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Juvenile Victimization

Problems of Crime Victims

Victimization costs include: damaged property, pain and suffering, and the involvement of police and other agencies of the justice system

The Emergence of Victimology

For every criminal act, there is at least one victim.

Victimology: A subfield of criminology that specializes in studying the victims of crime.

Who Gets Victimized

Victimization is not a random process; it is a process encompassing a host of systematic environmental, demographic, and personal characteristics.

Victim characteristics differ according to the type of crime.

Violence: What do we mean?

violent crime (homicide, etc.)
suicide
fighting
bullying
sexual harassment
child/adolescent abuse
date/relationship violence
gang-related violence

Status Offenses

truancy from school
underage drinking
buying cigarettes
running away

Violent Crime Index Offenses

murder
rape
aggravated assault
armed robbery
arson

Data Sources

Youth Risk Behavior Survey
National Youth Gang Survey
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), FBI
National Crime Victimization Survey, DOJ
Health Behavior of School-aged Children Survey, National Institute for Child Health & Development & WHO (bullying)
National School Climate Survey, since 2001

Problems of Crime Victims

Economic Loss:
Problems of Crime Victims
Violent crime by juveniles costs $158 billion per year
Total economic costs of crime amounts to $450 billion annually
The costs of crime for each U.S. citizen is $1,800 annually
Victims suffer long term losses in earnings and occupational attainment
Research suggests crime victims during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than nonvictims

Problems of Crime Victims

System Abuse
Callous handling of victims by police
Holding of personal property for evidence
Rape victims report feeling “re-raped”
Economic hardships due to trials

Problems of Crime Victims

Long Term Stress
Posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD)
Lowering of self-esteem
Increased risk of suicide
Eating disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Victimization lead to some people feeling timid and cautious
Fear of a repeat attack
Suffer psychological stress for longer periods of time

The Nature of Victimization

Crime rates have been declining
The violent victimization rate decreased 54 percent
The property crime victimization rate decreased 50 percent

Figure 3.1 Declining Crime Rates, 1973-2003

Figure 3.2 Violent Crime Victimization Rates, 1973-2003

Figure 3.3 Property Crime Victimization Rates, 1973-2003

Victimization in the Workplace and School

On average, over two million incidents take place in the workplace annually.

The three occupations most at risk are: police officers, correction officers, and taxi drivers.

Schools are some of the safest places we can be.

Teachers get victimized by both theft and violence at school.

Violent Schools: Myth or Reality?

schools among the safest places for children
homicides in school rare: of 2,000 killings of children/year, 10 in or near schools
300 youth killed by guns elsewhere for one killed by gun at school
% carrying gun/weapon to school declined 1996-2001
most school crime is theft, not violent: 1% report being victim of a “serious” school crime

Dating Violence
the perpetration or threat of an act of violence by at least one member of an unmarried couple on the other member within the context of dating. This violence encompasses any form of sexual assault, physical violence, and verbal or emotional abuse.

Dating Violence

Estimated prevalence of nonsexual dating violence:
22% among male & female h.s. students
32% among college students
females more likely victims
80-90% of rapes on college campuses committed by someone victim knows
characteristics of perpetrators: sexually aggressive male peers, heavy alcohol or drug use, dating violence normative, traditional sex roles, rape myths, family history of observing or experiencing abuse

Safe Dates
Foshee etal, AJPH 1998

primary & secondary prevention
8th & 9th graders in rural North Carolina
school: student theater; 10 session curriculum; poster contest to:
change dating violence norms
teach conflict management skills
normalize seeking help
community: train professionals, crisis lines, support groups
outcomes:
program students report less verbal, psychological, physical abuse than controls
program students more likely to endorse non-violence norms, have better communication skills & more favorable attitude towards seeking help

Number of Homicides and Suicides of Youth Ages 15-19 at
and Away from School: 1999-2000

Source: DeVoe et al., Indicators of school crime and safety: 2003 (2003). U.S. Departments of Education and Justice.

Bullying - A specific type of aggressive behavior:

intended to harm or disturb
occurring repeatedly, over time
powerful attacking less powerful

Takes many forms:

threats
physical harm
rejection
name calling
teasing
rumors
take belongings

Percentage of Students ages 12-18 who Reported being Bullied During Previous Six Months, by Grade: 1999 and 2001 – first major study of Bullying

Source: DeVoe et al., Indicators of school crime and safety: 2003 (2003). U.S. Departments of Education and Justice.

30% US middle school students “involved”:
13% bullying
11% being bullied
6% both bullying & being bullied
males bully/bullied more than females
peaks in middle school
bullying/being bullied associated with adjustment problems
differences between those bullying & bullied
successful interventions in Norway, England, South Carolina

Bullying

The Nature of Victimization

The social ecology of victimization
Violent crimes are more likely to occur in open public areas during daytime or early evening hours
Almost two-thirds of more serious crimes such as rape occur after 6 P.M.
Inner-city inhabitants have a greater chance of being victimized than suburbanites

The Nature of Victimization

The Victim’s Household
Larger, African American, Western, and urban homes are the most vulnerable to crime
Recent declines in victimization may be explained by smaller households in less populated areas due to movement from urban areas

The Nature of Victimization

Victim Characteristics
Gender:
Males are more likely to be victims of violent crime than females, except for rape and sexual assault
Females are more likely to be victimized by someone they know, whereas males are more likely to be victimized by strangers
Age:
Young people are more at risk of victimization than older people
People over 65 only account for 1 percent of violent victimizations (most being frauds and scams)

Violent Crime Rates by Age of Victim

The Nature of Victimization

Social Status
Poor people are more likely to experience violent and property crime
The wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes

The Nature of Victimization

Marital Status
Never-married people are more likely to be victimized than married people
Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization rate

The Nature of Victimization

Race and Ethnicity
African Americans more likely to be victims of violent crime than European Americans
Minorities experience income inequality in greater number than European Americans

The Nature of Victimization

Repeat Victimization
Individuals who have been a crime victim have a significantly higher chance of future victimization
Characteristics which increase potential for victimization
Target vulnerability
Target gratifiability
Target antagonism

The Nature of Victimization

The Victims and Their Criminals
Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger
Females are more likely to be victimized by a friend or intimate
Crime is intraracial: Blacks victimize Blacks and Whites victimize Whites
Substance abuse is involved in about one-third of violent crime incidents
Women are more likely to be both robbed and raped by known acquaintances

Theories of Victimization

Victim Precipitation Theory – some people may actually initiate the confrontation that leads to their injury or death.
Active precipitation – victim acts provocatively (Menachem Amir 1971)
Passive precipitation – occurs when victim exhibits some personal characteristics that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the attacker.

Theories of Victimization

Lifestyle Theory – certain lifestyles increase exposure to criminal offenders.
Being in a public place late at night
Living in an urban area
High-risk lifestyles (i.e. drinking, drug using)
Criminal lifestyle such as carrying weapons and belonging to gangs

Theories of Victimization

Deviant Place Theory
Victim prone to victimization because one resides in a socially disorganized high-crime area
The more often victims visit dangerous places, the more likely they will be exposed to crime and violence
Deviant places include: poor densely populated areas, highly transient neighborhoods and commercial areas with residential property in close proximity
William Julius Wilson suggests White residents flee high-crime areas, leaving racial minorities behind to suffer high victimization rates

Theories of Victimization

Routine Activity Theory
Victimization results from the interaction of everyday factors
Availability of suitable targets
Absence of capable guardians
Presence of motivated offenders
People who live in “hot spots” elevate their chances of victimization
Some criminologists suggest moral guardianship might cause some people to refrain from crime if they are bonded with conventional attitudes (peer rejection)
Ronald Clarke contends the relationship among opportunity, routine activities, and environmental factors increases victimization potential

Routine Activities Theory

The Opportunity Structure of Crime

Victimization and the Criminal & Juvenile Justice Systems

Advocates for victims’ rights began agitating for some of the same kinds of due process rights for victims that are enjoyed by their victimizers in the late 1960s, but it was not until 1982 that a federal task force was set up to examine the treatment of victims by the criminal justice system. A few years later a parallel task force examined the juvenile justice system.

The fair and decent treatment of victims by the system can help them to some extent to get over their victimization.

Caring for the Victim

Victimization surveys indicate almost every American will become a victim of a common law crime
Helping the victim cope is the responsibility of all of society

Caring for the Victim

The Government’s Response
Task Force on Victim’s of Crime created in 1982 to provide recommendations for victim assistance
In 1984 The Comprehensive Crime Control Act and the Victims of Crime Act authorized federal funding for state victim compensation

Caring for the Victim

Victim Service Programs
An estimated 2,000 victim-witness assistance programs have been developed
Victim compensation: to pay for damages associated with crime ($100 to $15,000)
Court services: to help prepare victims and witnesses for court testimony
Public education: to familiarize the general public with primary prevention programs
Crisis intervention: Networks of social service agencies to provide emergency and long term assistance
Victim-offender reconciliation programs: use of mediators for face-to-face encounters between victims and perpetrators
Victim impact statements: allows victims the opportunity to describe their ordeal

Caring for the Victim

Victims’ Rights
Legal scholars have suggested crime victims have legal rights and society is obliged to ensure basic rights for law-abiding citizens
Thirty-three states have added victim’s rights amendments to their constitutions
A national Constitutional Amendment has been debated but has not yet passed Congress
In 2004, the Senate passed S.2329 a bill to provide rights to federal victims of crime, which does not change the Constitution

Caring for the Victim

Victim Advocacy
Advocates provide assistance to crime victims by interacting with police, courts, and legal aid
Advocates may assist in the writing of victim statements for various legal proceedings such as sentencing and probation/parole hearings.
Advocates may interact with media trying to ensure reporting is accurate and that privacy is not violated

Caring for the Victim

Self-Protection
Target hardening involves making one’s home and business crime proof
Use of fences, guards, surveillance cameras, window bars, warning signs, and dogs
Gary Kleck suggests armed victims kill between 1,500 and 2,800 potential felons each year

Caring for the Victim

Community Organization
Neighborhood watch programs
Community newsletters
Home security surveys
Lighting projects

Victim Compensation and Restitution

Victims of crime are eligible for partial compensation from the states to cover medical and living expenses incurred as a result of their victimization.

Victim compensation in the form of direct payments from the offenders in the form of restitution is increasingly ordered by the courts.

Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPs)

VORPs are an integral component of restorative justice philosophy.

Central to the VORP process is the bringing together of victim and offender in face-to-face meetings mediated by a person trained in mediation theory and practice.

VORPs are used most often in the juvenile system but rarely used for personal violent crimes in juvenile or adult systems.