discipline is self-discipline. Competent, resilient individuals are socially adept with positive relationships and optimistic views about their lives. They strive for self-improvement and pos- sess life skills such as the ability to take initiative and solve problems (Henderson & Milstein, 2003). Running a close second to the family as the most powerful influence on the development of competent children and adolescents is the school (Henderson & Milstein, 2003; Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2009). This chapter supports you in helping students develop into positive, self- controlled contributors to their world.

If you’d like to use a list of strategies related to these outcomes as a note-taking guide, flip ahead to Figure 10.11 on page 252.

Classroom Discipline as One Piece of the Puzzle Your efforts to help students develop discipline occur within a much larger puzzle of teaching and learning. First, classroom discipline is connected to all of your other classroom efforts: plan- ning, instruction, and management. When students are deeply engaged in a rich curriculum and meaningful learning, for instance, it is far easier for them to make productive choices about their own behavior. Anderman, Andrzejewski, and Allen (2011) sought to determine how teachers created classrooms that high school students perceived as particularly supportive of their motiva- tion and learning. They found that teacher support of engagement and motivation involves a set of overlapping efforts including instructional support of student learning (Chapter 6 in this text), effective classroom management (Chapter 9), and good student rapport (this chapter). Second, classroom discipline occurs in the larger schoolwide context. Effective schoolwide discipline programs provide caring relationships among adults and students, promote prosocial behavior, and work toward shared values (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009; Mitchell & Bradshaw, 2013; Osher, Bear, Sprague, & Doyle, 2010). Your classroom practices should support—and be supported by—the school plan. And you have the responsibility to use your considerable power to medi- ate between your classroom discipline system and that of the school in the best interest of your students (e.g., Pane, Miller, Rocco, & Salmon, 2014). Third, inclusive and responsive teach- ers are aware of the larger sociocultural context, including its inequities. For example, black students—and secondarily Latinos and American Indian students—are overselected and over- sanctioned in the discipline system, excluding them from instruction at far greater rates than are white and Asian students (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010; Losen, 2013; Yang, 2009), and stu- dents who receive free lunch (which is a proxy for lower socioeconomic status) tend to receive more exclusionary disciplinary actions than their counterparts (Butler, Lewis, Moore, & Scott, 2012). Disproportionate disciplinary actions may contribute to achievement gaps by reducing students’ opportunity to learn. Inclusive and responsive teachers examine their own discipline efforts to address such deleterious practices. Finally, classroom discipline is a powerful mecha- nism for effecting our vision of who our students need to be as we hand them the world. Each of our efforts to support student discipline should be guided by our vision of who the students will become as competent, resilient adults.

Physician, Heal Thyself: Discipline Starts with You In all they do, inclusive and responsive teachers treat self-understanding as necessary. In the realm of discipline, self-understanding helps teachers understand their own motivations, limita- tions, and biases. The research on teacher expectations is especially robust (Good, 2014; Hattie, 2009); our beliefs about our students affect the ways we interact with them, and our beliefs are often limited or erroneous. For instance, students perceived as more capable typically get more attention from the teacher and more opportunities for choice. Teachers in one study over- estimated students’ intelligence when they perceived the students as interesting, independent,

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.1

“Self-command is the main discipline.” —Ralph Waldo Emerson

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 225

competent, and assertive and underestimated intelligence when the students seemed anxious, immature, and insecure (Alvidrez & Weinstein, 1999). In another study, teachers underestimated their students’ cognitive abilities more often in lower-socioeconomic and lower-achieving set- tings (Ready & Wright, 2011). In yet another, teachers perceived African-American students as exerting less effort, which contributes to unrealized potential (Wildhagen, 2012). Disability status can affect teacher perceptions too. In Cook’s (2004) study and in several similar ones, general education teachers reported feeling less attached to their students with disabilities and rejected them at higher rates than they did their other students. Students who are less attached or are rejected get less positive attention and feedback from their teachers. Deficit-based think- ing and “blame the student and home” explanations from teachers still appear prevalent (Lynn, Bacon, Totten, Bridges, & Jennings, 2010; Pollack, 2013).

And so it is crucial that we examine our own biases and perspectives. When we make our implicit understandings of ourselves explicit, we increase the odds that our efforts to encourage self-discipline will be principled and proactive: Knowing yourself will help you know—and guide—your students. This section addresses the following points:

• How understanding yourself helps you as a disciplinarian • Finding emotional control in an emotional endeavor • Choosing your authority base

How Understanding Yourself Helps You as a Disciplinarian The end goal of this chapter is for you to form your own classroom discipline plan; without a well-reasoned plan, teachers are likely to be “theoretically blind” and thus be thwarted as pro- active disciplinarians (Riley, Lewis, & Brew, 2010, p. 957). Before you are a teacher, you are a person, and for your discipline plan to be workable, it needs to not only reflect your vision as a teacher but your personal perceptions of what’s possible and desirable. We all have things that please us or that push our buttons based on our own temperaments and upbringings. Each of us seeks out people who behave in certain ways and avoids others. These personal biases and preferences color the way we see our students and how we interact with them. Try the Inclusive and Responsive Teacher Tip to explore a few things about yourself that might influence you as a classroom disciplinarian.

Finding Emotional Control in an Emotional Endeavor Teaching can elicit the entire spectrum of emotions. Helping students learn and grow often results in great joy; failing to do so can result in despair. When teachers are socially and emotionally competent, they set a productive tone, encourage supportive relationships, guide students toward self-control, and serve as role models for pro-social behavior (Jennings & Greenberg, 2010). And when teachers act aggressively by angrily yelling or using sarcasm or humiliation, they negatively affect students’ engagement, behavior, and self-regulation (Riley, Lewis, & Brew, 2010; Sutton, Mudrey-Camino, & Knight, 2009). Not surprisingly, the aspect of teaching that is most likely to evoke negative emotions such as anger is preventing and responding to student misbehavior (Sutton, Mudrey-Camino, & Knight, 2009). Thus, finding and maintaining emo- tional control is vital for every classroom teacher.

Fortunately, all emotions contain a cognitive component; we need not be ruled by our feel- ings. Instead, we can choose our emotional reactions to classroom events. Maintaining healthy emotions involves two kinds of regulation: up-regulating (increasing) positive emotions and down-regulating (decreasing) negative emotions in the classroom. Teachers use a variety of strategies to up regulate their positive emotions. A few common strategies for increasing positive emotions include:

• Focusing on a student’s positive qualities • Listening to upbeat music • Talking with colleagues • Using humor • Using mental exercises such as positive guided imagery • Engaging in meditative practices such as mindfulness

Watch and think 10.1 In this minute-and-a-half clip, secondary science teacher Galeet Cohen explains the “essential role” of humor in her classroom, and you see her laughing with her students. What purpose does humor have? How does your class- room humor style compare with that of Galeet?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=kCHjvb2AXl8

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226 Chapter 10

Teachers report that down-regulating negative emotions in favor of emotional control is perhaps more difficult—though equally important. Our job as adults and as professionals is to model emotional control. Anger is a natural human emotion, but we need to have our emotions in check when addressing students’ behavior. And dealing with students who are particularly defiant takes the utmost in emotional maturity (Hall & Hall, 2003).

When you are angry, I suggest that you step back physically, temporally, and emotionally. You may, for instance, discover that your class showed no mercy in antagonizing the music teacher. You are furious that they could act that way, and you are embarrassed that their behavior may reflect on you. Instead of yelling, though, you lower your voice and say, “I am shocked and angry to hear about this. In fact, I am so angry that I cannot discuss this with you right now. When my head is clearer, we can discuss this situation.”

Stepping back leaves you as the boss of you. When we are angry, other people are in con- trol of us (Jones, 2000). Strength, according to Jones, comes from calm. By quieting your body through strategies like relaxed breathing, you calm yourself and those around you. For instance, in a tense conversation, you might, as Morris (2014) suggests, imagine a student’s parent stand- ing beside the student.

Choosing Your Authority Base One final way that discipline begins with you is that you choose the kind of authority you will establish in your classroom. Work at the college level suggests that a teacher’s authority can be directly observed through classroom behaviors, and students rate the instruction of authoritative teachers more highly than they do instructors with low authority (Middendorf & McNary, 2011). Authority can be observed in a number of teacher behaviors related to teachers’ voice and dic- tion, their body language, their focus of attention, and aspects of their classroom management such as organization and whether they hold students accountable for following policies and for learning.

In addition to displaying authoritative behaviors, teachers establish themselves as authori- ties using different combinations of power (French & Raven, 1959):

• Expert power: The group perceives the teacher as having superior knowledge about the content, about teaching, and about individual needs.

• Referent power: The group likes and respects the teacher because she is perceived as ethical and concerned about her students.

• Legitimate power: The teacher has the right to make certain decisions by the sheer power of her official role as teacher.

• Reward power: The teacher has power because she can distribute rewards, including tan- gible items such as candy and privileges and social awards such as praise and attention.

• Coercive power: The teacher has power because she can punish.

Reward power and coercive power predominate in many classrooms, probably because they are often effective for immediate control of student behavior. Examples include “pull your card”

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeacheR TIp

it’s all about You

Try these questions to think about some personal factors that may influence your interactions with students.

1. Name the top three traits you value in a friend. How do you interact with people who don’t display those traits?

2. What sort of K–12 student were you? What did you think about the people who were not your sort of student? What do you value in student behaviors and attitudes now?

3. What did the people who reared you do well? What do you treasure from the lessons they taught you? What are your “I’ll do it differently” memories?

4. What sorts of behaviors or attitudes annoy you? How do you respond?

5. No one is perfect. What trait or behavior are you striving to improve in yourself?

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 227

systems, table points, candy as a reward, and detention as a punishment. Unfortunately, teach- ers who establish no firmer authority base than the use of rewards and punishments run a strong risk of having their power collapse. Additionally, rewards and punishments are only temporarily effective and can interfere with the development of self-control (Kohn, 1996; Marshall, 2005).

Instead, teachers should establish more lasting and mutually respectful authority based on their expert and referent power (Savage, 1999). Because both of these kinds of power depend on students’ perceptions of you—as an expert and as a concerned, trustworthy adult—you can begin to earn students’ respect by demonstrating your knowledge and care. Other kinds of power can be used judiciously as supplements, especially in your early years as a teacher. Secondary teachers work with students who may be more likely to challenge authority. See the Teaching Tip, Working with Big Kids.

The Goal Is Self-Discipline Pythagoras warned, “No man is free who cannot command himself.” Self-control, though, is not innate. We encourage its development through socialization (Good & Brophy, 2000). Indeed, 2,500 years after Pythagoras’s warning, we teachers are guided by the goal of helping students move from impulsive, self-centered beings to self-directed, autonomous individuals (Gootman, 2001). Teachers agree that self-control and cooperation are important skills (Lane, Pierson, & Givner, 2003), and research suggests that person-centered approaches to discipline—that is, ones that emphasize shared respect and responsibility—are most effective for developing self- control and a number of other positive outcomes (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009).

Despite its importance, teachers find it difficult to provide as many opportunities for self- direction as they’d like (Lewis & Burman, 2008). Also, in some students’ perceptions, teachers become more coercive—not less—in their responses to student misbehavior (Lewis, 2001). I encourage you to view discipline as an opportunity to gain indepen- dence and responsibility. Luckily, many avenues are available to us as we help our students grow toward self-control. Our options fall into two categories:

• Establishing a climate that promotes independence • Addressing behavior in ways that encourage self-control

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.2

Working with Big Kids

• Be genuine. Emphasize, within your own style and as appropriate for the teacher role, caring and supportive relationships. Many secondary students (particularly boys, it seems) are relational learners; who you are matters to them (Raider-Roth, Albert, Bircann-Barkey, Gidseg, & Murray, 2008; Reichert & Hawley, 2010).

• Decide right now it isn’t about control. It isn’t about physical intimidation either. When you let go of the mistaken goal of control, you have one fewer obstacle to overcome in helping students choose self-control.

• Work on your teacher presence. You need to exude self-confidence and communicate that there is no place you’d rather be than with your students.

• Don’t take it personally. Some of your students may come to you already mistrusting authority (Payne, 2008). Show them that the system can be fair and that you will be respectful.

• Plan ahead. Know your limits. Some students will push until you deliver some consequence. Find out your school’s plan for different levels of infraction—but don’t overuse it.

• Watch for counter-control. Secondary students are savvy enough to turn around behaviorist systems to control the teacher. Emphasize instead authentic relationships and rational decision making.

• Take it from a pro. Spend time in the presence of a teacher who has a great classroom environment without relying on rewards and punishments. Watch and learn.

TEACHInG TIP

Children today are tyrants. They contradict their parents, gobble their food, and tyrannize their teachers.

—Socrates (circa 450 BCE)

Watch and think 10.2 This six-minute clip argues that social and emotional skills are the basis of self-discipline and good interpersonal skills, which are key competencies both for academic learning and for life in general. You’ll see a variety of teachers and students address five kinds of social-emotional skills. As you watch, list the five competencies and ask yourself how compelled you are to incorporate them into your own disci- pline plan.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=DqNn9qWoO1M &list=PL10g2YT_ln2gyS THTs1NXnIlZ4CT9HNxZ

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228 Chapter 10

Establishing a Climate That Promotes Independence Your instruction and physical environment should provide safe opportunities for students to think for themselves and to make meaningful choices. Try these three tools for establishing such a climate:

1. Choices 2. Respect decisions 3. Natural and logical consequences

1. Choices Choice is empowering; it engenders ownership and reduces resistance (Marshall, 2005). Within safe and acceptable limits, you and I can provide repeated and varied opportu- nities for students to make meaningful decisions. You can arrange options so that a range of choices is acceptable. For instance, students can choose classroom rules, their literature groups, the topics they pursue, their workspaces, and classroom jobs. The more mature the student, the broader the range and number of choices he may be able to handle. When students have the opportunity to make meaningful choices, they see that they are capable of making good deci- sions and that you respect their ability to do so (Coloroso, 1994).

2. Respect decisions Once students make choices, we should respect their decisions. We should make it a point to override their choices only if they show themselves unable to follow through or if the consequence of their decisions would be harmful. Students’ decisions may not match our own, but unless the consequences are dangerous, students should be allowed to experience them.

3. Natural and logical consequences People with self-control understand the link between their behaviors and the consequences of their actions. Unfortunately, schools often empha- size rewards and punishments that are not only unrelated to students’ behavior but are also delivered by the hands of another. Examples include discipline programs that have students copying class rules when they talk out of turn or receiving food for following directions. In programs like these, teachers retain responsibility for delivering the consequences of stu- dents’ actions, and students may have a harder time establishing authentic motivation for appropriate behavior.

To help students build internal controls and take responsibility for their actions, you can arrange classroom conditions so that they face the natural consequences of their behavior. Natural consequences (Dreikurs, 1968) flow from the behavior and are not arranged by another. For instance, when a student talks while directions are given, he misses the opportunity to gather appropriate materials for his photography project.

When it would be unsafe or unfeasible for students to experience natural consequences, we should provide a consequence that is at least logical. A logical consequence for Sheila’s break- ing Jaime’s pencil out of anger, for instance, is that she supply Jaime with another pencil.

When students live with the consequences of their choices, they come to see that the best discipline is not enforced by an authority but comes from within: They build self-control. You can also nurture self-control in the ways you respond to misbehavior.

Addressing Behavior in Ways that Encourage Self-Control The following five tools can help you respond to behavior in ways that support self-control:

1. Talk it through and reflect 2. Self-correction 3. Avoid power struggles 4. Anger shields 5. Conflict resolution

Read about three kinds of logical consequences.

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 229

1. Talk it through and reflect Wise teachers do more than put an end to misbehavior: They use misbehavior as an opportunity to teach about better choices.

Talking it through can be difficult when you feel rushed. It takes time to teach students about good behavior. Although you may not have included behavior as a daily objective, no doubt it has a place in your long-range goals, and your time investment will most likely be a good one. Talking it through can also be difficult when you feel irritated because you just want those monsters to stop it. There are indeed times when belaboring an incident of misbehav- ior serves only to prolong it. Talk it through when there is a reasonable chance that students have not considered the potential effects of their actions. Otherwise, address the misbehavior as briefly as possible and move on.

Talking it through is useful because it (1) models the expectation that rational people use words to sort things out, (2) tightens the link between behavior and consequence without actu- ally allowing for dangerous consequences, and (3) works to prevent similar misbehavior in the future. Talking it through can help students see their mistakes not as crimes but as opportunities to do better.

2. Self-correction Your goal is that students control themselves, so whenever possible, allow stu- dents themselves to find solutions to their problems and to select appropriate behaviors. When faced with the typical barrage of tattling during rug time (“Teacher! She is bothering me!”), a primary-grade teacher I know tells the offended child, “I am sure you can find a quieter place to sit.” The student almost invariably moves quietly to another, less provocative spot on the rug, and his talking friends receive a hint about their own behavior.

You need not correct every incidence of misbehavior you notice. First, sometimes drawing unnecessary attention to a fleeting or relatively minor transgression can interrupt instruction and increase the likelihood that the misbehavior will reoccur. Ignoring some misbehaviors can extinguish them. One caution, though: If you elect to ignore a misbehavior, prepare to ignore it repeatedly. If you eventually respond to misbehavior that you initially ignored, you may unwit- tingly reinforce it (Obenchain & Taylor, 2005). Second, students can serve as a powerful influ- ence on each other’s behavior. A cold rebuff from a peer can do more to direct a poking student’s

Here’s an example of talking it through.

Source: Serhiy Kobyakov/Fotolia

Read a classroom ex- ample of encouraging self-correction.

Watch and think 10.3 In this two-and-a-half- minute clip, watch first grader Tyra work to make a good choice when troubles arise with her group. How does her teacher support her decision? In your analysis, is another conversa- tion with the group warranted? If so, what needs to be said?

Here is your chance to support this student in developing self-control. What will you do?

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230 Chapter 10

behavior than can your admonitions to remember the rules against poking. If students solve problems on their own, pat yourself on the back and resist the urge to intervene.

3. Avoid power struggles Independent people have power over their fate in important ways. K–12 students have less power than adults—especially in the classroom setting—and growing toward self-determination can mean questing for more power. When a student outwardly defies you and provokes your anger, you are probably engaged in a power struggle. Power struggles rarely end with satisfactory results, mainly because the student is right: You cannot make her do anything. Avoid power struggles in three ways:

• Diffuse the situation. Use humor, greater physical distance, or a caring voice to allow the anger to dissipate: “I can see that you are angry. It may be better if we talked about this in five minutes. I will be back in a few moments to talk.” Usually increasing your physical and emotional distance from the student helps to diffuse the student’s anger and allows you to approach the situation more calmly. If a student seems angry or belligerent, you can also use a quiet, concerned question that takes him off guard (Khalsa, 2007): “Are you okay?” “Did I do something that upset you?”

• Let the student save face. Offer an out so that the student can comply with your request without submitting entirely to your authority. If a student’s sole choice is to do as you say, she can only lose face in front of her peers.

• Give the student the power. A student in a power struggle may need to make one more com- ment after your request for quiet, or feed the hamster one more pellet after you ask him to stop. By allowing those “one mores,” you convey that students do indeed have some power over what they do when. Usually a student’s behavior will stop with a “one more” (Schneider, 1997). Only if it continues will you need to address the behavior again.

You may also elect to abdicate your desire to control the student’s behavior entirely: “I certainly cannot force you to use appropriate language, but I must insist on it in my room. You will need to use street language elsewhere.” When the student realizes that you are comfortable with your own power—and its limits—he will almost certainly have a lesser need to grab for available power.

4. Anger shields Expect that, at times, your students will be angry or hurt. Although negative feelings are unavoidable, you and your class deserve to be protected from angry outbursts. You can shield using comments such as “I know you are hurt, but I care too much about our class to let you say unkind things. You need to find another way to handle these feelings. I can make some suggestions if you get stuck.” I know a junior high teacher who teaches her students to say “Cancel!” to reject a hurtful message. We’ve extended the verbal message at my house to include a hand signal (letter C) so that we can shield ourselves with a simple gesture.

Anger shields teach students that everyone deserves dignity and respect, and show students that although we cannot entirely control our environments, we can control how we will respond. It’s one way to encourage students to draw on their inner resources to handle their negative emotions.

5. Conflict resolution U.S. schools are basically safe places (Toppo, 2013), and horribly vio- lent events such as suicides and homicides are far more common for K–12 students away from school than in school (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). Still, less-violent conflict, such as bullying, is a concern the world over (Swearer, Espelage, Vaillancourt, & Hymel, 2010). In the common conception of bullying, there is an imbalance of power, and the perpetrator purpose- fully and repeatedly uses physical aggression (e.g., hitting, pushing, or spitting) or social aggres- sion (e.g., making fun, malicious gossip, exclusion from social groups) against the victim. Cyber bullying—where the aggressor uses the Internet to victimize a peer—can be especially terrifying to students given their perceptions of the aggressor’s anonymity (Mishna, Saini, & Solomon, 2009). Indeed, digital citizenship has become a priority for schools (Ribble, Bailey, & Ross, 2004). See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip.

Students on the margins (such as those who are overweight, in a sexual minority, or have few friends) are at risk of bullying, but so are popular students (“Bullying targets popular kids,

Read to learn how one teacher handles a power struggle with a defiant student.

Watch and think 10.4 Students in this multi-age class demonstrate a conflict resolution forum. What discrete speaking and listen- ing skills do students in this three-minute clip employ?

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=DazLm-VB-Ik

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 231

not only those who are marginalized,” 2014). Student researchers were among the first to find that bullying is typically not one-on-one aggression. Instead, behaviors such as name calling, isolation, and physical hassling are perpetrated not by a single individual upon another but by one cultural subgroup upon others (Thomson & Gunter, 2008). Both traditional and cyber bul- lying tend to peak during the middle school/junior high years. Effects of bullying are pervasive and can be seen decades after the incidences (“Impact of childhood bullying still evident after 40 years,” 2014). Anti-bullying programs abound, but the effectiveness of these programs is dif- ficult to capture (“Schools have limited success in reducing bullying, new analysis finds,” 2014). We do know that it is essential for programs to be comprehensive—not just a single assembly during the year—and that all school members, from students to staff, must commit to acting on bullying. Pink Shirt Day, which started in Nova Scotia as two straight students acted in solidarity with a gay peer bullied for his pink shirt, is an example of student-led anti-bullying efforts that can have widespread effect (“Bullying only thrives when we are silent,” 2014).

Many students perceive that their teachers do not recognize or act upon bullying incidents. Your job is always to help students build lifelong skills that will assist them in positive interac- tions throughout their lives. Begin by not tolerating hateful acts. Stop your students from using hate speech, and intervene in acts of bullying. Check with your school for policies regarding bul- lying; schools rightly treat it very seriously. See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip for some online support to address bullying.

Many programs assist schools and teachers in preventing violence. However, efforts that focus only on punishment—such as zero-tolerance policies—seem to be falling short of their prevention intention (Casella, 2003; Dupper, 2010; Mitchell & Bradshaw, 2013; Rice, 2009). Instead, teaching students the skills to resolve conflicts peacefully serves a number of long- range purposes (Johnson & Johnson, 2004): It provides them a set of skills they can use to resolve a lifetime of inevitable conflicts, it enhances their moral and social development, and it provides them with a mechanism to change the world. The Teaching Tip presents a general set of skills you can teach your students to resolve conflict.

Digital Citizenship

The International Society for Technology in Education’s (2007) National Education Technology Standards emphasize digital citizenship. Digital citizens practice safe, legal, and responsible use of ICT. They display positive attitudes and personal responsibility for using technology to collaborate and learn, and they exhibit leadership with ICT. Each district has an acceptable-use policy that students and parents are required to sign. Locate the policy and discover what it tells you about questions such as:

• When and how are students allowed to use cell phones? • When and how are students allowed to use digital recording devices (such as cell phone, still and video cameras)? • What policies govern Internet use at school? • How can we counteract the negative and violent messages that students sometimes encounter in cyberspace? What role should

the school system play in teachers’ and students’ social networking practices? • What are your responsibilities for preventing students from sending or posting potentially troublesome electronic communications?

From violating copyright law?

TEACHInG FOR TOmORROW TIP

No Bullying

Try these Web sites on bullying. Many have resources written for students, families, and educators to prevent and intervene when students are involved in bullying.

• Bullying.org • Stop Bullying.gov • Stop Bullying Now • Bully Prevention in Positive Behavior Support

TEACHInG FOR TOmORROW TIP

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232 Chapter 10

The Key: A Structured, Consistent, Supportive Environment Years of parenting research translated into the schooling arena provides very clear directions for class- room teachers: The environments that support development best are authoritative ones (Gregory & Cornell, 2009; Gregory, Cornell, & Fan, 2011; Walker, 2008, 2009). Figure 10.1 shows the intersec- tions of two dimensions of caring for young people: control (low and high) and nurturance (low and high). In authoritative classrooms, both control and nurturance are high; the classrooms are well structured and provide plentiful acceptance and support. Students understand that there are limits to their behavior and that expectations for success are high—but so is teachers’ support of their efforts (Henderson & Milstein, 2003; van Tartwijk, den Brok, Veldman, & Wubbels, 2009). Nurturing teach- ers believe in their students’ capacity for success, engage in trusting and caring relationships, and pro- vide a positive climate for exploration and learning. Authoritative teachers encourage students to take academic risks and provide safety nets for when students fail. Students in authoritative classrooms are more likely to internalize achievement goals and open up to adult influence (Walker, 2009).

The authoritative environment you create includes a structured, predictable, and focused setting (Chapter 9), and it includes the supportive social-emotional climate you set with your relationships and interactions with students. These six tools can help.

1. Structure In authoritative classrooms and schools, each aspect of the learning environment is structured. Ensure that your physical layout is orderly and fits the academic tasks. Structure classroom time schedules to show that every minute is precious; maximize academic learning time. Keep your behavioral and academic expectations high, clear, and predictable. Further, ensure that students perceive that you monitor them carefully, intervene to protect their safety and best interests, and provide feedback that helps them meet high expectations.

2. High Expectations Authoritative teachers convey their belief in every student’s capacity for success. Remember the warm demanders from Chapter 1? I have many positive memories of teachers who “warmly

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.3

Conflict Resolution

1. Set the rules for a cooperative context (example: no name calling). 2. Listen. Let each person finish without interrupting. Each person states his wants and feelings. 3. Find common ground. Agree on the facts and the issues important to each. 4. Brainstorm solutions. 5. Negotiate proposed solutions. 6. Agree. Listen as each person states the plan aloud.

TEACHInG TIP

Figure 10.1 Authoritative teachers provide controlled and nurturing environments.

CONTROL

Low High

NURTURANCE Low Neglectful Authoritarian

High Permissive Authoritative (Optimal)

Watch and think 10.5 In this one-minute clip, Daniel Goleman describes the single most important change he would make in schools. Why is the sup- portive classroom environ- ment you create of such importance?

https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=MikBRguJq0g

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 233

demanded” my sons’ best. For example, when Zach was “sagging” (wearing his pants far lower than his boxers, as was popular in the day), I appreciated his history teacher telling him to pull his pants up, and keep them up. He did. When Alex admitted to too many hours of Xbox, his English teacher told him to turn off the video games and get back in the habit of reading for pleasure. Alex read voraciously that year and ended up as an English major in college. I appreciated it when teachers continued to demand the best from my children, even when we got tired at home.

It seems obvious that we believe that all of our students can learn, right? Of course! However, in a MetLife Survey, teachers who worked in schools with higher percentages of low-income families were less likely to believe that their students could succeed or that they were motivated to succeed (MetLife, 2010). Here are some strategies for conveying high expectations for all your students:

• Convey a sense of urgency and excitement about what students need to learn. Knowledge is power. “Education is the tool that gives a child life choices. A teacher who cares enough to make sure a student knows how to survive school and gives that student the necessary skills is providing a gift that will keep affecting lives from one generation to the next” (Payne, 2008, p. 52).

• Use grade-level content standards as a minimum (not maximum) expectation. • Share grading criteria in advance. Describe how assignments and projects contribute to the

final grade. • Share (or develop with students) grading rubrics and teach students to self-assess. • Share outstanding samples created by other, similar students. • Focus on students’ individual strengths and build from them. Be a mentor. • Focus on personal improvement, helping students track their progress over time. • Use the same praise or “success messages” for all students to protect against unconsciously

different expectations. Students can choose these success messages. • Encourage students to do their best. When their work falls short, help them analyze it and

warmly insist on improvement. • Include family members to build, convey, and enforce shared high expectations. Remember

that parenting is difficult; it helps to work as a team.

3. Support Authoritative teachers help their students meet high expectations. If your students are missing tools, figure out a way to see that they get them. Ask yourself which teachers made the biggest impact for you. When we asked our students that question about their math teachers, students responded repeatedly that the most influential teachers were those who were determined to help students learn, even if it meant varying their teaching styles, using alternate materials, or teach- ing them outside of classroom hours (Guillaume & Kirtman, 2010). If students lack prerequisite skills, work out a plan for students to pick up those skills. If your students need services beyond the typical program, advocate for them to receive those services. In short, as an inclusive, respon- sive, and authoritative teacher, you set high expectations and then do whatever it takes to help students achieve. Authoritative teachers don’t, however, hover; they choose the minimal level of intervention necessary to ensure student success without interfering with student independence.

4. Caring Communication Effective schools foster a caring climate, personalization, and supportive relationships (Henderson & Milstein, 2003; Osher, Bear, Sprague, & Doyle, 2010). Caring communication is necessary in these respectful environments (Gootman, 2008). Teachers’ responsibility is to both model caring communication and to teach students the skills necessary to communicate in caring ways. Three such skills include (1) recognizing and labeling feelings—students’ own and others; (2) communicating feelings without hurting others; and (3) listening to each other, show- ing interest, and hearing the speaker’s complete message.

5. Clear Limits Clear classroom limits set the boundaries of permissible behavior. Setting limits is sometimes difficult for new teachers, who tend to be concerned that their students like them. However, one

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of the kindest things you can do for your students is to provide a stable environment with reason- able limits and to forbid travel beyond those limits. Everyone needs limits; students will push until they find your boundaries. When they find those boundaries, they can turn their attention to other matters. Do them—and yourself—a favor and make your limits clear at the outset.

Students make better choices about their behavior when they know what is expected of them. School and classroom rules are an important way to teach students what we expect. One school, for instance, adopted an elegant set of five rules that provide direction for behaviors in a variety of settings at school: be kind, be safe, be cooperative, be respectful, and be peaceful (Lewis, Sugai, & Colvin, 1998). Note that these are all positively stated. Develop a similar set of classroom rules, either with the students’ help or on your own. See the Teaching Tip for suggestions on developing classroom rules.

You also need to establish clear expectations for special circumstances, such as fieldtrips. Days with substitute teachers, assemblies, and sports activities are other situations when

clearly stated expectations are critical.

6. Consistency Perhaps even more difficult than setting limits is following through to reinforce those limits. Reinforce limits by responding consistently to students’ requests and behavior. Your consistent responses will help students see that their environment is predictable and that they can rely on stable expectations. They can trust you to say what you mean . . . and mean what you say. When you show them that you mean what you say, you convey to students that you care enough about them to keep your promises. If you are inconsistent, students will learn that they can do as they please and that they cannot trust you. Given the principle of intermittent reinforcement, a rule that is enforced inconsistently is worse than no rule at all; it makes negative behaviors very dif- ficult to extinguish (Obenchain & Taylor, 2005). “No” must mean “No” every single time. This is a tough one, but your efforts will pay off.

Relationships as Central One of the clearest conclusions from the research on classroom discipline and student suc- cess is the centrality of positive relationships (e.g., Hattie, 2009). “Teaching is about building relationships—knowing your students, sharing ideas and life events” (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009, p. 102). In fact, the best predictor for healthy outcomes for youth is supportive relation- ships with adults like teachers (Henderson & Milstein, 2003; Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2009). Respectful, caring relationships provide support, bolster resiliency, prevent misbehavior, rein- force students’ self-worth, encourage students to take necessary academic risks, enhance the academic experience, and build lifelong commitments to learning and citizenship (Davis, 2003;

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.4

Here’s a classroom example of how a teacher establishes clear expectations before a field trip.

Rules on Rules

• Keep your list of rules down to about four or five in number. • State each rule in positive terms. For instance, “Raise your hand before speaking” is more helpful

than “Do not shout out.” • Be certain that students accept the rules as useful and reasonable. Even adolescents, who are

prone to challenge authority and assert autonomy, are willing to follow rules if they seem reason- able and fair (Gregory & Cornell, 2009).

• If you choose to have the class develop the rules through group discussion, check that their rules are reasonable and address major areas of concern for classroom behavior (when to talk, when to move around, and how to treat each other and belongings).

• Think about how to operationalize rules. For instance, some teachers operationalize their rules for classroom talk with a color system: “red” for silence, no one out of her seat; “yellow” for whis- pers in small groups; and “green” for regular conversational level.

• If you elect to include explicit consequences for following and breaking the rules, be sure that they are logical and humane.

TEACHInG TIP

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 235

Doyle, 2009; Gregory & Cornell, 2009; Henderson & Milstein, 2003; O’Connor, Dearing, & Collins, 2011; Payne, 2008; Zuckerman, 2007). In a study of more than 1,400 elementary stu- dents, children who had caring teachers built higher self-efficacy in math and achieved higher as well (Lewis, Ream, Bocian, Cardullo, Hammond, & Fast, 2012). Caring relationships were especially important for students acquiring English.

Therefore, relationships are vital, and vigilance in accepting all of our students as valu- able humans is essential. It isn’t about friendship though. It’s about students being aware that we respect them as people, are concerned about their needs, and understand their perspectives. Earlier chapters (3, 4, and 9) focused on the basics of forging relationships; this chapter focuses on strategies for maintaining those relationships by treating students with dignity and respect. I suggest that you make it a rule for yourself: Treat all students with dignity and respect.

By fostering respect and dignity, we offer hope. Make your classroom a refuge where students receive the same consideration as would respected adults. Here are eleven tips to help you do so by establishing a respectful climate and by responding respectfully to behavior.

Establishing a Climate of Dignity and Respect You want students to know that every person in your classroom is important. Show students that you know and value their perspectives (Wormeli, 2001). Learn about the things they care about and remember to see the world from the eyes of someone their age. Use a warm and respectful voice (Kohn, 1999). In all you do, maintain an environment that exemplifies respect for self and others.

1. Celebrate and suffer Demonstrate respect for your students’ thoughts and experiences by sharing their successes and their slips. When students express emotions, especially sadness or despair, it is tempting for teachers to rush in, quickly analyze the situation, tell students how they should be feeling, fix things, and move on. You need not provide explanations or analyses for every event that causes emotion for your students (Schneider, 1997). A quiet, sad smile, a thumbs-up, or a round of applause may be a terrific way to show students that you understand their positions. The use of such empathic resonance can help your students feel less alone and that you respect their experiences (Kottler & Kottler, 2007).

2. Active listening You can show that you value students’ words and ideas by practicing active listening (Gordon, 1974). In active listening, the teacher summarizes or reflects the speaker’s

“The secret in education lies in respecting the student.”

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Source: Phovoir/Imagestate

Caring relationships are based on mutual respect.

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message. For instance, a teacher may begin his reply to a frustrated student, “You seem to be say- ing that this homework was hard for you.” A question stem such as “Are you saying that . . . ?” can also help to ensure clear communication. Active listening shows students that you value their ideas enough to be certain that you understand them correctly. It allows you to demonstrate that you believe communication involves two parties, each deserving to be heard. Gootman (2001) gives six tips for caring listening:

1. Show interest. Show interest and pay attention when students speak. Hold your body still and give your full attention.

2. Hear them out. Wait until students are finished speaking before saying anything. 3. Separate your feelings from their feelings. Respond to the issue, not the emotion. 4. Look for nonverbal cues. Body language can help you find the true meaning of the message. 5. Put student feelings into words. Try to interpret the message and emotions by rephrasing

what you think you have heard. 6. Don’t argue with students’ feelings. Accept students’ rights to feel as they do rather than

suggesting that they should feel different emotions.

Gootman’s tips can be equally effective for helping students listen to their peers.

3. Peer listening Silent but accepted norms teach students that they need to listen raptly to the teacher but not so carefully to each other. Students need to be encouraged to listen to each other. In a typical scenario, the class chatters over Ray as he shares his ideas. The teacher implores, “Stop, Ray, I can’t hear you.” When the class quiets down, the teacher repeats Ray’s words: “Ray was saying . . .” In this scenario, the teacher is the traffic cop who con- trols the conversation. Let’s rewrite the scenario so that it encourages more respectful and caring interactions: The class chatters, but this time the teacher suggests, “Ray, let’s wait just a second. Some of your peers can’t hear you yet and I know they’re interested.” The class quiets down, and the teacher urges: “Ray, why don’t you repeat the last thing you said now that you have all ears on you.” Now the teacher sends the message that she expects students to listen to each other. She doesn’t repeat Ray’s words but directly encourages students to listen to each other.

4. Model and teach Ray’s scenario also highlights the importance of directly teaching students to treat others with dignity. Take advantage of the power of modeling to show learners what fairness and dignity look and feel like. When modeling is insufficient, draw students’ attention to respectful treatment. If they treat someone disrespectfully, quietly and calmly point out the natural consequences of what they have done and help them find more dignified alternatives. For example, when students use harsh words to tease, tell them firmly that harsh words can hurt and are not allowed in your classroom. Then give them some acceptable alternatives to teasing.

Responding to Behavior How you choose to respond to inappropriate behavior can teach lessons that last a lifetime. As you shape students’ behavior, Curwin and Mendler (2001) advise you to protect students’ dig- nity by thinking about your own: How would you respond if a teacher used this strategy with you? Your words carry tremendous power . . . to humiliate or help. Be certain that you redirect inappropriate behavior without embarrassing learners.

5. Address the behavior When you praise or provide correction, address students’ actions and not their character. Focus on what they do, not who they are. For instance, when your class has listened attentively to a guest speaker, it is more effective to praise specific behaviors (“You all watched and listened with such respect!”) than to address students’ value as people (“You are so good!”). When you need to correct misbehavior, do not apply words such as lazy, thoughtless, or bad to the students. Instead, provide feedback on what students did that was wrong: “You talked while the guest speaker was talking” instead of “You are so rude!” Say “You left the room a mess” instead of “You are so messy!” Then give the natural conse- quences attached to their behavior. When you address behavior and not character, you send the message that students are worthy people, even when they err. Teach them to do the same for each other.

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6. Private correction In the instances when most of the class is fine but one student needs redirection, make it a point to speak with that student in private. While the others work, approach the student’s desk for a calm conversation about the behavior. If you can continue providing adequate supervision, you may elect to hold your conversation in the hall or outside the door. This approach allows the rest of the class to continue without interruption and saves the stu- dent from public humiliation. Private communications also lessen the chance that students will respond defensively to your correction to save face.

7. Hints When some or all of the class needs redirection, it’s typical in middle-class U.S. culture to start with the lowest level of intervention possible: the hint. You calmly remind students what they should be doing (“Calculators should be put away now. Everyone is finding page 83.”). Often no greater intervention is required, and you have shown students that you trust them to fol- low directions with only a gentle reminder (Zuckerman, 2007). Recall that some cultures are more accustomed to explicit redirections than to hints. You may need to teach “hints” as a strategy.

8. I-messages Gordon (1974) suggests that students are often unaware of the effects of their actions on others. Teachers can use I-statements to state their emotions without anger or blame and without belittling the student. An I-statement has three parts:

1. Statement of the problem (“When people sharpen their pencils while I talk . . .”) 2. Specific effect of the problem (“. . . other students cannot hear me, . . .”) 3. Statement of the teacher’s feelings (“. . . and I am frustrated to have to stop and wait.”)

Once a teacher uses an I-statement, the teacher and students can work on the problem together. I-statements express respect by encouraging students to pay attention to their effects on others, allow the teacher to state emotions without humiliating, and convey the teacher’s trust that students can address a problem.

9. Strength refreshers When students are corrected by their teachers, they may lose perspective that a single mistake is just that: a single mistake. You can reaffirm your faith in students’ basic goodness by starting your correction with a strength refresher (Schneider, 1997). Remind the student of how he typically behaves and point out that this mistake was atypical for him.

10. Laughter Despite your supportive atmosphere and respectful interactions, there are times when students will manage to push your buttons. Some students seem to live to get a reaction. If you are able to retain your sense of humor, you can use laughter to diffuse tense situations and maintain dignity—the students’ and your own (Kottler, 2002).

When using humor to address behavior, be certain not to direct your humor at students (Frymier, Wanzer, & Wojtaszczyk, 2008). Humor is highly individual, and it is cultural. At least until you have a thorough understanding of your students and a cohesive group spirit, use jokes that are directed at yourself or at situations outside the students. The point is to respond playfully to situations that might otherwise erupt into power struggles or other unproductive interactions.

11. Apologies Finally, when despite your best attempts you offend a student’s dignity, apolo- gize. You may occasionally speak before you think and hurt feelings. Consider using a calm, apologetic message: “That did not sound at all as I had intended. I apologize. Next time I will choose my words more carefully.” You will not lessen your authority by admitting a mistake. You will probably, in fact, gain authority by displaying your willingness to disclose and correct an error: You are fair. You model the humility that you hope students will also display. You demonstrate how humans (teachers!) make a mistake, learn from it, and go on.

Prevention, not Reaction Some misbehavior occurs because it is human nature to press the limits, to test the predict- ability of our environments. However, much classroom misbehavior can be prevented. In fact, your discipline plan should focus on prevention of misbehavior, not correction. When teachers

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.5

Read an example of a teacher using a strength refresher when a student spits water.

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238 Chapter 10

emphasize proactive, preventive discipline, students’ engagement rates are higher and teacher stress levels are lower (Clunies-Ross, Little, & Kienhuis, 2008; Osher, Bear, Sprague, & Doyle, 2010; Sutton, Mudrey-Camino, & Knight, 2009). Five strategies can help you prevent much misbehavior:

1. Meaningful curriculum and high engagement 2. Motivation and development 3. Anticipation 4. Positive approach 5. Strong presence and nonverbal communication

1. meaningful Curriculum and High Engagement When students are engaged in relevant and interesting learning experiences, they are often too busy to misbehave (Miller & Hall, 2009; Stichter et al., 2009). Good news! Student engagement is in your hands. To engage students, you need to maximize learning time, vary your instruc- tional strategies, demand active participation, and help students find meaning in their work. Ask yourself: Do students see the purpose in the content? How well does school capture issues seen as vital to the students? Is the lesson structured to require every student to engage?

Check your curriculum to ensure that the content is appropriate and that you are using rich instruction that accommodates students’ diverse needs. Although some topics may not spark immediate student enthusiasm, if you remember to COME IN (Chapter 6), you increase the chances of engaging students and thus forestall misbehavior. Remember to employ “every stu- dent responds” techniques (Figure 6.6). Also try watching a recording of yourself teaching. Is your instruction as engaging as you had hoped? If not, think about when you as a student mis- behaved. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip shows you how to prevent misbehavior by bridging worlds.

2. motivation and Development Study your specific learners and then align your expectations to their physical and emotional development. For instance, kindergartners should be expected to sit for only about ten minutes before the activity changes. Some say students can be expected to sit and listen one minute for each year of their lives; that implies that kindergartners need to change activities every five minutes or so. Despite the fact that high school students can sit for hour-long periods, as a gen- eral rule, it is useful to allow students of all ages to spend about two minutes actively pro- cessing information for every ten minutes they spend listening. That means after you provide

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

Bridging the students’ Worlds and the school’s World

Actively pursue strategies that help you incorporate students’ worlds into your classroom and help them see the importance of what school has to offer.

• Listen to the issues students discuss and incorporate them into your instruction. Some educators suggest that students’ issues should be placed firmly at the center of the curriculum through thematic planning. Or, more immediately, a teacher might overhear his students discussing an impending threat of a pan- demic flu. He plans science lessons that address the history, procedures, and sociopolitical and ethical issues pertaining to vaccination.

• Use a student survey before you plan a unit to find out what students would like to know about the topic. A survey may begin, “Students study the American Revolution in many

grades, but sometimes they don’t find out what they would really like to know. What do you still not know about that war?” An in-class discussion can serve the same purpose: “Let’s make a list of the things we wish we knew . . .”

• Incorporate students’ interests in sports, music, and other aspects of culture into the topics you select and the methods you use to study them. For example, students may analyze lyr- ics of rap music for examples of poetic devices.

• Begin every lesson with an opener. Openers pique students’ curiosity and connect their interests and knowledge with the content of the lesson. A mathematics lesson on exponents might start with a great video clip, Powers of Ten, for instance.

• State the purpose of your lessons. Tell students how this infor- mation or skill will be useful. Or, have them tell you. “You’ll need this for the test” or “. . . for next year” tend not to be convincing reasons for many students.

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 239

ten minutes of information, they need a chance to discuss it. Try some of the “tell each other” strategies (Figure 6.6) to help students process information.

Also match your activities and expectations to factors such as the time of day and year. It is human to be sleepy after lunch and antsy before the last bell rings. Primary teachers are especially good at using games such as Simon Says or Copy My Clap Pattern to refocus stu- dents’ attention. Secondary teachers can provide high-interest activities when students’ energy or attention may be likely to wane. Changing physical location or position gives students a break and allows them to refocus (recall the strategies for including physical movement, page 130—Chapter 6).

You can also prevent misbehavior and encourage learning by attending to motivation theory. Research suggests that many elements that affect student motivation, shown in Figure 10.2, can be directly influenced by the teacher (Turner, Meyer, Midgley, & Patrick, 2003). If a student gives up upon viewing a whole sheet of tedious grammar exercises, the teacher may rip the sheet in half to affect the student’s perception of effort and probability of success. Another teacher works hard to return students’ essays shortly after they submit them. He knows immediate feed- back can increase motivation.

When students lack the enthusiasm to stay focused, try tweaking one of the factors of motivation from this figure. For example, try supporting student motivation by using vivid les- sons and creating suspense (Wormeli, 2001). Although motivation to learn is ultimately in the hands of the students, there are many ways you can tweak your own behavior to affect students’ motivation.

3. Anticipation You can prevent misbehavior, too, by anticipating and thus avoiding trouble spots. For instance, if you have passed out pointy compasses for your third-period geometry lesson, collect the com- passes as students move into the next phase of the lesson. Removing distractions is a sure bet for preventing misbehavior.

Anticipation is key for preventing individual students from escalating in their misbehaviors as well. If you’ve spent time in classrooms, you can probably conjure an image of a student who displayed a minor misbehavior that quickly became something larger and more trouble- some. Often de-escalating explosive behaviors involves stopping behaviors before they start. For instance, teachers should know the triggers for particular misbehaviors, pay attention to stu- dents’ apparent anxiety levels, and teach academic survival skills (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012; Shukla-Mehta & Albin, 2003). Teachers can anticipate difficulties by refusing to engage and by intervening early. It’s a matter of planning. See Figure 10.3 for some other trouble spots that can be avoided with careful planning.

Your ability to anticipate common trouble spots will improve with experience. You can begin by planning instruction and your room environment with an eye toward setting students

Figure 10.2 Factors of motivation.

• Needs and interests. Motivation increases when physical, psychological, and social needs are met. Examples include feelings of safety from physical and psychological harm and students’ perceptions that they are treated fairly.

• Level of concern. Motivation is optimized when there is some tension about completing a task but not enough to provoke acute anxiety.

• Perception of required effort. Motivation increases when individuals perceive that the amount of effort required to complete a task is reasonable.

• Probability of success. Motivation increases when individuals perceive that there is a good chance they will succeed.

• Knowledge of results. Motivation increases when individuals have specifi c, immediate information about the result of their efforts.

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up for success. Teachers with low rates of misbehavior spend time in the beginning of the year explicitly teaching appropriate procedures and behavior. Charney (2002) spends the first six weeks of the school year teaching students to monitor their own behavior and use the items in the room safely through her own version of the three Rs:

• Reinforcing: Commenting on the positive behaviors students demonstrate (“I notice that you are solving that problem together.”).

• Reminding: Asking students to state the expectations for behavior (“Remind me, where do we put the calculators when we are finished?”).

• Redirecting: Pointing students toward more appropriate behavior (“Rulers are for measuring.”).

You will also use your knowledge of your particular students to anticipate possible mis- behaviors. Once you learn that your students go off task quickly during transition times, for instance, plan an appropriate response. When you have a few quiet minutes at home, rehearse your calm, productive responses to those behaviors: What will you do and say the next time stu- dents chat during a transition time? Having a response ready often helps to forestall problems. If you have a student who particularly struggles with substitute teachers, work with him to create a plan for your anticipated absence to attend a conference tomorrow.

4. Positive Approach We all prefer to be in happy places; people do better when they feel better (Marshall, 2005). In a recent study, teachers who were more positive with students felt more efficacious; those who were negative and used harsh reprimands experienced higher degrees of emotional exhaustion (Reinke, Herman, & Stormont, 2013).

Figure 10.4 shares some strategies that can help to establish a positive learning environment— and thus prevent misbehavior and your own exhaustion—from the first day you meet your students.

Because classrooms are crowded and hurried, it is very easy to focus on those students determined to derail our lessons. However, when we emphasize misbehavior, we contribute to a negative tone and provide attention for the wrong bunch of behaviors, and the tone can quickly cycle into a spiral of negative interactions.

You have tremendous power to create a positive learning environment. Be aware of your ratio of positive, supportive comments to negative ones. Instead of criticizing the students who are facing the wrong way during your read-aloud, glance around the group. You will probably notice that more than half are listening raptly. Concentrate on those students. Smile warmly and

Figure 10.3 Anticipating and avoiding trouble.

Students are more likely to misbehave when . . .

1. . . . they think you can’t see them. So . . . • When you stand and talk with an individual, keep your back to the wall and position yourself where you can

see the class. • Use a document camera rather than writing extensively the board, especially if you are left-handed.

• •

Make occasional eye contact with the students farthest from you as you work with individuals.

2. . . . they are allowed to disengage without clear expectations. So . . . • Teach your directions through direct instruction. • Plan your transitions between lessons. Think through each aspect of the transition. Make your directions very

clear, and minimize the time spent switching activities. • Have all your materials ready to go. Lay them out at different stations for quick distribution and collection, as

appropriate. • Prepare a student to take over if you need to speak with an adult or have another interruption during class.

Practice the routine.

Allow the students to be the recorders on the board.

Explore a science teacher’s efforts to ensure a positive learning environment.

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 241

say, “More than half of you are eagerly listening! I really appreciate that!” Then wait and praise as the other class members give their attention.

Remember, though, that false praise is probably worse than no praise at all; keep your praise genuine. Keep in mind, too, that students’ reactions to public praise can vary by age level and by individual. Use the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip to employ praise students prefer.

In public and private, praise good behavior specifically and in a way that stresses logical consequences: “Thanks for cleaning up, friends! Now we have lots more time left for other things!” That way you reinforce the notion that students’ motivation to behave is not simply to please you, it is to keep the environment productive and enjoyable for all.

5. Strong Presence and nonverbal Communication Many efforts to discipline are communicated not through teachers’ words but through their strong presence, or bearing. Teachers with strong presence carry themselves with confidence and appear capable and relaxed. Importantly for high school teachers, big teacher presence has nothing to do with physical size; it’s not to be confused with the intimidation potential that comes with mass or height. Instead, teacher presence is a set of messages you send to students that you care about them, feel confident in your own abilities, are aware of their actions, and can be trusted to help them make good choices. To communicate a strong teacher presence, dress in a manner that conveys respect for your students and yourself. Stand up straight. Relax. Uncross your arms and keep your hands loosely at your sides. Use eye contact and facial expressions to support your verbal messages. (Remember, though, that your direct gaze may not be returned by students who do not share your cultural norms for conveying respect.)

Figure 10.4 Establishing a positive environment from day one.

1. Learn students’ names immediately (yes, during the fi rst day). It is an immediate way to show your respect for them as people. Take 10 quick minutes to go up and down the rows or through the tables, repeating students’ names as you memorize them. All who learn at least three new names are winners.

2. Convey your high expectations and enthusiasm for teaching and learning right away. Examples include enthusiastic messages about being glad for your time together, stories about you as a person to help show that you expect to connect with students as people, and previews of the exciting things students will learn and do in your class. Help students begin to get to know each other.

3. Teach your classroom rules or have students develop them in a community. Keep the number brief and state the rules in positive terms.

4. Provide for learning and for student choice on the fi rst day. Ask students what they want to learn about certain subjects, either through private journal entries or via a class chart. Teach at least one real lesson on your fi rst day and prime your students to share what they learned when they go home that night.

5. Immediately establish routines and effective management to prevent misbehavior. Teach students your procedures and rules regarding pencil sharpening, leaving their seats, using the restroom, submitting fi nished work, and other routines right away.

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

Pick Your Praise Platform

The English writer Samuel Johnson said, “Praise, like gold and diamonds, owes its value only to its scarcity.” Blanket, generic praise is rarely helpful and can manipulate or mislead. When given, performance praise needs to be specific and name the performance’s admirable attributes. It also needs to be delivered

in a manner that is appreciated by students. Students’ reactions to teacher praise can vary from highly negative to highly positive (Brophy, 1981). Ask students to record on a card or survey how they like to receive their praise: Privately or publicly. Keep those preferences at hand as you comment on student performance.

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You’ll use nonverbal communication on the move, too, to prevent misbehavior. Without saying a word, Fred Jones (2000) suggests, you can travel purposefully throughout the room, sending the message that you mean business through your direct gaze and relaxed bearing, and by moving your body (turning it, moving it closer to students, and staying long enough to con- vey your message and ensure compliance, and then moving away).

Indeed, effective classroom managers consistently prevent misbehavior by placing them- selves where the action is, monitoring carefully, and using eye contact to direct student behavior (Miller & Hall, 2009). Be careful, too, your nonverbal communication sends respectful mes- sages. Payne (2008) notes that high school students who felt disrespected by teachers referred not to verbal aggression but to nonverbal messages that they perceived as discourteous. The fol- lowing three strategies might expand your communications repertoire:

• Gestures. Like a symphony conductor, use your gestures to make requests for behavior. Pointing is rude, but you can lower both hands, palms down, to indicate a need for lower volume. A hand in front of you, palm forward, can support your message to Angela that she stop talking, as can a quiet shake of your head. Nod when she quiets down. Practice in the mirror to develop “the look” that redirects behavior without a word.

• Physical proximity. Some teachers are stuck like glue to the front of the room—but not you. Move throughout the room so that your physical presence is felt by all. Teach in different parts of the room. When you see two students begin to wander off task, move physically closer to them but continue teaching. Often your presence alone will bring them back to attention. If not, try tapping a single finger on their desks. Only when these efforts fail do you need to send a verbal message.

• Withitness. An effective teacher knows what is happening in every area of the classroom. Kounin’s (1977) term withitness describes the childhood conclusion that teachers have eyes in the backs of their heads: Teachers need to be aware of all their students’ actions all of the time. Position yourself so that you can see all students and monitor carefully. For instance, position your equipment such as a document camera or projection panel so that you can face the group rather than turning your back on them.

In sum, you have tremendous power to set students up for success by thinking proactively about discipline. Through careful planning, you can stop many unproductive behaviors before they start.

A Systems Approach Maintaining a productive learning environment and helping students develop self-control requires you to think about your classroom as a system. In a system, elements exist not in isolation but in interaction with each other and serve a purpose together; systems develop patterns of behavior and respond in characteristic ways to outside forces (Guillaume, 1991; Meadows, 2008). Using systems thinking allows us to look for causal connections and changes over time in the face of complexity, and thus it helps us think about how we can best influence the systems in which we find ourselves.

In approaching classroom discipline using systems thinking, we consider issues in context. We think about students in relation to other classroom elements and larger systems. To positively affect student behavior, we identify relevant variables, think about causal links, assess feedback in the system, and use an inquiry frame of mind to ask, “What might happen if . . . ?” We simi- larly seek for leverage points for change, understanding as we do the structure of our classroom systems. We are open to changing our perspectives, we search for unintended consequences, and we change our future actions based on current results (Waters Foundation, 2010).

A prevalent systems approach for responding to misbehavior is functional behavior analysis or functional behavior assessment. Widely used for persistent or disruptive misbehav- ior, this approach allows teachers to take a nonpunitive approach to helping students improve their behavior. In behavior analysis, we view a negative behavior as serving some useful func- tion or purpose for the student. By analyzing the behavior, we can develop a more specific and thus appropriate plan for changing it.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.6

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The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip includes an overall approach employed in behavior analysis (based on Danforth & Smith, 2005; Jackson & Panyan, 2002; Ryan, Halsey, & Matthews, 2003). Behavioral analysis is effective with many students, but not necessarily all. Hall and Hall (2003) point out that oppositional students may not be receptive to behaviorist approaches to change their actions. Always consider your specific students when you consider a discipline strategy.

Systems thinking also requires you to understand issues deeply while you simultaneously respond quickly and on different levels to a variety of issues. Your ability to integrate these dif- ferent demands for maintaining classroom discipline will increase with experience, especially if you remain vigilant about growth. For now, you can begin to address behavior in multifaceted ways by thinking about (1) group size, (2) overlapping, (3) intensity of response, (4) motivation for misbehavior, and (5) redirecting behavior.

Group Size Although you will work with individuals daily, much of your time will be spent in working with large groups. Students behave differently in groups than they do as individuals, and each group tends to develop its own personality. Also, despite the public’s fears of sensational classroom misbehavior, the most common misbehaviors are talking out of turn and general off-task behav- ior such as bugging other students (Clunies-Ross, Little, & Kienhuis, 2008; Jones, 2000).

For these reasons, you need to develop strategies that will maintain the group’s focus. Figure 10.5 suggests some common techniques for managing group behaviors. Note that the tips are not punitive. Instead, they focus on positive, clear communication of expectations, careful monitoring, and specific feedback. Pick the tips that are consistent with your own convictions and with what you know about your students.

Overlapping In a systems approach, you will also need to handle more than one issue at a time. To maximize the time your class spends on learning, you need to overlap your tasks. In overlapping, you

Helping Your Students Become Systems Thinkers

• Your 21st-century students will need systems thinking skills to face many of the societal and environmental issues ahead. Systems thinkers work to see the big picture, look for change over time, change perspectives to understand, think about consequences—including unintended ones—and use habits of inquiry to understand the world (Waters Foundation, 2010).

• Build your own knowledge about systems thinking using Web sites such as Facing the Future and Systems Thinking in Schools. • Teach students to think scientifically, and you teach them to use systems thinking. The Next Generation Science Standards

(NGSS, 2013) include a set of seven crosscutting concepts that help students use systems thinking across all domains of science. Examples include looking for patterns (because finding patterns can help us understand behaviors that might otherwise appear random) and thinking about how structure and function relate (because a system’s behavior depends on how it is built). Helping our students understand crosscutting concepts can help them think about how to affect systems now and in the future . . . and for a variety of systems including physical, built, environmental, and social systems.

• Many graphic organizers help students learn to analyze systems, look for interconnections, and think about change over time. Search for terms such as “behavior over time graphs,” “stock/flow maps,” and “causal loop diagrams.”

TEACHInG FOR TOmORROW TIP

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

Behavior analysis

1. What is the problem behavior? 2. When does it occur? 3. What happens right before and after the behavior? 4. How does the student benefit from this behavior? (Does it

help the student avoid something? Gain something else?)

5. What have others tried that has worked to change the behavior?

6. What will you try? 7. (Later) Did your plan work?

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address discipline issues while you continue to teach. For instance, as you respond to a student’s content question, you can also move closer to two others who are embroiled in a pencil fight. While listening to a student read, you can also glance around the rest of the room to ensure that all are on task. You may need to give a “teacher look” and a shake of the head to a student who begins to fold paper airplanes while you work with another group. Through overlapping, you can prevent misbehavior by providing meaningful learning activities, nonverbal communication, and proximity control all at once.

Intensity of Response Your responses to student behavior will vary by level of intensity. Canter (1976) recommends that teachers use assertive requests and that teachers match the response’s level of intensity to the seriousness of students’ behavior. You may start with a hint: “Everyone should be working now.” If students need more support than is provided by your hint, you can use one of these increasingly intense responses:

1. Question about behavior: “What should you be doing right now?” Follow up: “Do you need help in getting started?”

2. Statement of direction using student’s name: “Ivy, put away the magazine.”

Figure 10.5 Tips for maintaining group focus.

1. Use a signal to gain students’ attention. Don’t talk while they talk.

• Make a clear request: “Attention up here, please. Let’s come back together.”

• Follow through: “I’ll know you’re ready when your eyes are on me and your pencils are down.” Or: “Thanks Miguel, I see you’re ready. . . . Thanks Pat.”

• “Clap once if you can hear me. Clap twice. Clap once . . .”

• Just wait.

• Raise a hand and teach students that when they see your raised hand, they need to stop talking and raise their own hand. Follow through.

• Flash the classroom lights off then on.

• Use a noise signal, such as a squeaker toy.

• Lead a clapping pattern; students who are listening join in until all are with you.

• Hold up a stopwatch and click to measure how many seconds it takes.

•

•

Try “Give me five” (Wong, 1998). When you say, “Give me five,” students go through five steps: eyes on you, be quiet, be still, empty their hands, and listen.

2. Monitor carefully—especially the back and side edges of the room—and provide feedback on students’ behavior.

• Use hints to maintain on-task behavior: “Your group should be on the second job by now.”

• Allow for self-monitoring: “Check your noise level. Are you using quiet voices?”

• Play soothing music quietly: “If you can’t hear the music, your group needs to quiet down.”

• Use a sound monitoring device or app that beeps when the noise reaches a certain level.

3. Provide feedback on students’ behavior as a group.

• Use verbal statements: “Groups Two and Three, you’re working especially well right now. Thanks.” Or: “We are able to accomplish so much when you work this well together. Way to go!”

• Use table points or class points that add up to time on a desired activity or other reward such as a frozen juice bar or a popcorn party. (Check school policy on food.)

• Use your stopwatch to award extra seconds for a desired activity when students minimize wasted time.

4. Be fair to individuals when you deal with the larger group. Use strategies that don’t penalize all students for the behavior of a few. Conversely, if everyone is talking, do not single out one or two students for consequences. If students perceive you as unfair, your expert and referent power erode.

Be careful not to overuse any particular signal. Change things up.

Watch and think 10.6 Watch this four-minute clip as teachers react to student misbehavior with a variety of low-profile responses. Note the teachers’ rationales for when to use a low- profile response. Make a list of the low-profile responses and mark those that you can see fitting into your own discipline plan.

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3. Use of eye contact and serious facial expression to match the tone and message: “Ivy, put away the magazine,” while you look at her, your eyebrows raised.

4. Use of a gesture in addition to eye contact, serious facial expression, and assertive message: “Ivy, put away the magazine,” as you look intently at her and gesture closing the magazine.

When student misbehavior is severely disruptive, more intense responses are appropriate. Many teachers arrange for a “time-out buddy,” a fellow respected teacher who can provide a place for students to cool down if they need to be removed from the classroom. If you use time- outs, be certain to send the message that the time-out is a chance to cool down, not to suffer humiliation. Also be certain that you have a system to ensure that students arrive swiftly at the time-out room and that they return promptly. Remember that you have a legal responsibility to provide adequate supervision for every student, so be certain that students are supervised even when removed from the group. Also remember that time away from the group decreases a stu- dent’s opportunity to learn.

There may be a time when students’ misbehavior may take the form of physical fighting. Immediate and considered actions will be necessary. A plan for addressing student fights is sug- gested in the Teaching Tip (Fields, 2004; Moriarty, 2009).

Another approach that varies level of intervention, this time beyond the classroom level, is called Positive Behavior Support or Positive Behavior Intervention and Support (PBIS). Intro- duced in Chapter 4 as an inclusive and responsive teaching strategy for instructional purposes, the principle is the same as for academic support: Students receive support and intervention based on assessed level of need, and their progress is carefully monitored to adjust interventions. For behavior, the lowest level of intervention—the classroom level, Tier 1—is sufficient for most students to make appropriate behavior choices. The classroom environment, expectations, and consequences are sufficient to support their behavior. For a smaller percentage of students, regu- lar classroom and schoolwide expectations and supports are insufficient; these targeted Tier 2 students’ interventions include a higher level of intervention that might include social skill groups, counseling, or mentoring. If Tier 2 interventions are insufficient, very small numbers of students may require even more individualized support through Tier 3 interventions such as a behavior improvement plan. PBIS is now widely implemented nationwide, and many dis- tricts are finding success with it, partly because it is a context-specific, school- and districtwide program that relies upon evidence-based decision making within a team (Dunlop, 2013). PBIS implementation currently appears to vary widely, but the three “active ingredients” of effective PBIS appear to be clearly stated expectations and high implementation of a reward system and a violation system (Molloy, Moore, Trail, Epps, & Hopfer, 2013).

Addressing Student Fights

1. Right now—Check policies: What are your legal responsibilities? 2. Next—Create a plan: What will you do? What are your resources? 3. If a confrontation breaks out:

• Try diffusing it with humor or by redirecting the students’ emotions. Use verbal interactions to minimize the problem if possible (e.g., suggest that together you solve the problem another way. Increase students’ personal space to help them regain emotional control. Ask “dumb” questions (those to which you might know the answer) to get students talking; but don’t ask “why.”

• Identify yourself as a teacher and, at some point, in a low-key fashion, get the names of the students.

• Give a loud, clear verbal command. Make it specific: “Sit here!” • Make a decision: Is it safe to intervene? • If it isn’t safe: Get help while still protecting students. • If it is safe: Intervene without becoming an aggressor. Try wrapping around from behind.

Never, though, restrain a student who wants to run. Some sources say teachers should never physically intervene, in part to protect their own physical safety. This is especially the case if you are not trained. Again, check local policies.

• Afterward, carefully document the confrontation.

TEACHInG TIP

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motivation for misbehavior Systems thinking also requires us to think about cause and effect, not just observable behaviors. A student’s persistent misbehavior usually has a cause; when you and the student can identify the cause, you can work together on more acceptable alternatives, thus preventing recurrence and fostering self-control.

Dreikurs, Grunwald, and Pepper (1982) identify four mistaken goals that students pursue. Figure 10.6 describes each of these four goals and suggests reactions that can help you signal the identity of those goals. Dreikurs and colleagues suggest that after you identify the student’s goal, you disclose it to the student through questions such as “Could it be that you would like more attention?” Your first impulse to respond to each of these mistaken goals (as suggested in the third column in Figure 10.6) is probably the wrong one. More productive alternatives are given

Figure 10.6 Identifying and responding to mistaken goals.

Goal Description What It Looks Like How You Might Respond

Attention seeking

Power seeking

Revenge seeking

Display of inadequacy

In attempting to gain recognition and acceptance, students behave in socially inappropriate ways.

Students revert to unacceptable means— outwardly refusing their teachers’ requests—to gain a sense of power.

Students who feel that they have been wronged seek to get even.

Students who feel incompetent resist help so that they can avoid even trying.

The teacher’s fi rst reaction is to yell. The student stops the misbehavior when corrected but starts again soon.

The teacher’s fi rst reaction is to feel challenged. The student’s reaction is defi ance.

The teacher’s fi rst reaction is to feel hurt or defeated. The student is abusive or complains of unfair treatment.

The teacher’s fi rst reaction is frustration to the point of giving up. The student does nothing.

• Persistently ignore misbehavior.

• Hold a personal conference to determine how many times the student will be allowed to exhibit the misbehavior.

• Monitor and provide feedback based on the conference.

• Provide attention for positive actions.

• Refuse to engage in a struggle, perhaps by instead offering a sympathetic response.

• Remove the student or the audience from the situation.

• Find authentic ways to allow the student to exercise power.

• Change the student’s relationship with the teacher and peers.

• Foster respect. • Help student gain

social skills. • Refuse to retaliate;

use matter-of-fact messages about the behavior.

• Never give up on the student.

• Keep risks low and celebrate small successes.

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 247

in the fourth column. The key is to respond in a calm and thoughtful manner that helps students identify their mistaken goals and choose more acceptable avenues for recognition.

An appealing alternative to the Golden Rule, the Platinum Rule, can be of use as you help students move beyond their mistaken goals. The Platinum Rule admonishes us to treat others the way they would like to be treated. If, for instance, students need attention, then we can see to it that they receive attention, albeit for positive decisions they make. If students crave power, we can shape our classrooms to ensure that they have some meaningful control over what they do at school.

Short-Term and Long-Term Redirection To work toward your overarching goal of student self-control, you will need to enlist strategies that address discipline issues in short- and long-term time spans. Short-term solutions focus on preventing misbehavior or stopping undesirable behavior and replacing it with less harm- ful alternatives. Short-term solutions are the tools you use immediately and from which you expect quick results. Long-term solutions keep in mind the larger system and broader view of your hopes for students. Long-term tools take longer to implement, and results may build incre- mentally over time. You will no doubt need to use more than one kind of each strategy to fully address discipline issues, and you will no doubt need to alter your approach as you examine its consequences and effectiveness.

Your fifth-grade student Melanie provides an example. She rarely completes her work dur- ing class and has not yet submitted a homework assignment. She shrugs when you lecture her on responsibility and the importance of practice. Frustrated by her apparent indifference, you are determined to help. You begin with a problem-solving conference (e.g., Charney, 2002) to assess Melanie’s perspective and interests and to invite her cooperation on working together. You devise a plan, taking the notes shown in Figure 10.7. Notice that your plan includes a mul- tifaceted approach to help Melanie succeed: You will modify your curriculum, check with other specialists, include Melanie’s family as part of the education team, and restructure your class- room interactions to encourage Melanie’s success. In addition to these long-range approaches, also notice that the plan uses short-term strategies: an extrinsic reinforcer (art time as a reward for Melanie’s time on task). Although you may be opposed in general to using extrinsic reinforc- ers, you decide that Melanie needs some immediate success and that the rewards can be dropped later as her successes begin to snowball.

By working on the apathy issue in many ways—with tools you can use tomorrow and tools that will be implemented over the year—you increase the probability of success. You may find that certain aspects of your plan are more effective than others as you work with Melanie, and thus you will drop the least effective tools.

Figure 10.7 Devising a plan with short- and long-term strategies for redirecting student behavior.

Short-Term Suggestions

√ Conference with Melanie to determine the cause for her not completing work (a la Dreikurs).

√ Call her father and get his perspective. √ Develop a contract with rewards that she finds appealing

(art or science time). √ Find high-interest, low-vocabulary books. √ Start homework sheet where she writes her assignments each

day, and her dad signs nightly. √ Check cumulative record folder to determine if Melanie has

any identified learning difficulties. √ Find a software program that uses reading through science

(her interest).

Long-Term Ideas

√ Check curriculum: Differentiate instruction by providing individual projects that tap into her interests. Use read- alouds that inspired her last year.

√ Work on elements of motivation: Break assignments into smaller pieces to increase probability of success and decrease perception of effort required.

√ Reorganize cooperative learning groups and begin to shift reasonable leadership responsibilities to Melanie.

√ Use her parents’ input about Melanie’s out-of-school expertise (e.g., rugby) to build connections in the classroom..

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The point is to address discipline issues along several dimensions: prevention and response, curriculum and management, group and individual focus, and cause and immediate redirection. It may sound overwhelming, but you will likely find that a few tools can serve many purposes for different learners.

Novice teachers tend to have similar struggles in establishing discipline. Therefore, Figure 10.8 restates a number of the chapter’s tools that may be helpful in boosting you over some of the hurdles new teachers typically face as they establish and maintain a positive learn- ing environment. You may wish to review Figure 10.8 during tough days, especially those when your principal or supervisor sits in.

Your Own Classroom Discipline Plan Your classroom management and discipline program needs to be coherent, consistent, positive, and proactive (Miller & Hall, 2009). This chapter offers a number of tools that may be useful for you in fostering student self-control. Appealing tips from other sources will abound. However, you’re the boss of you. Your own discipline plan is based on your philosophy, personality, and preferences in addition to the research. That plan needs to consider your particular students and their families and reflect your genuine appreciation for your students as individuals.

Figure 10.9 provides a planning sheet for your discipline plan. You can begin by once again perusing your stance toward education regarding questions such as “Who do I hope my students will be as adults?” and “What should their character be?” Then jot down characteristics of your students—the range of their background experiences and their age and developmental levels are examples of characteristics that may be relevant.

Next, consider your own needs, likes, and dislikes (Charles, 1992). Draw from each of these responses to develop your own rules for establishing and maintaining classroom discipline (see Figure 10.10). Remember that “rules” are not the rules that govern the students; rather, they are the rules that govern you: What are the principles by which you will select your actions when

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.7

Figure 10.8 Discipline boosts for new teachers.

Direct→Check→Feedback • Use clear, positive language to direct students’ behavior.

• Check to see whether students comply. Wait and watch.

• Give specifi c feedback on students’ efforts to comply.

• Redirect as necessary.

Keep It Positive • Focus on what students do well.

• Focus on students when they deserve attention for making good choices.

• Be genuine and specifi c in your praise.

• Be fair. Smile. Laugh.

Make Your Presence Felt • Move around the room to teach and monitor.

• Move closer to students who are beginning to stray.

• Monitor students carefully and subtly let them know that you are aware of their actions.

• Carry yourself with confi dence.

Avoid Overreliance on Rewards and Punishments • Point systems, card systems, token economies, and marble jars can all support a positive classroom

environment, but be certain that you—not the marble jar, not the principal—are the authority in your classroom.

• Focus on logical consequences and self-control.

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 249

Figure 10.9 My personal discipline program.

This I believe . . . (List major points from your stance toward education.)

My students . . . (List characteristics of your specifi c students or of students in general.)

I need* . . .

I like* . . .

I dislike* . . .

*Avoid statements about static student characteristics here. Better: I like it when...

My Rules and Some Tools (Not classroom rules, but principles that guide my approach to discipline.)

My Rule:

Some Tools:

Establishing an environment

Preventing misbehavior

Responding to behavior

My Rule:

Some Tools:

Establishing an environment

Preventing misbehavior

Responding to behavior

My Rule:

Some Tools:

Establishing an environment

Preventing misbehavior

Responding to behavior

My plan for involving families and other partners to help students develop self-control

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it comes to encouraging discipline? For example, two rules this chapter suggested are: Treat students with dignity and respect and prevent misbehavior. Then, flesh out your plan by listing tools—specific strategies—that can help you bring each of your rules to life.

Expect your list of tools to grow with your experience. You will receive many discipline suggestions and tools. Before incorporating any tool into your discipline plan, however, be cer- tain that the tool is consistent with the rules that guide your efforts to discipline. If you cannot apply the tool to a rule, the tip is probably not consistent with your stance on discipline. Stick with the tools that are in concert with what you believe to be good for students. Expect, too, that you will pursue feedback and reflect regularly on your plan. Does it overemphasize compliance? Rewards and punishments? Does it preserve human dignity?

Also consider your other team members. Your plan needs to respond to the cultural, developmental, linguistic, and personal qualities of your students. Families are experts on their children; no one knows them better. How can you appropriately tap into families’ knowledge in order to learn about students and to support their growth? How will you work effectively with parents as team members to support student development? Which specialists can provide assis- tance? What support can you expect from your site administrators and fellow teachers? Capital- ize early on the contributions each of these parties can make to the well-being of your class; do not wait until students misbehave to devise a support system. Finally, try out your discipline program. Revise the aspects that are inhumane, ineffective, or unwieldy. The Teaching Tip shares the man- agement and discipline lessons learned by Brittany Even as she completed her first year of class- room teaching.

Figure 10.10 Formalize your own set of rules . . .

I wonder what #6 is?

1. Be prepared 2. Make expectations clear 3. Follow through 4. Follow through 5. Follow through

1. Prevent misbehavior 2. Build student responsibility 3. Be fair and consistent

1. Establish and use classroom community 2. Emphasize meaning & classroom community 3. Involve parents as active participants

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 251

Parting Words Many, many teachers succeed at establishing fair and productive classrooms, and you can, too. Think about one of these pieces of advice if you feel disheartened about the chal- lenge of helping your students develop self-discipline:

• A bad day is often followed by a good one. • Classroom discipline is said to be a series of little victo-

ries. You and your students build good discipline over time, one interaction at a time. One mistake does not mean you have lost them forever.

• Remember that much of what happens in your classroom is under your control. When students misbehave as a group, ask yourself, “What can I do to provide a better environment, help them build skills for self-control, or prevent misbehavior?” Do something.

• If your system does not work, change it.

Teachers who are self-confident about student discipline tend to respond to problem- atic behavior in ways that are more positive and more consistent with the teachers’ overall approach, their stance. Teachers who believe they can make a difference in stu- dents’ behavior and handle discipline situations . . . do (Aloe, Amo, & Shanahan, 2014; Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004).

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 10.8

First-Year Teacher Brittany’s Advice for Management and Discipline

• Building a good relationship with the students really motivated them . . . and me. • Set up your classroom community on Day 1. If you do that, and every student has some

responsibility, your job becomes a lot easier. • Be organized and let the students in on the organization process. • Always follow through with what you say or have written. • I found that students were more successful when I let them experience first and then offer my

guidance. • Write down everything! I found myself creating a new list of everything I need to change for

next year.

Brittany 2.0: Now finishing her fifth year, Brittany adds three tips to her advice: 1. Communicating with students and families is crucial. It is important for parents to see that you

care about their children all of the time, not just when you need parent support or intervention. Here are some things I do: • Meet with my students individually at least twice a trimester. We discuss grades, goals, and

any social issues that may be concerning the students. • After the meeting, I send a postcard to the parents to keep them informed. • I also send a postcard if a student demonstrates positive behavior or success on a test or

project. 2. Kids respond better to discipline when they have respect for the person in authority. Here are

some things I do: • I build a relationship with the students. I try to relate to the children and find out their goals,

learning preferences, and interests. • I incorporate my findings into my teaching. It proves to the students that I want them to enjoy

learning. 3. In correcting misbehavior, we need to be consistent and fair, but there can be exceptions. I try

these things: • I allow the students to express themselves before I make my disciplinary decisions. • I explain the consequence to the students so that they understand why they earned that

consequence. • I remind them that I care about their well-being, and that everyone makes mistakes. • I remind them that tomorrow is a new day and to start fresh.

TEACHInG TIP

If your horse dies, dismount. —U.S. Cavalry Manual from

World War I

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252 Chapter 10

Opportunities to Practice 1. Your success at management and discipline are critical to

student learning and your own professional success. This chapter contains nearly three dozen strategies and approaches for your consideration; how many can you recount and explain? Take a look at Figure 10.11, Discipline Approaches and Strategies at a Glance. Mark each item with a + if you’ve got it, √ if you remember something about it, and – if you can’t recall it. Use your marks to guide your review of the chapter.

2. Start with the students. Try one or both of these strategies to build a discipline plan that is responsive to your learners:

a. Determine students’ preferences for how teachers should discipline, perhaps through a questionnaire or an informal interview with questions such as “What do good teachers do?” and “What advice do you have for new teachers?”

b. Culture makes a difference too. Spend some time learning about your actual students’ experiences and about general patterns for their cultural or ethnic groups. Two sources to get you started are Banks (1997) and Grant (1995). The Internet can also provide information; use the cultural group’s name as a search term.

3. Because authentic authority affects classroom discipline, make a plan to build bridges to your students. Make a list of some ideas that can help you connect with your students. Share the list with

an experienced colleague to double-check that your strategies are appropriate and, while friendly, maintain your professional standing. Get your students’ opinions, too.

4. Observe an experienced teacher in action.

a. How does the room environment encourage positive behavior?

b. How does the curriculum prevent misbehavior? c. List some strategies the teacher uses to provide feedback to

students on their behavior, noting which messages are posi- tive, neutral, or negative.

d. List some strategies the teacher uses to allow students to monitor and correct their own behavior.

e. What evidence do you see that the teacher understands and is responsive to students’ perspectives?

f. What else do you notice about the teacher’s discipline system?

5. Conduct an analysis of your classroom climate. Here are a couple choices:

a. Ask a peer to observe you. Have your observer tally the number of positive statements you make and the number of negative ones. Compute a ratio and analyze that ratio.

b. Ask your students about their experiences in your room. You could hold a set of focus groups. Or you might have

Figure 10.11 Discipline approaches and strategies at a glance.

• The Goal Is Self-Discipline

Establishing a Climate That Promotes Independence

1. Choices

2. Respect decisions

3. Natural and logical consequences

Addressing Behavior in Ways That Encourage Self-Control

1. Talk it through and reflect

2. Self-correction

3. Avoid power struggles

4. Anger shields

5. Conflict resolution

• The Key: A Structured, Consistent, Supportive Environment

1. Structure

2. High expectations

3. Support

4. Caring communication

5. Clear limits

6. Consistency

• Relationships as Central

Establishing a Climate of Dignity and Respect

1. Celebrate and suffer

2. Active listening

3. Peer listening

4. Model and teach

Responding to Behavior

5. Address the behavior

6. Private correction

7. Hints

8. I-messages

9. Strength refreshers

10. Laughter

11. Apologies

• Prevention, Not Reaction

1. Meaningful curriculum and high engagement

2. Motivation and development

3. Anticipation

4. Positive approach

5. Strong presence and nonverbal communication

• A Systems Approach

1. Group size

2. Overlapping

3. Intensity of response

4. Motivation for misbehavior

5. Short- and long-term redirection

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Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 253

a colleague come in and interview your students in small groups or as a whole and then condense the responses for you (Group Instructional Feedback technique from Angelo & Cross, 1993). Alternatively, you could ask all students to write anonymous responses to questions such as, “In general, how would you describe the tone of our room?” or “Think back over the day. Write down a time you remem- ber feeling happy about the way we were working together. Then think back to a time when you felt unhappy about how we were working together.”

6. Pick any tool from this chapter. (Take a quick glance at Figure 10.11 for your choices, and look through the Teaching Tips.) Try it out, either in your classroom or elsewhere when the occasion arises. How did it feel to you as a teacher? To the other party? Remember that there are always effects—usually both intended and unintended. What effects did this tool have in this circumstance?

7. Arrange for a friend to mock interview you for a teaching posi- tion, focusing on your approach to discipline. Use your disci- pline plan (Figure 10.10) as support for the points you make. Your friend could devise difficult scenarios for you to respond to as part of the interview. (Caution: This exercise is harder than it sounds.)

8. Develop a one-page handout of your discipline program that you can share with students, families, your master teacher, and other interested parties. You may wish to begin with a credo, or statement of beliefs. (Note: This one-page handout and artifacts

such as notes home and photographs of students productively engaged are highly appropriate entries for your professional portfolio. Put it online at your Web site.)

9. Choose and respond to one of these critical incidents. Use the rules and tools in this chapter or your own to describe the prob- lem and suggest a plan.

a. Josh, a ninth grader, walks into fifth period two minutes late. His arms are full of books, papers, and notebooks all awaiting a chance to spill to the ground. He gives the teacher a sheepish smile and announces, “Sorry I’m late. My backpack broke at lunch.” On the way to his seat, he trips on Brittney’s desk. The class bursts out in laughter. Josh’s face turns red, and he alone stoops to gather his spilled belongings.

b. Susana, a first-grade teacher, drags into the lounge at lunch. “What is it, Susana?” asks Brent, a fellow teacher. Susana replies: “I am fed up with my students’ constant tattling: ‘Teacher, he looked at me.’ ‘Teacher, she says I copied her.’ ‘Teacher, she took Dylan’s eraser and then put it back when she saw me.’ I need this tattling to stop!”

c. Mario is a new fifth-grade teacher. He is feeling success- ful about how his students are treating each other, but their constant talking is wearing him down. When he tells them to quiet down, they do, but within three minutes the noise level is back to being too high. He feels like he is nagging with his constant reminders.

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms National Education Association: Discipline—Order in the Classroom! and Classroom Management. Advice from a vari- ety of teachers and other experts.

Gentle Teaching. Gentle teaching is an approach to human i nteractions that focuses on the values of helping individuals feel safe, valued, and engaged.

Positive Behavior Interventions and Support. Rich resources for families and teachers of students at all ages. Start with the “School” tab.

Discipline Help. The “You Can Handle Them All” site gives discipline tips, including suggestions for addressing 124 misbe- haviors related to the categories of attention, power, revenge, and self-confidence. Recommend the site to families as well. Requires free registration.

Also search for Web sites and videos related to the techniques and theorists addressed in the chapter:

• Richard Curwin

• Daniel Goleman

• Jacob Kounin

• Alfie Kohn

• Avoiding power struggles in the classroom

• Classroom management theorists and theories

• Mindfulness (Try mindfulness for teachers and mindfulness for students)

• Positive Behavior Intervention and Support

• Positive classroom discipline

• Social and emotional learning

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Consider your future. Where do you hope to be? For each of the time periods, ask yourself about (1) your professional goals and (2) your personal goals.

• One year from today • Two years from today • Five years from today • Ten years from today • At the end of your career

Sketch a timeline in the space below. Or use a Web 2.0 tool to build one. Favorites are Dipity, Tiki-Toki, Timeglider, and Timetoast. Many of these tools can be used collaboratively.

Before You Begin Reading

Growing in Your Profession

11

Learning OutcOmes

By the time you complete this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Select and share two goals for engaging in the professional community of education, based on your current strengths and needs.

2. Explain the ethical basis of your professional decisions.

3. Share one promising piece of advice for surviving and thriving in education.

Adeunt etiam optima: The best is yet to be.

Obtaining a teaching credential is a very early—and happy!—stage in your professional development. Good teachers never finish growing. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards’ core propositions on teaching (2002) state that accomplished teachers reflect on their practice to continuously improve. They work effectively with families, communities, and other professionals to shape student success and the world of education. You have already begun your professional journey; it is your job, starting today and for the rest of your career, to continue that journey by reflecting critically on your work, growing in your competence, and engaging deeply as a member of the educational community.

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Growing in Your Profession 255

Engaging in the Professional Community Your students’ success depends in part on your willingness and ability to engage with others in sharing, implementing, and refining professional knowledge. In addition to interacting with students, you will be deeply involved in the life of your school through activities such as student data review, committee work, and curriculum development. Three aspects of engagement you may think about right now include becoming an effective staff member, growing from feedback on your teaching, and pursuing professional development.

Becoming an Effective Staff Member Success in your job as a teacher extends far beyond your classroom door. From the first day you step on campus, you will want to demonstrate your willingness and ability to listen, learn, and function well as a staff member. These are stressful times for many teachers (Markow, Macia, & Lee, 2013). Spend time assessing your school’s culture: Are teachers and administrators satis- fied with their work? How does the work get done? What niche can you fill? Get to know each of the many staff members and volunteers who spend their days at school. Talk with the janitor and office personnel. Find the specialists. Smile and say hello to the family members on-site. Learn about your administrators’ priorities. Each of these people contributes to school life and learning.

Your colleagues will probably welcome you with plenty of informal support. Many experienced peers at your site will likely offer assistance to the new teacher on the block. They may advise you as you stand near the photocopy machine or tear off butcher paper for your bulletin boards. Some may even offer more intense help in topics such as arranging your room, working with discipline challenges, getting to know the site, or planning your curriculum.

Some of your less experienced colleagues will also serve as a source of support because of the benefits that can be derived from being new together. The Teaching Tip gives some sugges- tions from Brittany Even as she completed her first year in the classroom (you met Brittany in Chapter 10). Her words are encouraging because, despite the fact that they allude to the chal- lenges of teaching (teaching looks easy . . . from the outside!), they also communicate that there are many actions you can take to build your own success. I particularly appreciate Tip Number 9: Take risks. Take a chance.

Figure 11.1 depicts the impressive ocean mural that Brittany’s students created. She reports that she wasn’t sure if she was up to the challenge but that it turned out to be the most memorable learning experience of the year.

When on-site experienced colleagues give advice or offer to help, your response can be essen- tial to your growth as a professional and for your easy adjustment to the school culture. Experi- enced teachers emphatically state that the fastest way for a novice to be shunned by a school staff is to act as if she knows it all and has nothing to learn. As you respond to well- meaning attempts to help, remember that you bring the enthusiasm of a “new kid,” no matter your age. You may be

“Every man I meet is my superior in some way, and in that I learn from him.”

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Teacher to Teacher: Brittany’s Advice for the Early Days

1. Be prepared for anything. 2. Be open to the criticism from your fellow colleagues. 3. Be ready to communicate with parents and do not take things personally. 4. Find a teacher at the new school to help you get accustomed to the expectations and routines. 5. If you don’t know . . . ask. 6. Vent to a safe person when you have a bad day. 7. Do not dwell on mistakes, just move forward and learn from them. 8. Don’t let your bad day affect your teaching. That only takes away from students’ learning

experience. 9. Take risks. Take a chance.

10. Finally, have a goal and a plan for the future.

TEaChinG TiP

Watch and think 11.1 Watch this two-and-a-half- minute clip on teacher team meetings. Which leader and member behaviors contribute to the effectiveness of this meeting? Write a reminder to yourself.

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256 Chapter 11

finishing an intense teacher preparation program, so you may not feel that you need every piece of advice that comes your way. Nevertheless, be gracious. You have the gift of enthusiasm; others bring the gift of experience. Find the gem of usefulness—even if it is merely the willingness to help—that each person brings to you. Offer your own advice sparingly. Establish from your first day on-site that you are eager to learn and that you respect the wisdom of experienced teachers and staff. Listen.

Conversely, you may find yourself in a lonely situation with no offers of help. In this case, be the first to shake a hand, smile, and say hello. Introduce yourself and make it clear that you are thrilled about being part of the team. Find another inexperienced friend or a teacher at the same grade level or in the same subject area who is willing to talk shop. Join networks for sup- port that are not site-based.

It can be tempting to join in lounge conversations as a way to establish yourself as a mem- ber of the group. Sometimes lounge talk, unfortunately, degenerates into negative conversations about students, family members, or school personnel. It will be important for you to avoid such conversations for a number of reasons. Poisonous people can sap your energy and deflect your focus from where it should be. Also, it is unkind and of questionable ethics to speak ill of others. It reflects poorly on you as a professional. Additionally, complaining can serve to make you feel like a victim rather than like the competent professional you are (Kottler, 2002).

When negative conversations come up, you may try changing the subject, or as, Kottler recommends, focusing on one or two positive qualities of your students or others. Four out of ten teachers recently surveyed reported being “very satisfied” with teaching as a career (Markow, Macia, & Lee, 2013). These highly satisfied teachers have stronger beliefs in their students and are more confident in their ability to help students succeed. Go sit by them in the lounge. Keep company with teachers who maintain a positive outlook; they will feed your soul.

In addition to informal opportunities to integrate into the school staff, you will also engage in a shared journey with your colleagues in support of student learning. Whereas in days past, teachers often experienced their profession as an isolating one, teachers today are less likely to report a sense of isolation because they work as members of many overlapping teams. Chances are you will be working in teams such as:

• Grade-level teams or department teams for curricular planning • Professional learning communities to review student assessment data and adjust instruction • Student study teams or student intervention teams to assist students in succeeding in behav-

ior and academic work • Committees to plan school events or adopt curricula, resources, or materials • School site council for program and budget review

Figure 11.1 Take a risk! Brittany’s class’s ocean mural.

The students integrated research skills, science, writing, and art to create a 30-foot-long mural. They took a risk . . . and reaped the rewards (approximately 9 ft × 30 ft).

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Growing in Your Profession 257

• School intervention team for response to intervention implementation • Individualized education program teams that plan and review annual progress for each

student with an IEP or other plan

These teams will be composed of a variety of personnel such as family members, peers, administrators, intervention teachers, subject-matter coaches, psychologists, therapists, aides, spe- cialists, and community members. With each member holding varied expertise and perspectives, maximizing teams’ effectiveness will require you to stretch your people skills and strive to be an effective team member. What does it mean to be an effective team member? I reviewed guiding documents in education (such as the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards core convictions, state teaching standards, and 21st-Century Teaching and Learning Skills) and ideas in fields such as industry and sports to develop a list of the characteristics that appear to be widely accepted as qualities of effective team members. Effective team members are goal directed, open, flexible, competent, and committed to learning. Figure 11.2 presents these qualities more fully.

Growing from Feedback on Your Teaching Given high attrition rates for the teaching profession, many states have implemented support systems—induction programs—to keep new teachers in the profession, support their growth and satisfaction, and positively affect student achievement. In 2007, thirty-three states had induction programs (Kaufman, 2007). New teachers are typically assigned mentors or support providers who often conduct observations (separate from the personnel evaluation process), offer assis- tance, and help shape professional development activities based on the needs of new teachers. Indeed, mentoring—formal or informal—does appear to be one key factor in new teacher suc- cess (Polikoff et al., 2014).

New teachers report very clearly that the support of a trusted colleague who is officially assigned to help out is a key factor in the new teachers’ satisfaction and success. Although it tends to be the most prevalent form of assistance granted to new teachers, mentoring is less effective alone than it is when it is combined with other forms of teacher support, such as shared planning time and professional development offerings through a comprehensive induction pro- gram (Ingersoll, 2012). States such as California are finding that teachers stay in the profes- sion at higher rates when induction programs are in place (Reed, Rueben, & Barbour, 2006)

Figure 11.2

To Be an Effective Team Member:

1. Commit to the team. Get to know the other team members as people and as professionals, and work on improving relationships within the team. Build trust among members over time.

2. Commit to shared goals. Ensure that the team’s goals are clear and shared by all members. Keep goals the focus of the team’s work, and be sure to welcome change toward those goals. Check progress toward the goals frequently.

3. Respect other team members. Begin with an appreciation that perspectives will necessarily be diverse; hold the mindset that diversity brings strength. Realize the limits of your own knowledge and experience. See members for their strengths and value their contributions openly.

4. Be open and fl exible. Be receptive to new ideas in general and to the ideas of other team members. Be ready to compromise and to shift your thinking for the good of the group’s goal. Be fl exible in assuming different roles; lead or follow as the context and task at hand demand.

5. Contribute. Be action oriented. Be ready to take on a task to work toward the goal. Encourage others to do so too. Be dependable.

6. Communicate. Listen. Communicate openly but respectfully. Use a variety of modes of communication and communicate for different purposes and in different contexts. Confl ict is normal; help your team build strategies to address it productively.

7. Be competent and be a learner. Use a variety of thinking skills to accomplish the goals: problem solving, reasoning, systems thinking, and decision making. Know your stuff. Do your homework. Refl ect on your knowledge and performance and work on continual improvement.

8. Be positive. Share a sense of optimism and enthusiasm. Support other teammates.

Qualities of effective team members.

Watch and think 11.2 Teachers at Whittier High use the “Critical Friends” approach to peer observation and professional development. Watch this six-minute clip and assess your own reaction to the possibility of your peers observing you teach and giving you feedback. How would you maximize its benefits?

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258 Chapter 11

and students can experience higher achievement (Sawchuk, 2010). Induction programs vary considerably around the nation, and there is much we don’t know about the effectiveness of induction programs (Watlington, Felsher, & Shockley, 2013). Still, much can be gained from taking advantage of the resources around us. Find out what types of mentoring and induction support are offered in your state and district and determine the extent to which you can provide input into the selection of your mentor.

In addition to informal assistance and observations, you will receive structured feedback on your teaching. Some feedback on your teaching will be formal, based on an administrator’s or other official’s evaluation of your teaching. In formal instances, structured observation sessions often begin with a brief preobservation conference at which you may be given the opportunity to direct the observation. The observer may ask what you would like her to focus on. Have an answer ready. If no immediate need comes to mind, consider using one of the principles of instruction: COME IN (you could even provide Figure 6.8 with elements of your choice circled). After the lesson, you will probably have a postobservation conference. The observer may begin by asking for your analysis of the lesson. Be frank and specific in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of your teaching. Then brace yourself for the evidence or advice from the observer.

It can be difficult to accept criticism about something so close to your heart as your teaching. The worst thing to do when you receive suggestions is to take a defensive posture and state imme- diately why those suggestions do not apply to you or will not work. The observer knows something about teaching or he could not be in the position to offer advice in this format. One of the best things to do when you receive advice (even if you hate it) is to smile, establish eye contact, and say thank you. Then you can add something sincere to show that you understand the point of the suggestions.

Your postobservation conference will probably be helpful and positive. However, if you have limped through a painful postobservation session, you can go home and nurse your wounded pride. Probably in just a few hours (or days) you will find some kernel of wisdom or helpfulness in the words that stung initially. The point is not to be false in your reaction to criti- cism but to realize that every teacher has room to grow and that once you can get over a possible negative initial reaction, you can appreciate a fresh insight into teaching.

Sometimes advice on your teaching may not be offered, even though you eagerly ask for it. For instance, you may have a formal lesson observation for which the evaluator gives nonspecific feedback: “Wonderful lesson! Great job!” Be ready with some pointed questions that require the sharing of evidence collected by the observer. For instance, you could ask the observer whether your instruction engaged all of the students, or whether the observer noted any evidence that students were mastering the content. (Again, provide Figure 6.8 or your credo of education. Ask the evaluator to gather relevant evidence.)

You may at times need assistance of a more dire nature. For example, you may have a stu- dent who is particularly troubled or you may be struggling to meet the needs of a specific group of students. Being a classroom teacher means being part of a team, so be certain that you ask for help. Talk with your principal, mentor, or supervisor about your needs, stating them in a profes- sional, clear way at the appropriate place and time. Do not place blame or suggest that you are not responsible for difficult situations (“I was given the roughest class!”). Your aim is to help your students learn, and you are exactly the person who is responsible for them. Have alterna- tives ready if you are faced with unfair or difficult practices or procedures. Be assertive and positive, making an effort to serve as part of the solution, not part of the problem. Get your needs met without sacrificing others’ rights or dignity. Use I-statements (presented in Chapter 10). Convey your sense of self-trust that you have the ability to make a difference and your sense of eagerness to learn. Finally, remember that learning to teach is a developmental affair. The kinds of concerns you have, the sophistication of your thinking and your strategies, and the realm of your influence will almost certainly shift as you grow with experience.

Pursuing Professional Development According to Wiggins and McTighe (2006), we teachers grow when we find personal meaning in our work, when we reflect, and when we question ourselves within a supportive environment. Many teachers find that informal and formal opportunities to talk about teaching in its daily con- text contribute invaluably to their growth. Formal opportunities to pursue professional learning also propel teacher learning. Your school and district will require professional development; you

Try this list of responses you might consider when you receive feed- back on your teaching.

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Growing in Your Profession 259

should also be proactive about pursuing professional development that meets your own personal and professional goals (Shanklin, 2009). The Responsive and Inclusive Teaching Tip gives some advice for setting future inclusive teaching goals.

As you select professional development experiences, a number of criteria are important. First, select experiences that are likely to have the greatest effect on both you and your students. This sort of development tends to:

• Focus on student learning • Focus on building your knowledge of the content and how to teach it • Include hands-on, active learning that can transform your teaching • Occur in a collaborative context that links standards, curriculum, and assessment • Be sustained over time (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009).

Second, focus on the experiences that best meet your long-term goals (check your work at the beginning of the chapter). Here are some professional development options that might fit those goals.

Action Research: Inquire into Your Own Practice I believe that learning begins with a question. What question do you have about your own teaching? What would you like to learn next? To begin your inquiry, assess your own practice by gathering and reviewing evidence of your own teaching. You can do so by asking a friend or mentor to take observational notes, or you can record yourself teaching (Knight, 2014). Once you study the data, refine your question. For example, you might ask, “How can I decrease my transition times?” Do some research, develop an action plan, and try it out. Collect more evidence to check your effects. Read more online by searching “action research for teachers.”

Attending Workshops and Webinars Workshops and webinars have the benefit of requiring a rela- tively low time and financial investment, and you can target workshops that meet your specific interests. Unless there is follow-through, though, they may make little long-term difference in your practice. To maximize a workshop’s benefits, try attending with a team, join a network on the topic, or try peer observations as you implement some of the ideas.

Membership in Professional Organizations Joining professional organizations gives you a voice in the profession beyond the local level, it provides you with opportunities to network, and it pro- vides rich professional resources. To make the most of your membership, you may want to get actively involved with the organization’s conferences and local efforts. Joining the organi- zation’s state or regional chapter is a strong mechanism for sustained involvement. Examples include subject-based organizations such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics and the National Council of Teachers of English. Other organizations have non-subject-based foci, like the National Association for Multicultural Education.

Observations and Travel We teachers learn so much by watching each other in action. Try joining a lesson study or group or complete informal observations of peers at your site. Traveling a bit farther down the road (e.g., to another site or district) or engaging in more distant educa- tional trips (such as study trips to other countries) can offer the benefits of increasing your

InclusIve and ResponsIve TeachIng TIp

2. Learn about our students. Pursuit of students’ worlds through activities like home visits helps us understand their perspectives and realities.

3. Develop allies. Making friends who share our hopes and concerns allows us to face the uncertainties of teaching and provides a collaborative setting that fuels growth.

continuing the Pursuit of responsive and  inclusive teaching

Nieto (2009) urges us to continue to strive—and thrive—as inclusive and responsive teachers by taking three action steps for professional development:

1. Learn about ourselves. Professional learning is fueled by continuous reassessment of who we are.

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cultural competence. To maximize learning from observations and travel, be sure to have a clear focus in mind (What are you looking for? What do you hope to learn?) and schedule time to talk with the “natives” about the meaning behind what you observe.

Advanced Certification and Study Pursuing advanced certificates, credentials, or degrees expands your expertise, opens your options in the profession, and often leads to advancement on the pay scale. Examples include adding National Boards Certification, a master’s degree, or a special- ized credential. To choose an appropriate program, look first at your goals: Where are your pas- sions? Are you excited about sustainability? Social justice? Also check labor force predictions. For instance, with a looming shortage of up to a million teachers—with math and science posi- tions being the hardest to fill (Gonzales, 2010)—many elementary-level teachers are pursuing additional secondary-level certification in mathematics and science. Special educators are also in high demand.

Online education is an increasingly popular choice. An all-time high of one-third of all col- lege students were taking at least one online course in 2012 (Allen & Seaman, 2013), and that population is predicted to continue to increase. If you haven’t taken an online course yet and are considering doing so, ask yourself how motivated you are. Students who are most successful in online environments tend to be highly self-motivated and organized. Many quizzes are available on the Web to help you determine the likelihood that online learning is a good fit for you. If you select an online option for a certificate or degree, ask these questions:

1. Is the university accredited by a respected accrediting body? 2. What is the reputation not just of the university or organization but of the program in your

specific field of interest? Is the program accredited? 3. If it’s important to you, is there an on-site location? Some students prefer hybrid instruc-

tion, and research increasingly supports the effectiveness of hybrid or blended models of instruction (e.g., RP Group, 2013; U.S. Department of Education Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, 2010).

4. What is the quality of the faculty, and are they trained in online instruction? (Kern, 1010)

E-Development The 21st century provides new opportunities for teacher learning. Whereas in previous centuries teaching was largely a private affair, new media push us to make it public through online professional communities and social networking (Lieberman & Mace, 2010). Online communities for teachers reduce isolation (Hramiak, 2010) and provide opportunities for professional support, guidance, and inspiration (Duncan-Howell, 2010). Teacher blogs can hold the benefits of allowing for group dialog (Killeavy & Moloney, 2010), reflection on practice, and knowledge transformation (Sun, 2010). Teachers are also connecting online through micro- blogging (Twitter) and tools like Instagram. One or more of these social media options may fit your interests and style. You might pick one you haven’t tried yet and get started by:

• Following a blog for teachers. There are hundreds. Find one by searching “top teacher blogs” or using a more specific search term (“art teacher blogs”).

• Writing your own blog. Use a free tool like WordPress or Blogger. • Subscribing to a Twitter community for education. Search “twitter for teachers.” • Tweeting. Plenty of quick start tutorials are available online. • Joining a social network for teachers. Curriculum 21 (“Mapping the Global Classroom of

the Future”) is an example.

Using Professional Ethics as Your Guide Ethics and morals are the often tacit rules that govern how people should treat each other. According to Goodlad (1990), the entire enterprise of education is a moral one; the primary pur- poses of schools, providing access to knowledge and enculturating the young, are moral callings. Further, teachers are part of a system. When you enter this profession, you accept its code of eth- ics (Soltis, 1986). You take on the obligation to act in the best interest of your students, including

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 11.1

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commitments such as protecting them and taking responsibility to help them learn. These are weighty responsibilities. Further, teaching is fraught with tensions and dilem- mas that require you to act as a moral agent (Buzzelli & Johnston, 2001; Kidder & Born, 1998–1999). Finally, you have entered a career in which professionals are typically held to a higher moral standard than the general public. In each of your dealings, be certain that professional ethics inform your choices about how to act and what to say.

Using professional ethics as your guide means that you must advocate for the students and advocate for yourself. Advocating for the students means that you:

1. Ensure students’ physical and emotional safety. Be certain that you carefully monitor the students and make reasonable efforts to protect them from bodily and psychological harm. Learn to recognize symptoms of stress and distress in students (Kottler & Kottler, 2007).

2. Know students’ legal rights and your responsibilities. Protect students’ right to privacy. Do not discuss them casually in the lounge.

3. Report suspected abuse. Your role is not to gather evidence to erase doubt. You are legally bound to report suspected abuse. Do not rationalize to save yourself—or the family—the pain and trouble.

4. Work to secure appropriate services if you suspect that students’ needs are going unmet. Be certain that you watch both male and female students and students of color to assess their potential for gifted programs and check for your own biases when you recommend coun- seling or other services.

5. Build meaningful partnerships with families and others who are experts. Commit to work- ing as part of a team in the best interests of the students.

6. Begin with the attitude that you can serve as a positive influence on students’ lives. If you do not know an answer, you can—and will—find one. Teachers with high degrees of self-efficacy tend to be more effective than ones who do not believe they can effect change. In the words of Henry Ford, “Whether you think you can or can’t—you’re right.”

7. Think about the long-term consequences of your actions, and consider your choices from a variety of perspectives.

8. Being a professional is more than being an employee. Do everything you need to do to help students learn.

9. Even if it feels like everyone else has, never give up.

Advocating for yourself means that you:

1. Know your responsibilities, rights, and benefits. Read your contract. Understand how to obtain legal representation if you need it.

2. Plan for your future. See the Teaching for Tomorrow Tip for ensuring your own financial well-being.

3. Are careful about being alone with students and using physical contact. Check local poli- cies for the conditions under which it is acceptable to touch a student. Find out what to do if a student touches you in a way that makes you uncomfortable.

4. Are a model digital citizen. Make very cautious decisions about e-mail communications and your participation in social media such as social networking sites. Assume that nothing you post to the Web is private. Explore further aspects of digital citizenship at digitalciti- zenship.net and at the site for the International Society for Technology in Education.

5. Are a team player. Find the good in each staff member. Steer clear of those who whine or complain; instead associate with those who view the profession with a positive outlook.

6. Volunteer for a committee or two that benefits the school. Do not sign up for every com- mittee in your eagerness, though, because your students (and your personal life) will be shortchanged. Say “yes” to the commitments that you can accomplish well.

7. Strike a balance in your life. Your family—and your students—will benefit from your being well-rounded. See the Teaching Tip for some ideas for coping with stress.

8. Choose your battles. Not every insult to your sensibilities is worth a fight to the death. 9. Are on time. Stay as late as necessary to do a good job.

10. Eat something healthy once in a while and get some sleep. 11. Have confidence in your ability to teach and to improve. Teachers who believe that they

can learn, grow, and make a difference . . . do.

“Conscience is a man’s compass.” —Vincent van Gogh

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Some advice from the heart You are entrusted with one of the greatest privileges I know: shaping young lives in the class- room. My deepest hope for you is that you will approach each day in the classroom with passion and with the burning desire to do one thing better than you did yesterday. My final words of advice for you come from me as a world citizen who trusts you to bring up the next

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 11.2

Coping with Stress

When you feel stressed . . .

1. Remind yourself aloud that you have the skills to handle this. You’ve handled plenty of stressful situations.

2. Decide whether this issue is inside your circle of influence. If it isn’t, let it go. Confine your worries to the things you can do something about.

3. Choose your reaction. You can’t change what people do; you can only choose your own response. 4. Close your eyes and breathe. Three times. Deeply. In through your nose, out through your

mouth. Then roll your head forward, left then right. 5. Listen to music that makes you happy. 6. Go for a walk. Or do something else that totally changes your physical and mental location. 7. Think long-term. How much will this matter in a year? In ten years? 8. Tell yourself what you have learned for next time. 9. Laugh.

TEaChinG TiP

Watch and think 11.3 Experienced teachers in this four-minute clip write letters to themselves, to be delivered back in time to when they were first-year teachers. Let’s pay it forward. After listening to the mes- sages these teachers send their past selves, think about what you want to tell your future self. Write a letter to your future teacher self from your current perspective as a new teacher. What’s impor- tant to you now that you want yourself to remember then? Then make a plan to deliver your letter . . . and follow the advice from your own heart.

http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=miPYLJI247g

Financial Literacy for Teachers: Teacher Retirement Plans Veteran teacher Dan Otter, Ph.D., has been helping teachers and students become financially literate since the inception of his 403bwise Web site more than a decade ago. Here’s a financial literacy primer from Dan.

Financial literacy is the ability to “use knowledge and skills to manage one’s financial resources effectively for lifetime financial security” (Jump$tart Coalition, 2007). It is a critical 21st-century skill not only for students, but also for teachers. Understanding the workings of teacher retirement plans at the beginning of one’s career can pay enormous benefits in the future.

Teachers typically have two types of retirement plans available to them: a state- run pension plan and a supplemental, self-directed 403(b) retirement plan. Pension plans are also known as a defined benefit (DB) plan because the benefit paid out in retirement is “defined” by a formula that includes years of service and salary. Par- ticipation in a pension plan is typically automatic upon employment, with all invest- ment decisions made by the operators of the plan. For information on the workings of your pension plan, including how to make retirement payout projections, visit your pension’s Web site. If an Internet search does not turn up the appropriate Web address, consult your employer.

Unlike a pension plan, teachers must choose to enroll in a 403(b) plan. A big challenge for participants is that they must make all of the investment decisions. Two of the most important factors to successful investing are asset allocation ( distributing investments across a variety of asset classes to minimize risk) and cost of investments (high fees lead to less savings). Wisely choosing and allocating investments is no small task. For complete information on the workings of the 403(b), i ncluding how to choose and allocate investments, see 403bwise.com.

TEaChinG FOR TOMORROw TiP

Dan Otter Photograph by Eric Swanson.

Credit: Eric Swanson

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Growing in Your Profession 263

generation as an informed, compassionate group, as a teacher who expects you to lead stu- dents to discover the power and beauty of knowledge, and as a parent who speaks for others in believing that every day, when we release to your care our cherished children, you will provide a safe and loving atmosphere where their minds and spirits will be uplifted. My final suggestions are these:

1. Listen to your students. Teaching is more than telling. When one of my sons was very young, I needled his teacher at back-to-school night to hear some wonderful words about my precious son (remember, parents are ego involved). Her comment? “I am surprised he cannot cut.” That teacher, it turns out, said many helpful, positive things about my child over the course of the school year. But at this early moment, I felt like I had been punched in the stomach. My son’s teacher did not know that he sat on the couch at age 3 and sang “Nobody knows the troubles I’ve seen.” She did not know that he asked about volcanoes on Mars. She knew he could not cut. She knew him in terms of what he could not yet do, in terms of his deficits. Please think about your students as people and see them for their strengths. Believe in them as knowers and learners. Listen to their stories. Entertain their questions. Even 5-year-olds have lived a lifetime before meeting you.

2. Be careful with the praise you give. When you compliment a student, be genuine and specific. Your ultimate goal is not to shore students up with a steady stream of shallow and false praise. You are not the ultimate authority. You probably do not want your students to grow dependent on you—or anyone else—for judgments of their self-worth. Self-esteem should be based instead on students’ own assessments of their work and abilities, on their own ability to judge a job done well. Help them recognize good work. Teach them to value themselves for who they are and what they can accomplish.

3. Do not waste people’s time. You may be new. You may be learning. No doubt you will be better next year. But remember that this year is likely the only chance at tenth (or second, or any) grade that your students will ever have. I can promise that some days in the classroom will feel like survival. If you begin to experience entire weeks during which you are searching for activities to keep students occupied, you are wasting people’s time. Do not try to justify the educational benefits of a steady diet of word searches. You need to do better. Get some rest and start planning meaningful learning experiences.

4. Stay only as long as you are effective. Classroom teaching is not for everyone, and in many cases it is not forever. It is difficult to teach. Even expert teachers have bad days . . . and bad years. If you ever hate your job each morning, you need to change your life. You can change what you do in your classroom. You can change grade levels or school assignments. You can remain in education but leave the classroom. Or you can take your own set of skills and use them in a different field. It is not a disgrace to leave teaching. You will do everyone a service if you leave when it is time to go. There are many ways for each of us to contribute to the world.

5. Pull from inner resources. My personal experience with classroom teaching is that it can bring tremendous emotional highs—watching a student learn can inspire awe—and lows. There may be times when even those who love you the most cannot pick you up after a tough day in the classroom. Instead, you will need to draw on your inner resources to reconsider your motiva- tions and refresh your resolve to have a better day tomorrow. One of the devices I use when I need to encourage myself is a collection of quotes from people in my life who have helped me learn about teaching. Some of the deposits in my quote bank are shown in Figure 11.3. Try cre- ating your own collection of quotes to provide some advice when you are in need.

6. Look for the best. Each person you encounter has something to add to your professional life. The students each offer their own funny idiosyncrasies and their fresh, rough-and- tumble view of the world. Your staff members have been in your place and have learned from it. Finally, you have something to contribute to the world through your teaching. Look for the best you have to offer and nurture it. Good wishes to you.

“I am seeking, I am striving, I am in it with all my heart.”

—Vincent van Gogh

“You cannot hope to build a better world without improving the individuals. To that end, each of us must work for our own improvement and, at the same time, share a general responsibility for all humanity . . .”

—Marie Curie

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Figure 11.3 Quotes that have helped me learn about teaching.

(My apologies to those whose words I’ve misremembered over time.) “Now that you have a child, you know how much I love you.” — LuAnn Munns Berthel, my mother, who taught me in one sentence how deeply

one can love.

“They’re only children.” — attributed to Gordon Guillaume, my father-in-law, by Beverly Guillaume, his

wife. These words remind me that the job of a child, apparently, is sometimes purely to annoy.

“If you are committed to improving, you probably will.” — Cheryl Bloom, my master teacher, who taught me to keep working at

classroom discipline.

‘“Stop worrying so much about teachers’ questions, and start worrying about students’ questions.” — a rough paraphrase of five years with James T. Dillon, who taught me to listen.

“Interesting people do more than teach.” — Carol Barnes, who taught me that well-educated people have a variety of

interests in their lives.

“Assume that people are doing the best they can.”

— Jodi Elmore, my student teacher, who reminds me that I should approach people with the understanding that most of us just keep trying to do the best we can using what we have.

“What you focus on will grow.” — Ernie Mendes, who reminds me to see people in terms of their strengths rather

than in terms of their shortcomings.

Here’s a lighter set I’ve composed to capture my own foibles.

Murphy’s Laws for Teachers 1. Things take about two to three times longer than the time you have (or than

you expected). 2. The lesson right before (or right after) the one your supervisor (or principal)

observes is great.

3. Typos in memos and e-mails are much easier to spot right after you send the papers home or press “send.”

4. Someone will throw up before winter break.

Opportunities to Practice 1. Choose a team of which you are currently a member; choose a

difficult group setting if you have one. Study Figure 11.2 again, this time operationalizing some of the items as a personal “to do” list to improve your effectiveness as a team member.

2. Interview a trusted, respected colleague for some advice on professional development. Share your work from the chapter- opening exercise and ask for insights.

3. Commit to one formal professional growth opportunity right now:

a. Subscribe to one professional journal.

b. Conduct research on an issue faced by one or more of your students.

c. Attend a workshop.

Click here to assess your mastery of Chapter Learning Outcome 11.3

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d. Join a professional organization or network.

e. Take a field trip to another classroom on your site (or beyond).

f. Write a reflection on your practice. Share it with your students.

g. Search YouTube for an unfamiliar educational topic you’ve heard people talking about recently. Watch two videos on that topic. Go to TED Talks Education and pick something that sounds interesting. I recommend anything by Sir Ken Robinson.

h. Explore a Web site or game that your students are excited about. Find out what they like best about it. Discovering what makes students happy (instant feedback? badges?) can help you understand their needs and think about how to incorporate some of those things into your teaching.

4. Develop your own quotation collection.

5. How will you know whether you are improving in your teach- ing? Make a list of things you will accept as evidence that you are sharpening your professional skills. Consider using the self- analysis tool found in Figure 1.6 to reanalyze your practice.

6. Pick a pursuit that can help you establish and maintain balance in your life. Find something that counts as “play” to you and schedule regular time for it. I followed my own advice and took up art journaling, which I do at the end of each day for twenty minutes. I can feel the stress leave me and I begin to relax at about minute nine.

Extending the Learning: Sites and Search Terms Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Start with the “topics” tab for a myriad of resources related to current educational topics.

Creative Quotations. Sites like this one can help you locate quotations to enhance your lessons and provide a professional boost.

NationJob. Search for teaching jobs in all fifty states. Use “Teaching” as the category.

National Parent Teacher Association (PTA). Try “Programs” to access the association’s many resources and projects.

Search “Travel for Teachers” for opportunities to learn around the world.

Growing in Your Profession 265

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266

Accommodations Changes to classroom resources, instruction, or conditions that allow students to learn or to show what they know despite specific areas of need such as physical or learn- ing disabilities. Accommodations do not change the learning expectations to which students are held.

Achievement gaps Marked and sustained discrepancies in the academic progress (typically measured by standardized tests) among the scores of certain subgroups of the student population.

Action research Research conducted by practitioners to explore problems or issues in their own contexts. Data collection and analysis are less formal than in published research, and the fo- cus is not on generalizability but on impact in the local setting.

Adaptive testing Computer-based testing where the level of difficulty adjusts to the examinees’ answers.

Adequate yearly progress A requirement of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) that stipulates that every school and every subgroup of the school’s population must raise performance toward proficiency by a certain percentage each year.

Analytical trait rubric An assessment tool that allows the reader to rate components of a performance separately, using criteria that are specific to each component.

Assistive technology A wide range of built items (noncomputer- based) and computer-based hardware and software that aid people with physical disabilities in functioning, learning, and communicating.

Autism Spectrum Disorders “[A] group of developmental dis- abilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. People with ASDs handle information in their brain differently than other people” (Autism Spectrum Disorder Foundation, 2012).

Backward planning An approach to curricular planning that be- gins with the end product: the envisioned student performance. With this clear vision of what students should be able to do as a result of instruction, teachers plan instructional events. Specifying performance through rubrics created with students is often a component of backward planning.

Behavior (portion of objective) That portion of the objec- tive that specifies, in observable terms, what the student will be able to do as a result of instruction. The expected student performance.

Behavioral intervention plan (BIP) As mandated by IDEA, students with behaviors that impede their learning or the learning of others—as a manifestation of their disability—must receive a functional behavioral analysis and plan to address their behaviors in positive ways.

“Big idea” approach An approach to unit planning in which the teacher begins with a focus on the major ideas or generaliza- tions related to the content and then selects activities designed to help students develop those big ideas.

Bilingual education programs A variety of approaches that teach academic content in English, or the target language, using varying amounts of English and the home language. The typi- cal aim is to support English acquisition while simultaneously maintaining the home language.

Blueprints Documents that specify the content represented in a test and give information related to the format such as the number of each type of selection-type and constructed-response items.

Caretaker speech Talk that has the purpose of clear communi- cation. It focuses on immediate concerns rather than abstract or distant ideas and is adjusted syntactically to the current lin- guistic abilities of the listener. Caretaker speech is one way to provide comprehensible input for English learners.

Classroom meeting A gathering in which all classroom partici- pants have the opportunity to provide input to the agenda and the meeting itself. Classroom meetings can serve a number of purposes, such as event planning, open discussion, and prob- lem solving. The teacher facilitates, but students play an active leadership role.

Common Core State Standards Statements of learning outcomes in English language arts and mathematics for students in grades kindergarten through 12. The standards were developed by a state-led coalition and presented for adoption by states in 2011.

Concept map A graphic organizer that is hierarchically organized, presenting a major concept or idea and revealing the connections among the concept and its subconcepts.

Conditions (portion of objective) The portion of the objective that specifies relevant aspects of the environment such as the materials, time, or resources that will be available (or not) to students as they demonstrate mastery of the objective.

Constructed response An assessment item that requires students to compose an answer rather than selecting one.

Content standards Statements of the subject matter teachers are to teach and students are to master. Developed at different lev- els (national, state, and local), standards describe outcomes that students should demonstrate in given curricular areas through- out the grades.

Co-teachers Two or more adults taking responsibility for teach- ing the same students. A strategy wherein two or more adults take responsibility for teaching the same students. Partners might be a general education teacher and a special education teacher, for instance, or a credential teacher with a teacher candidate.

Glossary

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Glossary 267

Criteria (portion of objective) The portion of the objective that specifies how well a student is to perform. Criteria provide the standard against which the student performance will be assessed. Criteria are often stated in terms of speed, accuracy, or quality.

Criterion-referenced Assessments that compare students’ per- formance to an external standard rather than to the performance of their peers.

Critical attributes Those characteristics that define an object, organism, or phenomenon.

Cultural competence The ability to interact with people from cultures other than one’s own with knowledge and sensitivity.

Curriculum That which students are expected to learn at school and that which they actually learn there.

Curriculum compacting An instructional approach undertaken with the aim of teaching only the content students have not previ- ously mastered. The typical sequence is as follows: identification of learning goals, assessment of student progress related to those goals, provision of instruction to meet nonmastered learning goals.

Deductive strategies Instructional approaches that move from general rules or principles to specific examples of those prin- ciples. Teachers present content directly, and students engage in a carefully sequenced set of activities to ensure mastery.

Democratic classrooms Classrooms where teacher and students share power and responsibility more equally than is the case in traditional classrooms. Shared decision making through demo- cratic processes is an emphasis.

Differentiated instruction An approach to instruction that pro- vides a range of resources and activities designed to meet stu- dents’ varying assessed needs and interests. Differentiated tasks should be engaging and challenging and should allow students to work in a variety of instructional formats. Instruction can be differentiated for content so that students learn different things, process so that they go about learning differently, or product so that they select among different ways to show their learning.

Digital divide Persistent gaps in access to digital technologies among certain subgroups of the population.

Digital natives Prensky’s (2001) term, used to refer to individu- als who have grown up with ubiquitous access to digital tech- nologies. Their counterparts are digital immigrants, who learn technologies later in life.

Direct instruction A deductive approach to instruction where the teacher states the major idea or skill early in the lesson and then systematically and explicitly leads students to mastery of the objective.

Document camera An image capture device that allows the operator to enlarge and project the image of a two-dimensional object (such as a photograph or sheet of text) or a three- dimensional object for an audience.

Dominant culture In a region, the group of people whose ways of thinking and behaving are predominant. Factors such as his- torical precedence, population size, and social status influence which culture is dominant in an area at any point in time.

Emotional intelligence A person’s ability to understand his own emotions and the emotions of others and to use this understand- ing in deciding how to act appropriately.

English learners Students who are in the process of mastering English in addition to one or more other languages, including the home language. Also deemed English language learners.

Error pattern analysis An approach to data analysis that exam- ines students’ work to determine whether students are making consistent mistakes and what misunderstandings those mistakes represent.

Essential question A conceptual or overarching question that fans curiosity and frames study throughout an instructional unit. It should be phrased to capture major, enduring ideas related to the content.

Ethics Values related to human conduct in terms of what is right and wrong.

Explicit curriculum The content (knowledge, skills, and attitudes) that schools set out to teach. It is often contained in the adopted texts and other materials as well as in the daily activities selected by teachers and schools.

Flexible groupings Patterns of organizing students into different groups for instruction. The size of the groupings can range from individuals to the entire class. Groupings are adjusted to address students’ current needs and the goals and activities. Thus, rather than remaining in static groups, students in flex- ible groups are often regrouped based on ongoing assessment.

Formative assessment Assessment of student learning that yields results used to shape future instruction.

Free appropriate public education A federal right of all U.S. students, including those with disabilities. This right guarantees that each student’s education is paid for by the public (not the student or family) and that the education is suited to the needs of the student.

Functional behavior analysis An approach to changing stu- dents’ misbehavior by assessing its cause, planning an inter- vention that addresses that cause, trying the intervention, and assessing its effect.

Funds of knowledge The bodies of knowledge, social networks, and cultural resources found in students’ homes and surround- ing communities.

General education General education classrooms are those in which students with no identified special needs are placed. Smaller numbers of students receiving special services are also typically found within general education classrooms, but general education teachers are not required to hold special certification. Instead, they work as part of a team with special educators to pro- vide appropriate instruction for students with identified needs.

Gifted A student classified as gifted has been identified as possessing demonstrated or potential high ability in specific academic and other performance areas.

Gifted and Talented Education Programs designed to meet the needs of students identified as academically gifted or other- wise talented. Such programs vary widely across districts and states and offer services through a wide variety of structures such as self-contained classrooms, gifted clusters, and resource programs.

Grade equivalent (GE) score A norm-referenced score that gives the grade level and month (e.g., 7.1) of the typical person who earned a given raw score.

Graphic organizers Visual presentations of information. The displays are organized to reveal important aspects of or patterns in the information. Graphic organizers can be developed by teachers and students at any phase during the instructional cycle.

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268 Glossary

Highly qualified teachers As stipulated by the No Child Left Behind Act, highly qualified teachers (a) have demonstrated competence in each core subject area they teach, (b) hold at least a bachelor’s degree, and (c) are fully licensed by the state.

Holistic rubric An assessment tool that allows the reader to give an overall rating to a performance. Performances are rated as being consistent with particular levels of overall quality.

Home schooling The practice of educating students outside the school context, most notably within the home. Home schooling became legal in all U.S. states in 1993 and is a growing trend.

Implicit curriculum The lessons students learn without their teachers having consciously selected or taught them. Students learn the implicit curriculum by drawing inferences about cor- rect ways to think and behave based on their experiences in schools.

Inclusion A practice of educating students with disabilities—to the maximum extent possible—with their nondisabled peers.

Individualized education program (IEP) A legally binding document that details the educational plan for a student who is identified as having one or more disabilities. The plan states the student’s disability and provides present levels of performance, instructional objectives, assessment plans, and a statement of the least restrictive environment for the student. It is reviewed annually.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Formerly P.L. 94–142, this law requires all states that receive federal ed- ucation funds to provide individuals with disabilities between the ages of 3 and 21 with a free and appropriate public educa- tion designed to meet each student’s specific needs and prepare them for independence and employment.

Inductive strategies Instructional approaches that begin with specific data and help students find a rule or pattern. Discovery learning is an inductive strategy.

Instructional strategies Ways of arranging parts of a lesson according to particular patterns of student and teacher behaviors to accomplish certain goals. Some examples include inquiry, cooperative learning, and direct instruction.

Learning styles A combination of factors that together indicate how a person perceives information, interacts with it, and responds to the learning environment. Several schemes can be used to describe students’ preferred learning styles.

Least restrictive environment Holds that students with dis- abilities should be educated with their nondisabled peers to the maximum extent possible and should have access to the curriculum, activities, and programs available to nondisabled students. The severity of a student’s disability determines the appropriate degree of restrictiveness in the educational envi- ronment. Restrictive environments are those that contain only students with disabilities.

Lesson study A professional development model where teachers work in small groups to plan a lesson. They observe each other teach the lesson and then, later, reflect on the lesson and revise it. Lesson study originated in Japan and is used increasingly in the United States.

Linguistic Of or pertaining to language.

Mentors Individuals who support the growth and develop- ment of less experienced peers, often in a partner relationship.

Mentors can be formally assigned and complete a prescribed set of tasks, or they can work informally with their protégés and offer less-structured support.

Metacognition Thinking about thinking. Understanding of one’s own thinking.

Mindfulness A mental state or set of practices that focus on pay- ing attention to the feelings, sensations, and thoughts that occur in the present. Each is acknowledged and accepted without judgment.

Modifications Changes to classroom resources, instruction, or conditions to allow students to learn or show what they know despite areas of need such as physical or learning disabilities. Modifications substantially alter the learning expectations to which students are held.

Monitor To actively observe students for specified purposes, often to ensure that they are safe and engaged in learning activities.

Morals Principles of right and wrong in relation to human conduct.

Multimedia projects Computer-based projects that combine different media such as sound, text, animation, and images to create an integrated product.

Multiple embodiments Varied examples of a single concept. Embodiments should be selected to portray the critical attri- butes of the concept.

Multiple measures A variety of assessment strategies used as part of a system to obtain a valid portrait of student perfor- mance and growth.

Mutual accommodation The notion that both the teacher and the students must actively work to learn about the members of the classroom community and the content. Through mutual accommodation, learning is not the sole responsibility of the student; the teacher must take an active role in learning about students and increasing her professional knowledge and skills to foster learning effectively.

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Conducted for more than forty years, the NAEP is a test that provides information about how U.S. students achieve in vari- ous subject areas. Representative samples of students in private and public schools from all fifty U.S. states are assessed in grades 4, 8, and 12. Long-term trend data and data by state, subject area, and student subgroups are available. Data are not reported for individual students or schools.

National Board certification An advanced level of certification available to teachers across the nation. This optional certifica- tion process compares a teacher’s practices to a set of standards through performance-based assessments such as portfolios, video-recorded lessons, and student work samples. It also includes a written examination. Many states offer financial compensation for the application process and some sort of in- centive for certified teachers.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) An independent, nonprofit, and nonpartisan organization com- prised of teachers and other educational leaders. The NBPTS’s core conviction is that the key to improving student learning is to strengthen teaching. The NBPTS developed performance- based assessments of teacher performance in relation to sets

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of professional teaching standards. See also National Board certification.

Next Generation Science Standards A set of learning out- comes for science and engineering for students in grades kin- dergarten through 12. The standards were released for possible adoption by states in 2013.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 Federal legislation that revises the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, first enacted in 1965 and modified at several other points in his- tory. The act is designed to fuel gains in student achievement and hold states and schools more accountable for student progress. Students in low-performing schools are a special focus. The legislation increases the role of the federal gov- ernment in education and is currently being modified for reauthorization.

Norm-referenced Assessments or scores that compare one student’s performance with that of others.

Null curriculum The content that is not explicitly taught in schools. One example from many places in the United States, some may argue, is physical fitness in terms of whole-body wellness and skills. General patterns for the null curriculum exist based on factors such as geographical region, local values, and historical context. The null curricu- lum is also a product of an individual’s idiosyncratic experi- ences in school.

Off task A description of the behaviors students exhibit when they are engaged in activities other than those specified by the lesson objective or the task at hand.

On task A description of the behaviors students exhibit when they are actively engaged in activities related to the task at hand or the lesson objective.

Opportunity to learn Conditions and resources that together constitute students’ access to equitable education. Factors in- clude access to early education, funding, qualified teachers, ef- fective classroom practices, challenging curricula, and services that support learning.

Pacing guide A document that specifies the content to be ad- dressed in a certain sequence for a given period of time, such as for the day, week, month, or term.

Percentile The score below which a given percentage of the scores in a distribution fall. For example, 75 percent of the scores in a sample fall below the 75th percentile.

Positive Behavior Intervention and Support An approach, often school- or district-wide, to supporting student behavior based on prevention, data analysis, positive interventions, and progress monitoring. Also called positive behavior support.

Praxis A series of Educational Testing Service tests for begin- ning teachers designed to measure academic skills (Praxis I, taken to enter a teacher education program), subject-matter knowledge (Praxis II, taken to demonstrate competence in the subject matter related to the prospective credential area), and classroom performance (Praxis III, completed for licensure).

Preassessments Measures used before instruction begins to determine students’ current knowledge, attitudes, or skills. Preassessment results help teachers plan learning experiences that most closely address students’ needs.

Primacy effect The tendency for humans to remember the first stimuli or information to which they are exposed in a given situation.

Problem-based learning An instructional model where students work collaboratively to address ill-defined, complex, realistic problems of interest to them. Teachers serve as facilitators, and technology usually figures prominently.

Progress monitoring Assessment efforts that allow teachers and students to analyze students’ growth toward the learning goals. Formally, progress monitoring plots in a line graph students’ rate of progress with the rate required in order to meet learning goals. Instruction is adjusted to ensure that students’ rate is suf- ficient to meet goals.

Proximity control Based on the fact that students who are phys- ically farthest from the teacher tend to misbehave, proximity control has teachers moving closer to students to prevent and redirect misbehavior.

QR code A two-dimensional bar code or quick response code. Photographed and scanned, the QR code takes you to a URL, which might include text, audio, video, or multimedia information.

Read-aloud The portion of the day in which teachers read text to the class, often for the primary purposes of fostering appre- ciation for the work and enjoyment in the act of reading. Can also refer to the selected text itself.

Realia Real-life materials that can support students’ understand- ing of the content. Examples include actual objects such as coins, tools, and articles of clothing.

Recency effect The tendency for humans to remember the last stimuli or information to which they are exposed in a given situation.

Reliable An instrument is reliable if it delivers consistent results. Reliable instruments yield similar results with different scorers and when given under varied conditions.

Response to intervention (RTI) An educational approach that focuses on collecting data on student progress, providing a systematic instructional intervention, and then frequently as- sessing changes in student progress. Currently RTI can be used in place of or in addition to traditional means for determining specific learning disabilities.

Reteach Efforts taken by a teacher to present content to students who did not master it as a result of an earlier presentation.

Routine A repeatable set of behavioral steps to accomplish re- curring events, such as taking roll.

Rubrics Sets of guidelines that specify the relevant criteria for a student product and indicate levels of performance.

Scaffold Social interactions whereby experts use supportive environments and behaviors to support novices’ efforts to in- crease their skill or knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978).

School accountability The notion that schools should be held responsible for student achievement, usually determined by student test scores. Accountability typically is defined through rewards or punishments at varying levels, including, for ex- ample, financial incentives for high student performance or the takeover of schools that fail to demonstrate growth in student achievement.

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270 Glossary

School Accountability Report Card (SARC) Mandated by No Child Left Behind, the report card is a document that must be made publicly available each year. It must specify, in understand- able language, student performance at three levels (basic, profi- cient, and advanced) and must show achievement data by student subgroup. The report card must also disclose if the school has been identified as needing improvement or other action.

Scope and sequence A section in teacher’s editions of class- room texts that specifies the content that is addressed in the text (scope) and suggests plans for laying out the content over time (sequence). It is typically presented in the form of a chart that displays not only the grade level addressed in the text, but also its connection to the content of the text of other grade levels as well.

Selection-type item A test item where the respondent chooses the answer from among those given. True/false, matching, and multiple-choice items are examples. The contrast is constructed-response items.

Self-efficacy One’s own judgments of one’s abilities to produce desired results, to succeed, or to control one’s circumstances.

Semantic Of or pertaining to meaning.

Service learning Projects through which students continue their own learning of some content or topic by providing assistance related to the topic to individuals, groups, or organizations.

Sheltered instruction Instruction that “shelters” the linguistic demands of a lesson while simultaneously seeking to ensure that English learners master the content of the lesson. Sheltered instruction includes both discrete strategies such as teaching key vocabulary terms as well as general approaches such as building classroom environments where students feel safe to communicate.

Social action Planned efforts by individuals or groups to address social issues they hold as important.

Social media Use of easily accessible Web and mobile device applications that employ user-generated content in order to in- crease interaction and allow users to share information quickly and easily. Examples include wikis, blogs, microblogs, pod- casts, and photo or videosharing.

Sociocultural An adjective that describes factors pertaining to both the social and cultural aspects of a phenomenon. Sociocul- tural elements describe those ways of behaving and living that are developed by people in groups and transmitted to future generations.

Socioeconomic status Some measure of a person’s or group’s income level and social class.

Standards-based instruction Teaching to a set of outcomes prescribed through local, state, or national content standards. Standards-based instruction may offer benefits such as uni- formly high expectations for all students and close align- ment among materials, instruction, and assessment. Potential drawbacks include a narrowing of the curriculum to what is prescribed in the standards and curriculum and lessons that are less responsive to local students and community needs.

Student achievement Student knowledge and skills, often as measured by test scores. Some people are concerned that achievement is currently construed too narrowly and should

be more broadly conceived of through a variety of goals pertaining to student growth and how it is measured.

Student information system A software application for manag- ing student data such as special education plans, attendance, and grades.

Student-led conferences In contrast to traditional teacher-led conferences with families, student-led conferences ask students to take the leadership role in sharing and evaluating their work and articulating their growth. Student-led conferences seek to engage students, parents, and teachers in dialogue about stu- dent learning by shifting the power away from the teacher, who acts as a facilitator at the conference, and more equally into the hands of the student and family members.

Student performance standards Explicit statements of the educational outcomes students are to attain. Typically, student performance standards specify the content, behavior, and level at which students are expected to perform.

Summative Measures that serve the primary purpose of report- ing students’ postinstructional performance.

Support provider An experienced colleague who is formally assigned to assist a new teacher throughout the induction (or early) years in the teaching profession.

Teachable moment An often unexpected opportunity for the teacher and students to explore an event or idea that arises from daily life or classroom events.

Teacher’s editions The teachers’ versions of classroom texts. Teacher’s editions typically include many kinds of assistance for teachers, including the answers to exercises, suggested les- son sequences, prompts for using the materials with students, and suggestions for reteaching or extending the material pre- sented in the text.

Textbook adoptions The processes by which schools commit to using particular text series. Typically, state boards of education approve works from among competing publishers, and districts select from among the approved texts those they feel are most appropriate for their local setting. The adoption cycle allows schools to obtain current materials for a variety of subject areas after a set number of years.

Thematic instruction An approach that organizes a curriculum around themes that cut across traditional subject areas rather than using the subjects themselves as the organizing principle.

Think aloud A strategy in which one describes one’s thought processes while carrying out a target activity. The point is to help students sense the critical attributes of the target activity and the important decisions required by it.

Tiered assignment An assignment that has more than one activ- ity, and the activities are at different levels—or tiers—in an attempt to more closely match learning activities with student needs. Students complete the tier(s) that best match their cur- rent progress level or other needs.

Tracking A practice of arranging students into stable, relatively homogeneous groups based on perceived ability or demon- strated achievement. Research on tracking suggests that it fre- quently does not improve achievement for students in the lower tracks, as these students often receive lower-quality instruction. Conversely, many teachers feel that tracking helps them meet

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Glossary 271

students’ needs better by reducing the range of performance in their classes.

Trade books Commercial books, often sold in bookstores.

Unit A collection of lessons that address a common goal or topic.

Unschooling An approach to education wherein learning is based on students’ interests and goals rather than upon a set curriculum. Unschooling is often considered one form of home schooling, with adults providing resources and guiding students to access them as their needs and interests dictate.

Valid A measure is valid to the extent to which it measures what it is intended to measure.

Web 2.0 Uses of the Web that encourage interaction, collabora- tion, and creativity. This is in contrast with the original, read- only nature of the Web.

Word cloud A visual display of the words or tags on an Internet site or in some set of text. It is used to describe the content of the site. The importance or prevalence of terms can be shown using color or font size.

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A Aarons, D. I., 4 Abedi, J., 72 Abrami, P., 180 Abuse, 5 Academic learning time, 207–209 Acceleration, 76 Accommodations, 68–69 Achievement gaps, 4 Achievement tests, 174 Active listening, 13, 235–236 Active participation strategies, 125–128, 183 ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), 67 Adams, A., 112, 125 Adams, J., 29 Adams, M., 28 Adaptive testing, 175 Adar, S., 41 Adequate yearly progress (AYP), 176 Adler, S.A., 28 Adu, E., 153 Advanced certification/study, 260 Advanced learners, 75–76 Afolayan, M. O., 6 Ainsworth, L., 178, 179 Airasian, P. W., 89, 90 Akiba, M., 8 Albert, N., 227 Albin, R. W., 239 Alexander, K., 5 Alexander, M. D., 5 Alladi, S., 72 Allen, D., 177 Allen, I. E., 260 Allen, J., 224 Allen, R., 9, 117 Allocated time, 207 Aloe, A., 251 Alonso, A., 77 Alternative keyboards, 69 Altschuler, G., 24 Alvidrez, J., 225 Amanti, C., 8 Ambience, 197–200

defined, 199 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 67 Amo, L., 251 Analogies, 200 Analytical trait rubric, 188 Anderman, L. H., 224 Anderson, K., 62 Anderson, L. W., 89, 90 Anderson, R. C., 153 Andrade, R., 8 Andrews, J., 49

Andrzejewski, C. E., 224 Angelo, T., 253 Anger shields, 230 Anthony, S., 24 Anticipation, misbehavior, 239–240 Apologies, 237 Appointment partners, 130 Archer, A. L., 211 Ardell, A., 51 Aristotle, 24, 136 Armstrong, D., 97 Armstrong, T., 60 Arter, J. A., 188 Assessments, 170–195

attitude surveys, 191 balanced systems, 175 classroom (See Classroom assessment

cycle) criterion-referenced, 174 formative, 86–87, 174–175,181–182 vs. evaluation, 173 graphic organizers, 192 interviews, 192 journals, 191–192 landscape of (See Landscape, assessment) local, 174 norm-referenced, 174 performance-based, 192 portfolios, 191 principles of, 171–173 products, 191 sample item, 171 standardized, 174 summative, 174–175, 182 teachers observations, 192 tiered, 181 traditional tests, 190–191 variety of, 173–174

Assistive/adaptive technology, 69 Assumptions, 43–44 Attention seeking, 246 Attitude surveys, 191 Au, W., 176 Audience plants, 126 Authoritative learning environment, 232 Autism Spectrum Disorders, 24 Avouris, N., 162 AYP (adequate yearly progress), 176

B

Back Bay Museum Project, 160, 161 Back-to-school night to-do list, 53 Backward planning/design, 97 Bacon, J. N., 225 Baeder, A., 45

Baglieri, S., 68 Bailey, G.D., 230 Baker, E., 103 Baker, S. K., 73, 177 Balanced assessment systems, 175 Balf, R., 42 Banks, J. A., 9, 26, 28, 99, 109, 116, 252 Barbour, E., 257 Barclay, A., 180 Barron, A. E., 8 Bartkiewicz, M. J., 78 Bartolome, L. I., 75 Battistich, V., 197 Bauml, M., 92 Bear, G., 224, 233, 238 Behavior, 103

inappropriate, response to, 236–237 Behavioral analysis, 243 Behavioral intervention plan (BIP), 67 Behaviorist approaches, 12 Bell, L. A., 28 Bellamy, T., 21, 26 Benchmarks, 178 Benzel, K. N., 100 Berliner, D. C., 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 14, 31, 41 Beveridge, T., 6 Bialystok, E., 72 Bichelmeyer, B. A., 21, 32 “Big idea” approach, 97–98 Bilingual education programs, 72 Billet, S., 207 Bingham, G., 184 BIP (behavioral intervention plan), 67 Bircann-Barkey, I., 227 Bisexual students, 78–79 Bjork, R., 49 Black, P., 172 Black, S., 50 Blackboard blitz, 128 Blanchett, W., 41 Block, M. S., 50 Blogs, 62 Bloom, B., 89 Bloom’s taxonomy, 89 Blueprints, 178 Boardman, A., 153 Bocian, K. M., 235 Boesen, M. J., 78 Bohn, C.M., 6 Bolick, C. M., 205 Bolívar, J., 44, 50 Bondy, E., 11, 197 Booher-Jennings, J., 6 Borman, G., 42 Born, P. L., 261

Index

294

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Index 295

Bowen, C. W., 112 Bowman, R., 112 Boykin, A., 42 Bradshaw, C., 224, 231 Braille embossers, 69, 70 Brain-based research, 12 Brainstorming, 128

instructional resources, 95 Brand, S., 49 Brandon, R., 71 Bransford, J., 11, 180 Brenner, D., 92 Brew, C., 225 Bridges, T. L., III, 225 Briesch, A., 197, 201 Broderick, A., 68 Brookes, M., 184 Brookhart, S., 177 Brooks, R., 59 Broome, J., 201 Brophy, J. E., 122, 129, 137, 197, 227, 241 Brown, D. E., 138, 197, 198, 222 Brown, E., 76 Brown, G., 171 Brown, M., 180 Brown, R., 70 Bruer, J. T., 12 Bruhn, A., 92 Bruner, J., 12 Buchanan, J., 7, 8, 93 Buchino, M., 187 Buese, D., 176 Bullying, 231 Bumgardner, S., 11 Burand, M., 162 Burcu Kaniskan, R., 61 Bures, E., 180 Burman, E., 227 Burrowbridge, S., 63 Butler, B., 224 Buzzelli, C., 261 Bybee, R. W., 143 Byrd-Blake, M., 6

C

Caine, G., 12 Caine, R. N., 12 Caldwell, J. S., 65 Cambron-McCabe, N. H., 5 Camburn, E. M., 8, 11 Canter, L., 244 Canter, L. S., 98 Capps, D., 159 Caram, C., 137, 138 Cardullo, R. A., 235 Caretaker speech, 73 Carroll, D. W., 139 Carroll, L., 83 Casa, T., 152 Cascallar, E., 153 Casella, R., 231 Case study, 45 Cazden, C., 137 CCSS (Common Core State Standards),

84–85 Certifications, 260 Chambers, B., 64

Chambliss, M. J., 176 Chan, J., 175 Chapman, C., 9 Chapman, S., 139 Charles, C. M., 248 Charney, R. S., 202, 240, 247 Chen, J., 152, 160, 162 Chen, M., 53 Chen, Y., 152, 160, 162 Chesebro, J., 117 Child abuse, 5 Chin, C., 138 Choice boards, 62 Choices, 228 Choral response, 126 Chorzempa, B. F., 64, 123 Chrispeels, J., 44, 50 Christenson, L., 50 Chung, V., 11 Cicero, 16 Civil, M., 8 Clark, D. B., 180 Classroom assessment cycle, 177–190

data analysis, 187–190 involvement of student, 183–187 learning targets, selection of, 178–180 results, usage of, 190 strategies, selection of, 180–183

Classroom community creation, strategies for, 199–200 defined, 197

Classroom discipline, 223–253 anger shields, 230 conflict resolution, 230, 231, 232 encouraging self-control, 228–232 planning, 248,249–251 power struggles, avoiding, 230 as one piece of the puzzle, 224 relationships, 234–237 self-correction, 229–230 self-discipline (See Self-discipline) structured/consistent/supportive

environment, 232–234 systems approach (See Systems approach,

classroom discipline) teachers, self-understanding, 224–227

Classroom(s) ambience, 197–200 assessment (See Classroom assessment

cycle) culturlly responsive, 39 diversity, 39–40 management, 197 meetings, 199 physical space, management of, 201–204 questioning, 136–139

Class wiki, 114 Clausen-Grace, N., 62 Clunies-Ross, P., 238, 243 Coats, L., 16 Cochran, K.F., 137 Cochran-Smith, M., 2 Cockburn, J., 121 Coercive power, 226–227 Coffield, F., 49 Cogan, L. S., 42, 83 Cohen, P., 7

Colby, G., 112 Cole, R. W., 60, 115, 120 Coles, G., 142 Collay, M., 11 Collier, V. P., 72, 73, 75, 122 Collins, P., 73 Colombo, M., 62, 149, 152, 153 Colombo, P., 62 Coloroso, B., 228 Colvin, G., 234 COME IN, principle of instruction

connect, 112–117 (See also Connect/ connecting)

enrich, 122–123, 124 human nature and student needs,

130–131 interact, 123, 125–130 modeling, 120–122 organization, 116–120 (See also

Organization, instruction) Comenius, John, 24 Common Core State Standards (CCSS), 8,

84–85, 96, 175 and complex text, 92 in English Language Arts, 115, 137

Communication caring, 233 with families, 54–55, 207 nonverbal, 241–242 web tools, 51, 52

Complexity of content, 76, 92 Comprehensible input, 73 Comprehension check, 127 Concept formation, 146–148, 166 Conceptions, of education, 25–27 Concept map, 118 Conditions, 103 Conflict resolution, 230, 231, 232 Conger, D., 77 Conn, K., 4, 5 Connect/connecting, 112–117

to action, 116–117 ideas, 114 with outside world, 115 people, 112, 113–114 with text, 114–115, 116 tips for, 113

Connell, M., 197 Conner, T., 159 Consistent learning environment, 232–234 Constructed response, 176 Constructivist approaches, 12 Content, organization, 118–119 Content conversation model, 149–153

description of, 149 sample of, 152 stages of, 150–152 strengths/weaknesses of, 153

Content knowledge, 87 Content standards, 8. See also Student

performance standards demands of, 179

Controversial topics/methods, 5 Conversational moves, 151 Cook, B. G., 225 Cooper, J. M., 205 Cooper, S., 190

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296 Index

Cooperative learning, 153–158, 168–169 description of, 153–154 principles, 153–154 sample lesson, 156–157 stages of, 154–155 strengths/weaknesses of, 155–158

Copyright laws, 5 Corbin, C., 130 Cornell, D., 232, 234, 235 Cornett, C. E., 151 Corporal punishment, 5 Corporate support, 94 Correa-Kovtun, A., 73 Cortes, C. E., 31 Costa, A., 86, 171 Cotton, K., 137 Craik, F. I. M., 72 Crawford, B., 159 Crawford, G. B., 201, 214 Crawford, M., 149, 150 Criteria, 103 Criterion-referenced assessments, 174 Critical attributes, 120 Croninger, R. G., 11, 41, 176 Cross, K., 253 Crowdsource, 94 Cruikshank, K. A., 89, 90 Csikszentmihalyi, I. S., 88 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 88 Cuban, L., 3, 7, 25 Cultural action, 42 Cultural awareness, 42 Cultural competence, 42 Cultural knowledge, 42 Culturally sensitive assessments, 62 Cultural sensitivity, 42 Cultural values, 28 Culture, and classroom management, 198 Culturlly responsive classrooms, 39 Cumming, T., 69 Cummings, A., 117 Cummins, J., 59, 73 Curran, M., 23, 42, 43, 197, 198 Curriculum

compacting, 76 explicit, 22–23 implicit/hidden, 23–24 null, 24 scientifically based core, 70 and student engagement, 238

Curwen, M., 51 Curwin, R., 236 Cyber bullying, 231

D

Daily schedules, 100, 101–102 Danforth, S., 243 Daniel, D., 92 Danielson, C., 3, 13, 111 d’Apolliana, S., 64 Darling-Hammond, L., 9, 10, 41, 176,

192, 259 DaRos-Voseles, D., 44 Data analysis, 187–190

formal, 188–190 quick scan, 187–188

Dautheribes, T., 28 David, J. L., 162

Davidson, M., 16 Davies, D., 50 Davis, H., 234 Davis, P., 137, 138 DeBell, M., 9 Deddeh, H., 173, 182 Deductive strategies, 139 De La Paz, S., 162 Delpit, L., 57, 112, 114 Democratic classrooms, 9, 10 den Brok, P., 232 Depth of content, 76 Desimone, L., 257 Dexter, D., 70, 71 Diagrams, 192 Diaz, E. M., 79 Dietel, R., 178 Differentiated instruction, 61–63

content, 62 planning, sample questions for, 63 procedural steps, 62–63 process, 62 product, 62–63

Digital citizenship, 231 Digital disparities, 8 Digital divide, 8 Digital equipment, 205–207 Digital natives, 7 Digital presentations, 47 Digital stories, 115 Dignity, treating students with, 235–236 Dillon, J. T., 24, 126, 127, 137, 138, 151, 264 Direct instruction model, 139–142, 164

description of, 139 sample lesson, 141 stages of, 139–140 strengths/weaknesses of, 140, 141–142

Disability, defined, 68 Disparities, 8 Display of inadequacy, 246 Diversity, classrooms, 39–40 Dochy, F., 153 Dodman, S., 63 Dolan, R. P., 131 Domains, of teacher expertise, 14 Dominant culture, 28 Donato, J., 76 Donohue-Smith, M., 139 Donors Choose, 94 Dorsey, D. N. T., 41 Douglas, K., 2 Dowling, M., 42 Doyle, W., 2, 224, 233, 235, 238 Draper Rodríguez, C., 69 Drawings, 192, 193, 195 Dreikurs, R., 228, 246 Driver, R., 12, 114 Duckworth, E. R., 115 Due process, 5 Duesbery, L., 71 Duncan, A., 4 Duncan-Howell, J., 260 Dunlop, T., 245 Dunn, R., 49 DuPaul, G., 207 Dupper, D., 231 Dutro, E., 42, 92 Dyson, L., 55

E

Ecclestone, K., 49 Echevarria, J., 73, 122 Eddy, P., 180 Ede, A., 44 E-development, 260 Education

conceptions of, 25–27 purpose of, 28–29 questions of, 24 stance towards (See Stance towards

education) Educational philosophies, categorization of, 25 Edwards, J., 192 Edwards, P., 177 Eeds, M., 137 Efficiency, classroom physical space,

202–203 Effrat, A., 10 Egan, L., 68 Eighth Amendment, 181 Eisenkraft, A., 93, 143 Eisner, E., 3, 22, 24, 29 Elbaum, B., 123 Electronic pointing devices, 69 Ellis, A. K., 97 Ellis, E., 62 Elmore, R. F., 22 Elsaleh, I., 92 Embedded content, 73 Emerson, R. W., 142, 224 Emmer, E. T., 215 Emotional control, 225–226 Emotional intelligence, 88 Engaged time, 207, 221 Engagement, students, 125 Englehart, M., 89 English, M., 159, 160 English as a second language (ESL), 73 English language learners, 22, 43, 71–75

and language acquisition, 72 and learning cycle approach, 142 sheltered instruction, 73–75 structuring interaction for, 129–130 teaching, 72–73

Enrichment, learning environment, 122–123, 124

Epistemology, 30 Epitaph, 27 Epps, J., 245 Epstein, J. L., 8, 44, 50, 51 Equal participation, 153–154 Erden, F., 77 Ergin, Ö., 148 Error pattern analysis, 189 ESL (English as a second language), 73 Espelage, D., 79, 230 Essential question, 97 Esworthy, C., 59 E-text, 92 Ethics, professional, 260–262 Ethnographers, 45 Evaluation, assessment vs., 173 Evertson, C., 215 Excellent teaching, 30–31 Exit cards, 3 Expert power, 226 Explicit curriculum, 22–23

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Index 297

Explicit instruction model. See Direct instruction model

Eye contact partners, 130 Eze, I., 153

F

Fabunmi, M., 6 Fact-storming, 128 Fairbanks, S., 197, 201 Fairlie, R. W., 8 Fair use rules, 22 Faltis, C., 51, 112, 201 Families

as assessment partners, 185, 187 communications with, 207 students (See Students’ families) working with, 50–55

Fan, X., 53, 232 Farenga, S. J., 176 Farmer-Hinton, R., 8 Farr, S., 87 Farris, P. J., 78 Fast, L. A., 235 Feedback, 128,257–258 Felsher, R., 258 Fenstermacher, G., 2, 21, 31 Ferguson, L., 151 Ferguson, M., 85 Ferris, S., 150 Feyzioglu, E., 148 Field, S., 92 Fields, L., 245 Field trips, 124 File, T., 8 Fillmore, L. W., 73 Fillmore, R., 44 Financial literacy, 262 Finkel, D. L., 11 Finnigan, K., 40 Fischer, L., 5, 3233 Fisher, D., 93, 150, 151, 177 Flash cards, 126 Fletcher, J., 71 Flexible groupings, 63 Flowers, C. P., 142 Flynn, K. M., 73, 122 Focus, tips for maintaining, 244 Focused content, 73 Fok, P., 175 Follow the leader, 128 Fombonne, E., 24 Fontaine, P., 149, 152, 153 Food, 124 Forbes, L., 207 Ford, D. Y., 43 Ford, M. P., 65 Formal data analysis, 188–190 Formative assessments, 86–87, 162,174–175

as progress monitoring, 181–182 Fossil lesson, 105–106 Foulger, T., 158 403(b) plan, 262 Frank, C., 44, 45 Frank, K., 42 Fraser, J., 11 Fraser, K., 192 Frederickson, N., 199 Free appropriate public education, 67

Freiberg, H., 197, 199, 203, 213, 224, 227, 234 French, J. R. P., 9, 226 Frey, N., 93, 150, 151, 177 Frey, P. M., 131 Friedrich, L., 7, 8, 93 Frye, B., 41 Frymier, A., 237 Fuchs, D., 70 Fuchs, L. S., 70 Fuhler, C. J., 78 Fuhrer, U., 202 Fulkerson, S., 173, 182 Functional behavior analysis, 242 Funds of knowledge, 51 Furst, E., 89 Fuzzy points, 127

G

Gable, R., 62 Gagne, R., 12 Gagnon, G. W., Jr., 11 Galanter, E., 12 Gallery tour, 128 Gallingane, C., 11, 197 Gambrel, L. B., 85 Gamoran, A., 137, 138 Ganschow, L., 189 Gaps, 40–42 Garage sales, 94 Garcia-Lopez, S., 9 Gardner, H., 12, 75, 122 Gardner, J. E., 98 Garrett, J. L., 32 GATE (Gifted and Talented Education), 75 Gauthier, L., 72, 73 Gawel, D., 180 Gay, G., 39, 43, 197 Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and

questioning (GLBTQ) students, 78–79 GE (grade equivalent score), 174 Gega, P. C., 97 Gemin, B., 7 Gender equity, 76–78 General education setting, 67 George, C., 125 Gepner, B., 121 Gersten, R., 73, 177 Gestures, 242 Gewertz, C., 177 Gibney, R., 10 Gibson, D., 77 Gidseg, E., 227 Gifted and Talented Education (GATE), 75 Gifted learners, 75–76 Gifted students, 30 Gillanders, C., 44, 50 Gillies, R., 150, 153 Givner, C. C., 227 Glasser, W., 130 GLBTQ (gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender,

and questioning) students, 78–79 Glueck, C., 50 Goals, planning, 87–91

determination of, 91 kinds of, 88–90 vs. objectives, 90

Goldenberg, C., 72, 73, 74, 87, 120, 125 Goldstein, L., 2

Goldstein, S., 59 Goleman, D., 88, 112 Gonzales, M. A., 260 Gonzalez, N., 8 Good, T. L., 2, 3, 11, 39, 83, 87, 105, 122, 137,

197, 224, 227 Goodlad, J. I., 21, 26, 59, 123, 260 Good teaching, 21 Goodwin, B., 11, 14, 112 Gootman, M. E., 209, 227, 233, 236 Gordon, D., 61 Gordon, T., 235, 237 Goudvis, A., 115 Gowin, D. B., 192 Gradebooks, 189 Grade equivalent score (GE), 174 Grades/grading, principles of assessment and,

172–173 Graeber, A. O., 176 Graham, S., 64, 123, 157 Grant, C. A., 26, 42, 60, 198, 252 Grant, M. M., 159, 160, 162 Grants, 94 Graphic organizers, 118, 124, 192 Grasley, E., 59 Graves, A., 71, 73 Greb, F., 49 Green, S., 173, 180 Greenberg, M., 42, 225 Gregg, M., 62 Gregory, A., 224, 232, 234, 235 Gregory, G. H., 49, 66, 181 Greytak, E. A., 78 Griffin, P., 28, 78 Gronlund, N. E., 102, 103, 178 Group chart, 128 Grouping decisions, 64–65 Group problem, 128 Group size, 243, 244 Grunwald, B., 246 Guest speakers, 124 Guided inquiry, 162 Guillaume, A. M., 31, 53, 66, 74, 112, 125, 142,

181, 192, 233, 242 Gultekin, M., 162 Gunter, H., 231 Guthrie, J. T., 138

H

Haar, J., 49 Habits of mind, 86 Haertel, G., 197 Hakuta, K., 72, 74 Hall, E., 49 Hall, G., 49 Hall, M. W., 129, 150 Hall, N. D., 226, 243 Hall, P. S., 226, 243 Hall, T., 117, 153, 197, 238, 242, 248 Halsey, H. N., 243 Hambacher, E., 11, 197 Hamilton, L. S., 83 Hammond, K. A., 235 Hammond, W., 61 Han, S. W., 8, 11 Hancock, D. R., 142 Hand, B., 152 Hand signals, 127

Z03_GUIL5597_05_SE_IND.indd 297 20/11/14 4:17 PM

298 Index

Hardman, F., 123 Harkins, D. A., 76 Harris, L., 171 Harrison, G., 49 Harrow, A., 89 Hartig, T., 202 Harvey, S., 115 Hasselbring, T., 92 Hattie, J., 11, 14, 46, 49, 59, 105, 112, 117, 128,

136, 137, 141, 148, 153, 157, 174, 224, 234

Hauerwas, L., 70 Hawley, R., 227 Heacox, D., 62 Heaps, A., 7, 8, 93 Hebert, E. A., 191 Heitin, L., 206 Helsing, D., 3 Henderson, A. T., 50, 224, 232, 233,

234, 235 Heritage, J., 137 Heritage, M., 137 Herman, J. L., 72, 178 Herman, K.C., 240 Hernández-Ramos, P., 162 Herold, B., 92 Hetland, L., 86 Hidden curriculum, 23–24 Hiebert, E., 92 Higher-level thinking, 74 Highly qualified teachers, 4 Hill, A., 159, 162 Hill, D., 71 Hill, J. D., 73, 122 Hill, W., 89 Hints, 237 Hirsch, J., 93 Hobbs, R., 209 Hockly, N., 93 Hoffman, P., 27 Hohlfeld, T. N., 8 Holbrook, T., 184 Holcomb, Lori B., 7 Holistic rubric, 188 Holme, J., 40 Holmes, K., 72, 73 Holt, J. C., 31 Home schooling, 31 Home visits, 45 Hong, S., 50 Hopfer, S., 245 Hopper, S., 160 Horgan, D. D., 77 Horn, C., 125 Howarth, C., 42 Hramiak, A., 260 Huang, X., 7 Hubbard, R., 25 Hubbell, E. R., 11, 14, 112 Huebner, T., 61 Hufstedler, Shirley, 24 Hughes, C. A., 70, 71, 211 Hughes, M. T., 123 Hughes Bill, 67 Hunt, J. W., 6 Hunter, M., 139 Hurt, J., 91, 96 Husain, M., 77

Huzinec, C., 197, 203, 213 Hymel, S., 230

I

IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), 66–67

IEP (individualized education program), 47, 67 Ignorance questions, 139 I-messages, 237 Impairment, 68 Implicit curriculum, 23–24 Inclusion, 67 Inclusive and responsive instruction, 15, 58–81

differentiated instruction (See Differentiated instruction)

English language learners, 71–75 gender equity, 76–78 gifted/advanced learners, 75–76 positive/strength-based approaches, 59–60 safe spaces, 78–79 special needs students (See Students with

special needs) students groupings, 63–66 treat students as individuals, 60 Universal Design for Learning, 60–61

Independence, promoting, 228 Individual accountability, 153 Individualized education program (IEP), 47, 67 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA), 66–67 Induction programs, 257 Inductive teaching, 139

concept formation, 146–148 cooperative learning, 153–158 learning cycle, 142 project-based learning, 158–162 strengths/weaknesses of, 148

Inequities, 40–42 Influences, teaching, 8–10 Information flow, 205 Information processing approaches, 12 Ingersoll, R., 257 Input choices, 62 Inside–outside circle, 154 Instructional management, 211–214 Instructional models/strategies, 11, 135–169

classroom questioning, 136–139 concept formation, 146–148 content conversation model, 149–153 direct instruction model (See Direct

instruction model) learning cycle, 142–145 project-based learning, 158–162

Instructional resources, 91–94 brainstorming, 95 rich, 93–94 textbooks, 91–93

Interaction, 123, 125–130 active participation strategies, 125–128 structuring for language development,

129–130 Interactive graphic organizers, 118 Interactive whiteboard (IWB), 93 Interest inventories, 87 International assessment landscape, 175–176 Internet

as a language learning tool, 74 quality of lessons from, 108

Interview ethnographic approach, 45 for students assessments, 192

Irvine, J., 11 Ito, M., 114 Iwasyk, M., 138 IWB (interactive whiteboard), 93

J

Jackson, C., 51 Jackson, L., 243 Jackson, P., 3 Jacob, E., 153 Janusis, G., 207 Janzen, J., 73 Jaser, S., 76 Jeffords, J. M., 41 Jenkins, J., 92 Jennings, M. E., 225 Jennings, P., 42, 225 Jensen, E., 12, 130 Jeynes, W., 8, 50, 53 Jigsaw II, 154 Johnsen, S., 76 Johnson, B., 176 Johnson, D. D., 176 Johnson, D. W., 112, 153, 231 Johnson, J. Y., 93 Johnson, L., 257 Johnson, R. T., 112, 153, 173, 180, 231 Johnson, V. R., 50 Johnston, B., 261 Jones, F., 202, 207, 213, 226, 242, 243 Journals, 191–192 Joyner, R. E., 142

K

Kagan, S., 126, 127, 128, 153, 154, 155, 191 Kaiser, B., 224, 234 Kaisler, G., 59 Kajder, S., 115 Kallick, B., 86, 171 Kalogrides, D., 64 Kaplan, S., 2 Karaçalli, S., 162 Karathanos, K., 72 Katsanos, C., 162 Kaufman, J., 76, 257 Kazemi, E., 42 Kea, C. D., 43 Keene, E., 115 Keller, J. B., 21, 32 Kelley, M., 62 Kellough, R.D., 98 Kelly, C., 3233 Kemker, K., 8 Kennedy, K., 175 Kern, D., 151 Kern, R., 260 Kernes, J., 28 Khalsa, S. S., 230 Khan, A., 137 Kidder, R. M., 261 Kiefer, B.Z., 98 Kienhuis, M., 238, 243 Killeavy, M., 260 Kim, E., 42 King, M. L., Jr., 29

Z03_GUIL5597_05_SE_IND.indd 298 20/11/14 4:17 PM

Index 299

King, S., 71 Kingsley, T., 36 Kingston, P. W., 25 Kinney, P., 187 Kinnier, R., 28 Kinzie, M., 137 Kirtman, L., 233 Kitsantas, A., 159, 160 Klaiman, C., 121 Kleinfeld, J., 11 Kliebard, H. M., 25 Klimek, K. J., 12 Klingner, J., 153 Knight, C., 225, 238 Knight, J., 259 Knobel, M., 45 Knoll, M., 158 Knopf, J., 68 Knowles, L., 62 Know thyself, 198 Kocakülah, M., 148 Koenig, K., 121 Koepke, M. F., 76 Kohn, A., 30, 52, 112, 176, 197, 222, 227, 235 Kolb, D. A., 143 Konstantopoulos, S., 11 Korur, F., 162 Kosciw, J. G., 78, 79 Kottler, E., 235, 261 Kottler, J. A., 45, 235, 237, 256, 261 Kounin, J., 211, 242 Kovalik, S. J., 98, 122 Kozol, J., 8 Krashen, S., 72, 73, 85, 122 Krathwohl, D. R., 89, 90 Krauss, J., 161 Kuh, G., 125 Kuhn, D., 158 Kulik, C. C., 93 Kulik, J. A., 93 Kurose, A., 138 Kuzmich, L., 49, 66, 181 Kyndt, E., 153

L

Labaree, D. F., 2, 3, 10 Laczko-Kerr, I., 10 Ladson-Billings, G., 41 Laine, F., 121 Laitsch, D., 176 Lamb, S., 224, 227, 234 Landscape, assessment

international, 175–176 national-level, 176–177 school-level, 177 state-level, 176–177

Lane, K. L., 227 Language acquisition, 72 Language games, 74 Language podcasts, 74 Lapp, B., 25 Larmer, J., 158, 159, 162 Laughter, 237 Lau v. Nichols,72 Lawrence, A., 180 Laws, 3–6

students with special needs, 66–67 Layton, C. A., 180

Lazarus, W., 9 Leander, R., 6 Learning cycle approach, 142–145, 165

description of, 143 sample lesson, 143, 144–145 stages of, 143–144

Learning domains, taxonomies for, 89 Learning environment, 196–222

classroom ambience, managing, 197–200 digital equipment, 205–207 information flow, 205 physical space management, 201–204 positive, 240–241 time management (See Time management)

Learning styles, 49 Leas, K., 77 Least restrictive environment, 67 Lee, D. S., 177 Lee, H., 53, 255, 256 Lee, J. H., 7, 158 Lee, S., 68 Lee, Y., 137 Legal issues, 3–6 Legitimate power, 226 Lemons, C., 71 Lenhart, A., 6 Lenski, S. D., 138 Leroux, A., 71 Lesbian students, 78–79 Lesson planning, 100, 102–108

elements of, 106–108 lesson structure, 104–106 sample format, 107 writing objectives, 103–104

Lesson study, 259 LeTendre, G. K., 8 Letter and number tiles, 127 Levstik, L.S., 98 Lewis, C., 52, 224 Lewis, J. D., 8 Lewis, J. L., 42, 235 Lewis, R., 225, 227 Lewis, T., 234 Lexile rating, 92 Libel, 5 Lieberman, A., 260 Limits, classroom behavior, 233–234 Lin, Y., 42 Linan-Thompson, S., 73 Lindqvist, P., 3 Linguistic clues, 146 Lismont, B., 153 Listening, 11

active, 14,235–236 peer, 236

Little, C., 61 Little, E., 238, 243 Livingston, J., 7 Living things, 124 Local assessments, 174 Lock, R. H., 180 Loeb, S., 64 Loewen, J. W., 92 Logan, J., 41 Logical consequences, 228 London, R. A., 8 Long, B., 177 Long, D., 137, 138

Long, M., 77 Long-range planning, 94, 96–100

advice for, 94 unit planning, 97–100 weekly/daily schedules, 100 yearlong planning, 96–97

Long-term redirection, 247–248 Lopez, O. S., 9, 93 Lord, E., 152 Lord, S., 160, 162 Lorentz, J., 197 Losen, D. J., 41, 224 Lou, Y., 64 Love, K., 31 Loyens, S. M., 162 Ludington, J., 157 Lynn, M., 225

M

Mace, D., 260 MacGillivray, L., 51 Macia, L., 53, 255, 256 Mael, F., 77 Mager, R. F., 102, 103 Magnusson, N., 42 Main, E., 173, 182 Mameli, C., 149 Manning, S., 75, 76 Mapp, K. L., 50 Mapping, 45 Marcus, J., 92 Markham, T., 159 Markow, D., 53, 112, 255, 256 Marlowe, B. A., 11, 89, 142 Marshall, J., 137 Marshall, M., 227, 228, 240 Martin, S., 112 Martinez, E., 50 Marx, A., 202 Marzano, J. S., 197 Marzano, R. J., 14, 86, 93, 112, 114, 118,

125, 130, 136, 138, 148, 153, 197, 200, 209

Matsumura, L. C., 172 Matthews, W. J., 243 Mattone, L., 211 Mayer, R. E., 89, 90 McCandliss, B., 12 McCarthy, M. M., 5, 125 McCauley, A., 44 McClarty, K. L., 131 McClintic, C. L., 12 McCoach, D., 61 McConney, A., 41 McCroskey, J., 117 McDaniel, M., 49 McDaniel, T. R., 5 McGough, J., 44 McIntosh, A., 71 McKay, R. R., 29 McKinney, M., 44, 50 McKnight, C. C., 29 McLeskey, J., 39 McMahon, S.I., 151 McMahon-Klosterman, K., 189 McNary, E., 226 McTighe, J., 97, 188, 258 McVay, A., 131

Z03_GUIL5597_05_SE_IND.indd 299 20/11/14 4:17 PM

300 Index

Mead, S., 77 Meadows, D., 242 Medina, A., 180 Medina-Jerez, W., 180 Meeks, G., 93 Meetings, classroom, 199 Mehta-Parekh, H., 68 Meister, C., 139 Mendler, A. N., 236 Meng, L., 24 Menken, K., 176 Mentors, 8 Mergendoller, J., 159 Metacognition, 120 Metaphors, 200 Meyer, A., 61 Meyer, D. K., 239 Meyer, E., 180 Meyer, L. M., 73 Meyers, L., 184 Michaels, S., 129, 150 Middendorf, J., 226 Middlecamp, C. H., 138, 139 Midgley, C., 239 Miller, B., 153 Miller, G. A., 12, 117, 118, 197, 238,

242, 248 Miller, L., 224 Millimet, D., 77 Milstein, M., 224, 232, 233, 234, 235 Minahan, J., 239 Minca, E., 41 Mindfulness, 225 Mishna, F., 230 Mistaken goals, 246 Mitchell, M., 173, 180, 224, 231 Mitchell, S., 158 Modeling, 120–122

effective, tips for, 120 examples of, 121

Modifications, 68–69 Mohammed, S., 153 Mokhtari, K., 177 Molinari, L., 149 Moll, L. C., 8 Molloy, L., 245 Moloney, A., 260 Monitoring, 202 Montgomery, W., 43 Moody, S. W., 123 Moore, J., 224, 245 Moore, K., 93 Mora, F., 9 Morals, 260 Moriarty, A., 245 Morris, R., 205, 226 Morrison, K., 9 Moseley, D., 49 Mosher, R. S., 11 Moss, C., 177 Motivation, 42,240–241

for misbehavior, 246–247 Mroz, M., 123 Mudrey-Camino, R., 225, 238 Muller, C., 42 Muller, L., 61 Multicultural content, levels of integration

for, 109

Multimedia projects, 98 Multiple embodiments, 120 Multiple intelligence theory, 12 Multiple measures, 172 Mulvey, J., 77 Munro, D., 125 Murin, A., 7 Murphy, P. K., 149, 153 Murray, H., 117 Murray, T., 227 Mursky, C., 76 Music, 124 Mutual accommodation, 50, 59 Myers, D., 197, 201 Myles, B. S., 24

N

Naceur, A., 125 Nargund-Joshi, V., 158 National Assessment of Education Progress

(NAEP), 6, 176 assessment, 40

National Association for Gifted Children, 75 National Board certification, 13 National Board for Professional Teaching

Standards (NBPTS), 13, 254 National Center on Universal Design for

Learning, 61 National Child Labor Committee, 25 National-level assessment landscape,

176–177 Natural consequences, 228 Nature of learning, 30 NBPTS (National Board for Professional

Teaching Standards), 13, 254 NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act of 2001, 4,

6, 176 Negative emotions, 225 Nelson, C., 29 Nelson, P. A., 78 Ness, D., 176 Ness, M., 139 Neuman, S. B., 85 Neurodiversity, 60 Nevin, A. I., 62 Newmann, F., 125 Newmann, V., 191 Next Generation Science Standards, 8, 84, 85,

96, 137 Nguyen-Jahiel, K., 153 Nickel, A. L., 138, 139 Nieto, S., 41, 59, 116, 259 Nishio, M., 11, 41 Noble, T., 90 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, 4,

6, 176 Noddings, N., 24 Noguera, P., 42, 224 Nonverbal communication, 241–242 Noonan, M., 51 Nordänger, U. K., 3 Norm-referenced assessment, 174 Note taking/making, 45 Novak, J. D., 192 Null curriculum, 24 Numbered heads together, 127 Nunley, K. F., 62, 63 Nystrand, M., 137, 138

O

Oakes, J., 41, 83, 123 Obenchain, K. M., 229, 234 Objectives

vs. goals, 90 writing, 103–104

Observation ethnographic approach, 45 professional development, 259–260 teachers, 192 and understanding student’s behavior, 47

O’Connor, F., 149 O’Connor, M. C., 129, 150 Off task, 242 Ogba, O., 162 Ogle, D., 73 Olivos, E. M., 51 Olsen, K. D., 98, 122 Olson, J., 138 One-to-one classroom management, 206 Ongoing assignments, 62 Online education, 260 Online quizzes, 180 Online survey services, 45 On task, 202 Opinionnaire, 126 Opportunity to learn, 39 Orfield, G., 41 Organization, instruction, 116–120

content, 118–119 times/tasks, 119–120

Organizational plan, 119 Ornelles, C., 51 Orozco, C. E., 29 Orr, A., 131 Ort, S., 177 O’Shea, M. R., 92 Osher, D., 224, 233, 238 Osmundson, E., 178 Otter, D., 262 Ouelett, M., 78 Overlapping, 243, 244

P

Pacing, 211–212 guide, 96

Page, M. L., 11, 89, 142 Pai, Y., 28 Paige, R., 8 Painter, D., 62 Palmer, N. A., 78 Palmer, S., 68 Palumbo, A., 197 Pan, C., 112 Pane, D., 224 Panyan, M. V., 243 Pappas, C.C., 98 PARCC (Partnership for Assessment of

Readiness for College and Careers), 177

Parish, T.B., 74 Park, S., 152 Parsons, S., 63 Partner journals, 128 Partners, student grouping, 64 Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for

College and Careers (PARCC), 177

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Index 301

Partnership for 21st Century Learning’s outcomes, 88

Pascal, J., 172 Pashler, H., 49 Pastor, M., 8 Patrick, H., 239 Patterson, K., 136 Patton, L. D., 8 Pawan, F., 42, 114 Payne, R., 227, 233, 235, 242 Pearcy, M., 92 Peer coach, 127 Peer interview, 127 Peer listening, 236 Peer-mediated instruction, 153 Peers, as assessment partners, 185 Pellegrini, A.D., 6 Pension plans, 262 Pepper, F., 246 Percentile, 174 Percy, W. A., 24 Performance-based assessments, 192 Perry, L., 41 Person-first terminology, 68 Peters, J. M., 97 Petrone, R., 10 Phelps, R.P., 177 Phillips, R., 180 Physical movement during classroom

instruction, 130 Physical proximity, 242 Physical representations, 130 Physical space, classroom

checkpoints for, 204 management of, 201–204

Piaget, J., 12 Pickering, D. J., 14, 112, 114, 118, 136, 138,

148, 153 Pickett, K., 8 Picture files, 124 Pierson, M. R., 227 Pintrich, P. R., 89, 90 PISA (Programme for International Student

Assessment), 175 Place, A. W., 137 Planning, for instruction, 82–110

assessment of students’ needs, 86–87 goals (See Goals, planning) instructional resources, 91–94 lesson planning (See Lesson planning) long-range, 94, 96–100 (See also Long-range

planning) sample web, 99 standards-based, 83–85 (See also Standards-

based instruction) Platinum Rule, 247 Podcasting, 36 Polikoff, M., 257 Polite assumption, 44 Pollack, T., 225 Pollock, J. E., 14, 112, 114, 118, 136, 138,

148, 153 Polya, G., 21 Pope, N., 173, 180 Popham, W.J., 103, 174, 175 Porter, A., 257 Portfolios, 191 Positive Behavior Support, 245

Positive emotions, 225 Positive interdependence, 153 Positive learning environment,

240–241 Poulsen, C., 64 Poverty, 8, 9 Powell, G., 44 Powers, J.M., 83 Power seeking, 246 Power struggles, 230 Praise, 241 Prakash, M.S., 25, 27 Praxis, 13 Preassessments, 181

of students’ needs/interests, 86 Prensky, M., 7 Pressey, B., 92 Prevention, misbehavior, 237–242 Pribram, K. H., 12 Primacy effect, 131 Prince, M., 160, 162 Private correction, 237 Problem-based learning, 11 Productivity, 202 Product option contracts, 62 Products, 191 Professional community, 255–260 Professional ethics. See Ethics,

professional Professional growth, 254–265

advanced certification/study, 260 e-development, 260 engagement in professional community,

255–260 ethics, 260–262 feedback, utilizing, 257–258 membership in professional organizations,

259 observations/travel, 259–260 workshops/webinars, attending, 259

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 77, 175

Progress monitoring, 70, 125 formative assessment as, 181–182

Project-based learning (PBL), 158–162 description of, 158–159 sample, 160–161 stages of, 159–160 strengths/weaknesses of, 161–162 success, planning for, 158

Proximity control, 244 Pryor, B. W., 6 Pryor, C.R., 10 Purcell, K., 7, 8, 93 Putman, S., 36 Puzio, K., 112 Pyle, N., 71 Pythagoras, 227

Q

QR codes, 206 Quality teaching, 21 Questioning, classroom, 136–139

strategies for improving, 137, 138 Questionnaire, for teaching self-

analysis, 15 Quick scan analysis, 187–188 Quick write, 127

R

Raes, E., 153 Raider-Roth, N., 227 Ramps, 61 Randolph, J., 125 Raphael, T.E., 151 Rapp, C., 7 Rappaport, N., 239 Rasminsky, J., 224, 234 Rathbun, A., 11, 41 Rathkey, C., 158 Raths, J., 89, 90 Raven, B., 226 Ravitch, D., 92 Ravitz, J., 159 Read-aloud, 240 Reading choices, 62 Ready, D.D., 225 Realia, 124 Ream, R. K., 235 Reardon, S.F., 8 Recency effect, 131 Redirecting, 240 Reed, D., 257 Reeves, D.B., 9, 177 Reeves, S., 76 Referent power, 226 Reichert, M., 227 Reid, D., 68 Reinforcing, 240 Reinke, W.M., 240 Reinsvold, L.A., 137 Reis, S.M., 61, 76 Relationship, teacher-student, 234–237 Reliable information, 171 Religion, 5 Reminding, 240 Renzulli, J.S., 76 Reschly, A. L., 50 Resnick, L. B., 129, 136, 150 Respect, treating students with, 235–236 Response to intervention (RTI), 70–71 Reteach, 182, 190, 214 Retirement plans, 262 Revenge seeking, 246 Revised Bloom’s taxonomy, 89 Reward power, 226–227 Reynolds, A., 14 Reynolds, J., 76 Reznitskaya, A., 149 Ribble, M.S., 230 Riccomini, P., 190 Rice, J., 11, 41 Rice, S., 231 Richardson, A.E., 150 Richardson, N., 259 Richardson, V., 2, 14, 21, 31 Ridenour, C. S., 137 Rideout, V. J., 7 Riegle-Crumb, C., 42 Rikers, R. J. P., 162 Riley, P., 225 Rimm-Kaufman, S., 42, 251 Risko, V., 59 Ritchie, S., 44, 50 Ritzhaupt, A. D., 8 Rivers, I. D., 8

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