Human resource management

Joel Dei

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Chapter 4 Job Analysis and Job Design

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to

Explain what a job analysis is and how it is used in conjunction with a firm’s HRM functions.

Explain how the information for a job analysis typically is collected and incorporated into various sections of a job’s description.

Provide examples illustrating the various factors that must be taken into account when designing a job, including what motivates employees.

Describe the different group techniques and types of work schedules used to broaden a firm’s job functions and maximize the contributions of employees.

Discussion Starter #1

Online services such as Skype and iMeet allow virtual workers to get better acquainted with one another and have face-to-face conversations across any distance.

What are some advantages and disadvantages of virtual teams?

Have you ever been part of a virtual team? If so, describe your experience.

ANSWER: Virtual teams offer many advantages, such as lower operating costs, lower employee costs, reduced travel time, increased productivity, and increased flexibility for employees.

Although virtual teams have many benefits, they are not without their problems. They include language and cultural barriers, unclear objectives, time conflicts due to geographical locations, and members’ ability to work in a collaborative setting.

Students’ answers will vary as to whether they have participated in a virtual team.

Introduction

Job – An activity people do for which they get paid, particularly as part of the trade or occupation they occupy

Workflow analysis – Helps a firm determine the best processes, types, and mix of jobs, and how they should ideally be organized to execute the firm’s mission

4.1 What Is a Job Analysis and How Does It Affect Human Resources Management?

Job analysis – The process of obtaining information about a job by determining its duties, tasks, or activities

Its basic responsibilities

The behaviors of the people who do it

The skills of the people who do it

The physical and mental requirements of the people who do it

A job analysis should also outline:

The tools needed to do the job

The environment and times at which it needs to be done

With whom it needs to be done

The outcome or performance level it should produce

Figure 4.1: Job Analysis: The Cornerstone of HRM Functions

Section 4.1: What Is a Job Analysis and How Does It Affect Human Resources Management?

As Figure 4.1 shows, the information in a job analysis is crucial to a number of HRM functions, including the following:

Strategic HR planning. A job analysis is used to examine a company’s organizational structure and strategically position it for the future. Does the firm have the right numbers and types of jobs and skills needed to cover the scope of its activities now and in the future? In addition, are the jobs aligned with one another, or do their purposes or duties conflict with one another? Are there tasks that need to be done in the organization that are not clearly assigned to a particular job? Conducting a job analysis helps ensure alignment.

Workflow analysis and job design. The information generated by a job analysis can be used to analyze a company’s work processes—that is, how work is done. Would rearranging an organization’s workflow or jobs help a company better compete? Can the nature of the jobs be redesigned to improve the firm’s performance?

Recruitment and selection. Some of the information provided in a job analysis is contained in job advertisements. The information and qualifications provide a basis for attracting qualified applicants and discouraging unqualified ones.

Training and development. Any discrepancies between the abilities of jobholders and a firm’s job descriptions provide clues about the training jobholders need to succeed and advance into different jobs as well as the training the firm needs to provide.

Performance appraisal and compensation. A job analysis provides the criteria for evaluating what constitutes a good performance versus a poor performance; the firm can then take steps to improve the latter.

Compensation management. Conducting a job analysis helps HR managers figure out the relative worth of positions so the compensation for them is fair and equitable, and employees want to remain with the firm rather than search for other jobs.

Legal compliance. If the criteria used to hire and evaluate employees are not job related, employers are more likely to find themselves being accused of discrimination.

4.1a Major Parts of the Job Analysis

Job description – A statement of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job to be performed

Job specifications – A statement of the specific knowledge, skills, and abilities of a person who is to perform a job needs

Knowledge – What you know

Skills – Things you have learned to do

Abilities – Your innate aptitudes

Other attributes – Your personality, values, and so on

4.2 Sources of Job Analysis Information

Interviews

Questionnaires

Observation

Diaries

Figure 4.2: The Job Analysis Process

Section 4.2: Sources of Job Analysis Information

Figure 4.2 shows the job analysis process. It includes how the information to be analyzed is collected and feeds back into the HRM functions discussed in Figure 4.1

4.2a Controlling the Accuracy of the Job Data Collected

When interviewing employees or reviewing their questionnaires, a job analyst should look for any responses that contradict other facts or impressions he or she has received about the job.

Job analysts should collect information from a representative sample of individuals doing the same job, not just one or two jobholders.

Once a job analysis is done, it should be checked for accuracy by the jobholders and their managers.

4.2b Other Sources of Job Analysis Information (slide 1 of 2)

Functional Job Analysis System

Functional job analysis (FJA) – A job analysis approach that utilizes an inventory of the various types of work activities that can constitute any job

The Position Analysis Questionnaire System

Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) – A questionnaire that identifies approximately 300 different tasks to determine the degree to which each is involved in doing a job

The Critical Incident Method

Critical incident method – A job analysis method used to identify both desirable and undesirable behaviors that resulted in either a very good outcome or a very bad outcome on the job

Figure 4.3: The Critical Incident Method Illustrated

Section 4.2b: Other Sources of Job Analysis Information

Figure 4.3 illustrates the critical incident method. The incidents in the middle of the figure are associated with neutral outcomes. Most of the outcomes will fall into this area. The incidents on the ends of the figure are good and bad outcomes. Relatively fewer of the incidents will occur in these areas.

4.2b Other Sources of Job Analysis Information (slide 2 of 2)

Task Inventory Analysis

Task inventory analysis – An organization-specific list of tasks and their descriptions used as a basis to identify components of jobs

Competency-Based Approach

Competency-based approach – A job analysis method that relies on building job profiles that look at not only the responsibilities and activities of jobs a worker does currently but the competencies or capabilities he or she needs to do them well and to adapt to new job challenges

Figure 4.4: Form Used to Gather Information for a Competency-Based Job Analysis

Section 4.2b: Other Sources of Job Analysis Information

Figure 4.4 shows a form used to gather information for a competency-based job analysis.

Discussion Starter #2

Discuss the various ways in which a job analysis can be completed. Compare and contrast these methods, noting the pros or cons of each.

ANSWER: The textbook discusses the common approaches to performing a job analysis. These include interviews, questionnaires, observations, diaries, the functional job analysis (FJA), the position analysis questionnaire (PAQ), the critical incident method, the task inventory analysis, and the competency-based approach. While all job analysis techniques are subjective to some degree, those using quantitative approaches (FJA and PAQ) are often viewed as more valid by the EEOC and the courts. Techniques such as personal questionnaires, interviews, and observations are highly subject to bias and subjectivity.

4.2c Parts of a Job Description (slide 1 of 2)

Most job descriptions contain at least three parts:

Job title

Provides status to the employee

Provides an indication of what the duties of the job entail

Indicates the level of the job in the organization

Job identification section

Contains administration information such as a numerical code for the job, to whom the jobholder reports, and wage information

Contains a “Purpose” statement which distinguishes the job from other jobs in the organization

Job duties section

Typically arranged in order of their importance and sometimes indicate the percentage of time devoted to each duty

4.2c Parts of a Job Description (slide 2 of 2)

If the job specification is not prepared as a separate document, it is usually stated in the concluding section of the job description.

Covers two areas of qualifications:

The skills required to perform the job

Include the education, experience, and specialized training the job requires, and the personal traits or abilities and manual dexterities it requires

The job’s physical demands

Refer to how much walking, standing, reaching, lifting, bending, or talking must be done on the job

4.2d Writing Clear and Specific Job Descriptions

Several problems are frequently associated with job descriptions.

If they are poorly written, using vague rather than specific terms, they provide little guidance to the jobholder.

They are sometimes not updated as job duties or specifications change.

They may violate the law or union agreements and lead to employee grievances.

They can limit the scope of activities of the jobholder, reducing an organization’s flexibility.

When writing a job description, managers should:

Keep the items on it direct and simply worded

Eliminate unnecessary words or phrases

Include language stating that the jobholder will perform “other duties” as needed to help alleviate the problem of employees claiming that a task “is not my job”

Group Activity

Step 1: Divide into groups of two. Find two articles related to job analysis and summarize your findings based on the following questions:

Describe the major parts of the job analysis process.

What is the difference between a job description and job specifications? Cite examples.

Why is information collected during a job analysis important for strategic HR planning?

What are the sources of job analysis information? How can the accuracy of data be controlled?

Why is it important to have clear and specific job descriptions?

Step 2: To initiate discussion, share your findings with the rest of the class.

Estimated class time: 30–45 minutes

4.3 Job Design (slide 1 of 2)

Job design – An outgrowth of job analysis that improves jobs through technological and human considerations in order to enhance organization efficiency and employee job satisfaction

Figure 4.5: Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Job Design Approaches

Section 4.3: Job Design

As Figure 4.5 shows, four basic approaches can be used to design jobs. Top-down approaches, which include industrial engineering and ergonomics, focus on the tasks of a job and how they can be done better. Bottom-up approaches, which include enrichment and empowerment, are more person focused. The idea behind these two approaches is to design jobs so that the people doing them are more motivated to do them well.

4.3 Job Design (slide 2 of 2)

Industrial engineering – A field of study concerned with analyzing work methods and establishing time standards

Determines which, if any, elements of work can be modified, combined, rearranged, or eliminated to reduce the time needed to complete the work cycle

Time standards are then established by recording the time required to complete each element in the work cycle, using a stopwatch or work-sampling technique.

4.3a Ergonomics

Ergonomics – The process of studying and designing easy-to-use equipment and systems so the physical well-being of employees isn’t compromised and work gets done more efficiently

Video Highlight #1

A recent study found that sitting for more than three hours a day takes years off your life expectancy. To promote better health, many companies are now using standing desks. Forbes is one of those companies. View this video to see the various types of standing desks employees at Forbes are using.

“Stand for Your Life!”

Section 4.3a: Ergonomics

VIDEO: Stand for Your Life! (5:04)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EiKfHD9cV8U

TOPICS/CONCEPTS: ergonomics, standing desks, job design

4.3b Enrichment (slide 1 of 5)

Job enrichment – Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful tasks and duties to make the work more rewarding or satisfying

Goal:

To enrich a job so that it is intrinsically motivating to employees versus extrinsically motivating

Extrinsic motivators are external rewards such as money and bonuses.

4.3b Enrichment (slide 2 of 5)

Job characteristics model – A job design theory that purports that three psychological states (experiencing meaningfulness of the work performed, responsibility for work outcomes, and knowing the results of the work performed) result in a jobholder’s improved work performance, internal motivation, and lower absenteeism and turnover

4.3b Enrichment (slide 3 of 5)

Five core job dimensions produce the three psychological states:

Skill variety – The degree to which a job includes a variety of activities, which demand the use of a number of different skills and talents by the jobholder

Task identity – The degree to which a jobholder is able to complete a whole and identifiable piece of work—that is, do a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome

Task significance – The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people in one’s organization or elsewhere

Autonomy – The degree to which the job provides a person the freedom and discretion to schedule his or her work and determine how to do it

Feedback – The degree to which a person is given direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her job performance

Figure 4.6: Job Characteristics Model

Section 4.3b: Enrichment

Figure 4.6 illustrates the job characteristics model. The job characteristics model is proposed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham. Hackman and Oldham believe that five core job dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) produce the following three critical psychological states: (1) experienced meaningfulness of the work, (2) experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work, and (3) knowledge of the actual results of the work activities. The three psychological states result in improved work performance, internal motivation, and lower absenteeism and turnover.

4.3b Enrichment (slide 4 of 5)

Other techniques to enrich jobs include job enlargement and job rotation.

Job enlargement – The process of adding a greater variety of tasks to a job

Job rotation – The process whereby employees rotate in and out of different jobs

4.3b Enrichment (slide 5 of 5)

Empowerment

Employee empowerment – Giving employees the power to initiate change, thereby encouraging them to take charge of what they do

Succeeds when organization’s culture is open and receptive to change

Must have the support of an organization’s senior managers

Workplace democracy – The utilization of democratic principles such as voting and debate to give employees more say on how an organization is run and the direction it will take

Job crafting – A naturally occurring phenomenon whereby employees mold their tasks to fit their individual strengths, passions, and motives better

Employee engagement – A situation in which workers are enthusiastic and immersed in their work to the degree that it improves the performance of their companies

4.4 Employee Teams and Flexible Work Schedules

Increasingly, teams are how work gets done in organizations.

Companies are seeing advantages of tinkering with and redesigning work schedules to make them more flexible, and adding flexibility to where employees can work.

4.4a Employee Teams (slide 1 of 3)

Employee team – A group of employees working together toward a common purpose, in which members have complementary skills, members’ work is mutually dependent, and the group has discretion over tasks performed

Employees are closest to the work that’s actually being done in an organization.

Thus, they are often in a better position to see how the work can be done better.

Teamwork can result in synergy.

Synergy occurs when the interaction and outcome of team members is greater than the sum of their individual efforts.

Figure 4.7: Synergistic Team Characteristics

Section 4.4a: Employee Teams

Figure 4.7 lists the behaviors that can help a team develop synergy.

Figure 4.8: Forms of Employee Teams

Section 4.4a: Employee Teams

Figure 4.8 describes common team forms.

Discussion Starter #3

Figure 4.8 shows the different forms of employee teams.

Provide an example of where each type of team can be used.

How do teams create synergy?

ANSWER: Figure 4.8 describes common team forms. They include cross-functional teams, project teams, self-directed teams, task force teams, process-improvement teams, and virtual teams.

Cross-Functional Team. A cross-functional team is a group staffed with a mix of employees from an organization’s marketing, production, engineering departments, and so forth and is formed to accomplish a specific objective.

Project Team. A project team is a group formed specifically to design a new product or service. The members are assigned by their managers on the basis of their ability to contribute to the team’s success. The group normally disbands after the task is completed.

Self-Directed Team. A self-directed team is a group of highly trained individuals performing a set of interdependent job tasks within a natural work unit. The team members rely on consensus-type decision-making to perform their work duties, solve problems, or deal with internal or external customers.

Task Force Team. A task force team is a group formed by management to immediately resolve a major problem.

Process-Improvement Team. A process-improvement team is a group made up of experienced people from different departments or functions. The group is charged with improving quality, decreasing waste, or enhancing the productivity of processes that affect all departments or functions. The members are normally appointed by management.

Virtual Team. A virtual team is a team that utilizes telecommunications technology to link team members who are geographically dispersed—often worldwide across cultures and across time zones.

Synergy occurs when the interaction and outcome of team members is greater than the sum of their individual efforts. Synergy in teams does not automatically happen, though. It must be nurtured within the team environment. Team synergy is heightened when team members engage in the following behaviors:

Support. The team exhibits an atmosphere of inclusion. All team members speak up and feel free to offer constructive comments.

Listening and Clarification. Members honestly listen to others and seek clarification on discussion points. The team members summarize discussions held.

Disagreement. Disagreements are seen as natural and are expected. The members’ comments are nonjudgmental and focus on factual issues rather than personality differences.

Consensus. The team’s members reach agreements through consensus. Proposals that are acceptable to all team members are adopted, even if they are not the first choice of some of the individual members. Common ground among ideas is sought.

Acceptance. The team members value one another as individuals. They recognize that each person brings a valuable mix of skills and abilities to the team.

Quality. Each team member is committed to excellence. There is emphasis on continuous improvement and attention to detail.

4.4a Employee Teams (slide 2 of 3)

Typical team functions:

Setting work schedules

Dealing directly with external customers

Training team members

Setting performance targets

Budgeting

Inventory management

Purchasing equipment or services

Dejobbing – Refers to a process of structuring organizations not around jobs but around projects that are constantly changing

4.4a Employee Teams (slide 3 of 3)

Facilitating Teams

The following characteristics have been identified with successful teams:

A commitment to shared goals and objectives

Motivated and energetic team members

Open and honest communication

Shared leadership

Clear role assignments

A climate of cooperation, collaboration, trust, and accountability

The recognition of conflict and its positive resolution

4.4b Flexible Work Schedules

The more common flexible work schedules are flextime, the compressed workweek, job sharing, and telecommuting.

Flextime – Flexible working hours that give employees the option of choosing daily starting and quitting times, provided that they work a set number of hours per day or week

A compressed workweek is one in which the number of days in the workweek is shortened by lengthening the number of hours worked per day (e.g., 10 hours a day for 4 days a week).

Job sharing – An arrangement whereby two part-time employees do a job normally held by one full-time employee

Telecommuting – The use of personal computers, networks, and other communications technology to do work in the home that is traditionally done in the workplace

Figure 4.9: Keys for Successful Telecommuting

Section 4.4b: Flexible Work Schedules

Figure 4.9 presents suggestions for establishing a successful telecommuting program.

Video Highlight #2

A new study says a flexible work schedule can lead to more sleep and better health. In this video, Dr. Carol Ash, Director of Sleep Medicine at New Jersey's Meridian Health, joins CBS This Morning to discuss the results of this study and the correlation between work and sleep.

“Flexible Work Schedule Could Improve Health, Study Shows”

VIDEO: Flexible Work Schedule Could Improve Health, Study Shows (2:48)

A new study says a flexible work schedule can lead to more sleep and better health. In this video, Dr. Carol Ash, director of sleep medicine at New Jersey's Meridian Health, joins CBS This Morning to discuss the results of this study and the correlation between work and sleep.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qw4g6U-gmA

TOPICS/CONCEPTS: flexible work schedules