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JOAN OF ARC, ST. (c.1412-1431)

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Although heroine of France, Joan of Arc remains one of the most disputed f igures in history, and the person about whom more has been written,

painted, sculpted, and f ilmed than any other f igure save perhaps f or Jesus Christ. Inf inite controversies surrounded her both during her lif etime and

ever thereaf ter, whether as historical personage or mythical persona. Every detail of her brief lif e, whether f ancif ul or true, has been recorded as part

of a saintly progress and martyr's passion.

Born in Domremy, in Lorraine, near what is now the border between France and Germany, during the Hundred Years War, Joan had three brothers and

one sister. Her parents, Jacques d'Arc (or, depending on dialect, d'Ay, Day, Tart) and Isabelle Romée (so named supposedly f or her or an ancestor's

pilgrimage to Rome), were relatively well-of f country f olk. Joan was educated in the manner of most young girls of her milieu, with an emphasis on

sewing, cooking, homemaking, and assisting with f arm work. Religion also playing an important part in a young girl's upbringing, Joan's basic belief s and

prayers came mainly f rom her mother, plus the village priest's sermons and some preaching f rom local Mendicant f riars (Dominicans, Franciscans, and

similar nonconvent-bound orders). The neighboring Bois Chenu (Oak Forest) also provided a f olkloric venue f or local seasonal celebrations as well as a

f avorite imaginative play area f or children. On the less idyllic side, Joan grew up during the latter part of the Hundred Years War (1337-1453), in which

France, repeatedly beaten by the English-most resoundingly at Agincourt (1415)-became divided into two major warring f actions: the Bourguignons

(Anglo-Burgundians: loyal to England's claim over France) and the Armagnacs (loyal to Charles the dauphin as legitimate king). In 1420, by signing the

Treaty of Troyes yielding to the victorious Henry V, the dauphin's mentally unstable f ather, Charles VI, gave away his son's succession rights to Henry

VI of England. Both Henry V and Charles VI died in 1422. Because Joan's village belonged to one of the last pockets of Armagnac resistance to

English domination, Domremy and its environs were subjected to brutal raids by the Anglo-Burgundians f rom 1425 to 1428. Amid all of these events

and inf luences, Joan began to experience mystical visions at age twelve or thirteen: initially f rightening, then engaging, conf rontations, visually and

aurally of light and voices-these later identif ied as saints Michael, Katherine and Margaret-who would convince her that she was destined to have the

Charles the dauphin crowned and liberate France f rom the English. This latter, postcoronation phase, a bit hazily def ined, would later prove crucial to

Joan's f ate.

Joan of Arc on the road to victory. Patriotic image from 1916. Courtesy of the Centre Jeanne d'Arc, Orleans.

Convincing those in power of her mission, even the f irst phase enabling Charles to have a proper coronation at Reims, would be her f irst exploit. In

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May 1428, she tried to persuade her local leader at the “county seat” of Vaucouleurs, Captain Baudricourt, but was rebuf f ed. Af ter the announcement

of the siege of Orléans (1429), a major city on the western side of France held captive by the English, Joan tried twice again with Baudricourt, who

sent her to the duke of Lorraine and his son-in-law, René of Anjou, who granted her saf e conduct. Baudricourt, impressed by Joan's persistence and

zeal (and a mysteriously accurate announcement of the outcome of the Battle of the Herrings), f inally agreed to give her an escort to traverse France

westward to Chinon, the dauphin's headquarters (since the English held Paris, like much else) in February 1429.

Thus accompanied, she managed to pass through Anglo-Burgundian territory to arrive at Chinon probably in early March 1429; her arrival was

preceded by lively rumors about her. Hundreds of pages can be read on her interview with the dauphin. The most salient aspect, the “secret″- whatever she revealed to Charles privately that convinced him of her credibility-has been theorized variously as a prayer, proclamation, or birthmark.

Whatever f orm it took, Joan's secret communication to Charles reassured him that God had f orgiven his part in the murder of Duke John of Burgundy

(1419, which had moved his son and successor, Philip of Burgundy, to shif t his allegiance f rom the dauphin to England), and also that he, Charles, was

the legitimate king of France in God's eyes, despite Anglo-Burgundian propaganda. Charles-af ter receiving some letters f rom Jacques Gelu,

archbishop of Embrun, and the treatise De quadam puella (On a Certain Girl), of ten ascribed to France's most distinguished Churchman, Jean

Gerson (1363-1429)-had Joan interrogated at what would be Joan's f irst trial, bef ore noted theologians at Poitiers (March 11, 1429) (see Fraioli). This

and an examination by select noblewomen certif ied her virginity and the orthodoxy of her religious belief s, despite Joan's masculine clothing and

extraordinary self -pronouncements. Charles theref ore gave her some servants and allowed her to ride with a convoy carrying reinf orcements to

Orléans. She was also given armor and a standard, while she herself obtained her sword at Sainte-Catherine-de-Fierbois (another mystery: how did

she know of it?).

At f irst the battle-hardened French prof essional soldiers disdained her as a companion-in-arms, and even more so as chef de guerre (military leader).

The English replied equally rudely to the ultimatum-bearing letter she wrote them (March 22, 1429), imploring them to surrender to Charles.

Furthermore, her f irst contact with John, Bastard of Orléans (1402-1468; so-called because he was the natural son of Louis, duke of Orléans), bef ore

his besieged city, on April 29, 1429, was less than blissf ul.

But af ter May 4, when the French regained the small f ortress of Saint-Loup (about two miles east of Orléans) and cost the English many men, things

changed. Joan “the Maid” (Jeanne la Pucelle)-she never called herself Joan of Arc (Jeanne d'Arc), pref erring to capitalize on the mystique of her

youth and virginity-showed herself to be not only a sort of good-luck charm, but also managed, by her active presence on the battlef ield, to turn the

tide of victory. Because she never lef t them during those months, she managed to win over her royal captains: Xaintrailles, La Hire, Boussac, Gilles de

Laval (de Rais, the f uture Bluebeard), and the bastard of Orléans, count of Dunois, later joined by John, duke of Alençon. On May 6, Joan was present

when the French took back the bastille (walled, f ortif ied station) of the Augustinians just across the river Loire f rom Orléans, and then, despite taking

an arrow above her breast (as she had predicted), she led the French through the f erocious combat needed to take the bridge to Orléans called Les

Tourelles on May 7 and thus end the seven-month siege, with the English leaving without f urther combat, on May 8, 1429. The procession of

Thanksgiving, begun with a mass at the cathedral, held by the gratef ul Orléanais inaugurated the annual celebration-the oldest French civic holiday-

which continues to this day.

Joan had thus accomplished part of her announced mission, but there remained the recapture of Meung, Beaugency, and Patay (this last battle in

particular, on June 18, considered by historians to be mirror-opposite revenge f or Agincourt) to secure the route to Reims f or Charles's coronation.

This phase of her campaign was also f acilitated by jubilant but f orcef ul letters Joan dictated and sent in advance to certain other towns (Tournai,

Troyes) imploring their support along the coronation route. As a result, Charles was crowned at Reims, anointed with the Holy Chrism that made him

the true king of France. Equally commanding at the ceremony, if not more so, was the f igure of Joan standing with her banner: an enduring image in

royalist iconography.

It was af ter the coronation that her troubles began, since this next phase was less well def ined by her voices. Historians continue to debate its

implications. Should she have considered her mission complete at that point? Did she become so imbued with self -importance that she

misinterpreted and overstepped the bounds of her voices' orders? Did the new king become jealous of her, or was he simply ill advised? How did

Charles the king and Philip, duke of Burgundy, seek to exploit her situation to make a truce? It is dif f icult to decide who betrayed whom f or certain.

But the incontrovertible f act is there: Joan's military momentum suf f ered a major blow in the Île-de-France (region including Paris and environs) as she,

with Alençon, attempted unsuccessf ully to take Paris by attacking the Saint-Honoré Gate on September 8, 1429, af ter which the king ordered the

Paris campaign abandoned and the royal army dissolved at Gien (September 21). However, to keep Joan occupied without f urther threatening

Charles's political agenda (which had by now excluded her), she was given some men-at-arms and dispatched to deal with a rogue bandit chief tain

troublesome to both sides, Perrinet Gressart. Af ter wresting Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier f rom him (November 4), Joan then lay siege to Gressart's

capital, La Charité-sur-Loire, at which she f ailed, due to lack of expected reinf orcements f rom neighboring towns, in mid-November.

To placate her without actually helping her that winter, Charles issued letters patent to ennoble her f amily, through both male and f emale lines. More

hollow gestures of gratitude by La Trémouïlle, Joan's wiliest enemy at the royal court, ushered in the year 1430. Unswerving in her sense of mission,

however, Joan nurtured new plans f or war and wrote more letters to reassure her supporters during March. Her concerns were justif ied, f or Philip of

Burgundy kept delaying the actual promised truce with Charles, and then even planned an of f ensive in the Île-de-France, aided by the duke of

Luxembourg, f or April. Even af ter of f icially realizing that Philip's truce was but a ruse in early May, Charles by then could do nothing to f ortif y Joan's

army, by now a mix of mostly Franco-Italian (Piemontese) volunteers and mercenaries that had set out in late April to campaign around the Île-de-

France: Lagny, Soissons, and Compiègne, north of Paris. At Compiègne, a town supposedly f avorable to Joan, she was caught by the enemy outside

the city's gates on May 23, 1430-some say the mayor, Flavy, had been bribed by the Anglo-Burgundians to lock her out.

Seized by John of Luxembourg, Burgundy's man, Joan was then ransomed to the English f or 10,000 crowns-again little or no apparent attempt by

Charles to rescue her-whereupon would begin her arduous prison itinerary, despite the normally short distance between Compiègne (where she was

captured) and Rouen (where she would stand trial). She attempted to escape f rom Beaulieu tower, then f rom Beaurevoir, af ter which she ceased to

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enjoy the privileges accorded a noblewoman prisoner (supervised by other women) and was thereaf ter guarded by men only. Once at Rouen

(December 23, 1430), she was guarded by the soldiers under the earl of Warwick, Richard Beauchamp (1382-1439), the gray eminence behind her trial

proceedings. The University of Paris, France's theological and legal bastion, now unf ortunately under English control, would conduct and staf f Joan's

trial. John, duke of Bedf ord and regent of France (the newly crowned King Charles still caref ully lying low) subjected her to an inquisitorial process to

discredit her claims of divine inspiration that so demoralized the English, thereby discrediting Charles's legitimacy in the bargain. A French jurist loyal

to the English, Pierre Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais, would preside.

The beau procès (beautif ul trial), as Cauchon called it, was conducted with the utmost procedural rigor, f or its promoters desired only one verdict f or

Joan: guilty. Lasting f rom January 9 until May 29, 1431, it was both a political trial (against Charles) and a theological one (against Charles's legitimacy

and Joan's claims to divine inspiration), to preserve the prestige of the University of Paris and enf orce overall discipline against those ref using to

submit to the Church Militant (the Church on earth) by presuming direct contact with the Church Triumphant (Church in Heaven), as Joan did. We know

f rom the available trial records, despite some anti-Joan tinkering during their translation f rom French into the of f icial Latin a f ew years af ter the trial,

that Joan's deportment was admirable throughout. Deprived of any legal council, she replied to her interrogators with conviction, intelligence, and

f orthrightness. Her interrogators, seasoned men of law and Church of f icialdom, used their best ingenuity to trick her into portraying herself as a

heretic, yet, f or example, when they pushed her to describe precisely her “voices” (Saints Michael, Margaret, and Catherine), she showed herself

more adept than these men at interpreting popular religious practices. When they asked her about the “secret” or “sign” given to Charles, she replied

via an allegory incomprehensible to her judges. They asked her to submit to the Church Militant, but she f irst declared she did not know what this

meant and then, af ter explanation, ref used. Equally vexing f or her judges was the question of her insistence on wearing masculine clothing, which she

def ended on grounds of practicality in battle-and in prison-in the constant company of men throughout her mission, and also because such attire

signif ied her obedience to her voices. In the end, her judges drew up a list of twelve articles of condemnation against her if she did not repent.

The University of Paris thus f ound her guilty of being a schismatic, a heretic, liar, and diviner-although they f ailed to convict her of witchcraf t. She also

suf f ered f ood poisoning, many believe f rom a rotten f ish sent her by Cauchon. In session af ter session, they alternatingly admonished, berated, and

threatened her with torture. Exhausted and weak, on May 24, 1431, Joan signed a recantation-the f amous Abjuration-of her voices and her male

clothing, at the cemetery of Saint-Ouen, and was led back to prison, there donning women's clothes. Her signing the cedula, or abjuration f orm,

whose real length was f ar shorter than the text later preserved in the trial records, inf uriated the English against Cauchon and the other judges

because in so doing, Joan was escaping condemnation, since she was now a ref ormed heretic, which carried a f ar lighter sentence. Joan, however,

was dismayed at having been returned to the English prison of men, despite her new status entitling her, she was promised surveillance by women.

For this and other still-debated reasons, Cauchon f ound her (May 28) again dressed in men's clothing. She was also again citing her voices, specif ically

Saints Margaret and Catherine, as her guides and denied her intent to renounce them at Saint-Ouen. Joan then declared to Cauchon, the vice-

inquisitor and several assessors that her voices made her see that she was “damning myself to save my lif e.” Having thus sealed her f ate as a

relapsed heretic by, as one notary inscribed his manuscript's margin, this “Responsio mortifera” (“a f atal response”), Joan was surrendered to secular

authorities to await sentencing. This conf ormed to proper procedure; however, Cauchon's delivering her to the stake without awaiting a separate

secular verdict was highly irregular. Nevertheless, Joan was burned alive at the Rouen marketplace on May 30, 1431, in a spectacle that would f orever

haunt historical consciousness. This despite Warwick's order, af ter inspecting her corpse to verif y her true gender, that all of her ashes and other

remains be thrown into the Seine, to avoid having any of her remains later worshiped as saintly relics.

Little was written in her f avor right af ter this event, save f or Martin Le Franc (c.1442), yet dissatisf action over her f ate gradually surf aced. Her

rehabilitation came about through a combination of circumstances: Charles, at last joined by Philip of Burgundy and sensing his victory over the English,

answered Joan's mother's repeated pleading visits to reopen her daughter's case. In 1449, Charles began reviewing the trial and also requested a

new trial f rom Pope Nicholas V, with his counselor Guillaume Bouillé: this “royal investigation” would last until 1452. The “canonical investigation” by

the popes then began, with Calixtus III ordering a new trial in 1455. Charles, having f inally managed to expel the English f rom France at this time, was

thus able to have his jurists and inquisitors saf ely complete their inquiry at Paris, Rouen, Domremy, then Orléans, leading to the nullif ication of Joan's

verdict on July 7, 1456. However, most historians agree that it was really Charles who benef ited most f rom these proceedings in the short term.

Yet in the long term, moving testimony given during her nullif ication trial, together with such early admirers of Joan during her lif etime as Jean Gerson

and Christine de Pizan, would f urnish material f or countless books, works of visual art and music through the centuries. Probably the most potent,

whether true or f alse, according to one witness, Jean Massieu, was the executioner's af f irmation that he f ound her heart intact and f ull of blood

among her ashes, and Ysambart de la Pierre's recollection of a normally rude English soldier heard lamenting, “We have burned a woman saint.” These

and other details would inspire either praise or derision f rom many authors, ranging f rom Villon (1461), Shakespeare (1592), then Chapelain (1656) and

Voltaire (1755). But it was the German Schiller's “romantic tragedy,” Die Jungfrau von Orleans (The Maid of Orléans, 1802) that launched an

enormous rebirth of scientif ic as well as literary interest in her throughout Europe. Historians like Jules Michelet came to her rescue, ef f ectively

dubbing her the “soul of France.” In the ensuing cultural rivalry between France and Germany, Jules Quicherat published his f ive-volume critical edition

of the trials and related documents-the f irst, most complete printed record-plus chronicle and literary excerpts (1841-1849), a milestone in Joan of

Arc studies. Readers of Quicherat's monument went on to compose their own portraits of the heroine f rom perspectives as international as those

of Americans Mark Twain (Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc, 1896) and Maxwell Anderson (Joan of Lorraine, 1945), British skeptical playwright

George Bernard Shaw (Saint Joan, 1924), Scots essayist Andrew Lang (1908), German Marxist playwright Bertolt Brecht (Die heilige Johanna der

Schlachthöfe[Saint Joan of the Stockyards], 1929-1930), Japanese antiwar novelist Ishikawa Jun (Fugen[The Bodhisattva], 1936), and f uture

Venezuelan president Rómulo Gallegos's screenplay (La Doncella[The Maid], 1945), of ten in response to the more predictably numerous French

versions, of which those by Charles Péguy (Le Mystère de la charité de Jeanne d'Arc, plus others, 1897-1913), Anatole France (1908), Joseph Delteil

(1925), Georges Bernanos (Jeanne, relapse et sainte[Joan, Heretic and Saint], 1929), Paul Claudel (Jeanne au bûcher[Joan of Arc at the Stake],

1939) and Jean Anouilh (L'Alouette[The Lark], 1953) remain the most memorable, if highly diverse. However, the prolif ic appropriation by right-wing

French authors and politicians during the twentieth century and nowadays, f rom the Action Française group (early 1900s) to Jean-Marie Le Pen's

Front National Party of f icial adoption of her (1992-), appears to dominate the French scene, f or better or worse (Winock). Although (or because) no

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reliable portrait of Joan survives, an equally varied array of children's book illustrators, academic and avant-garde painters and sculptors have risen to

the challenge (see images in Pernoud; Pernoud and Clin; Warner; Rouen Museum catalogue) across the centuries, ever since the notary Clément de

Fauquembergue sketched his image of her in the margins of his manuscript (1429) of the Paris Parlement register: the most striking are by Paul

Delaroche (1824), J. L. D. Ingres (1854), Louis Boutet de Monvel (1896), Octave Guillonnet (1912), Georges Rouault (1948), and Marc Chagall (early

twentieth century); sculptures by the Princess Marie (1840) (see Heimann in Astell and Wheeler), François Rude (1852), Denis Foyatier (1855),

Emmanuel Frémiet (1880), Jules-Pierre Roulleau (1892), and the American Anna Hyatt Huntingdon (1915; see Warner 1981, 1989). Filmmakers too tried

to retell her story f rom the earliest days of cinema (Hatot/Lumière in 1898), producing some f orty f ilms in all so f ar, with more promised. Though each

one has its virtues, the most artistically important and successf ul remains that by Danish Protestant Carl-Theodor Dreyer (1927), rivaled only perhaps

by Robert Bresson's much rarer, equally ascetic production of 1962 (see Blaetz in Goy-Blanquet; Harty in Wheeler and Wood). To a lesser, but

appreciable extent, the world of music has also contributed to her celebrity, f or example, in nineteenth-century operas by Tchaikovsky and Verdi,

then in Arthur Honneger's oratorio, Jeanne au bûcher, with Paul Claudel (1939), Leonard Bernstein f or Lillian Hellman's adaptation of Anouilh's

L'Alouette (The Lark, 1955) and Richard Einhorn's Voices of Light (1994) inspired by Dreyer's f ilm (the latter now accompanies the video/DVD

version of the newly restored Dreyer).

Because Joan's persona galvanized so many dif f erent f actions, as attested in the above works, plus the Church's own quandary of sanctif ying one

whom it had condemned, her canonization required a complex process over much time, beginning with Cardinal Dupanloup's (f ormer bishop of

Orléans) panegyrics of the 1860s. Pope Leo XIII declared her Venerable in 1894; she was beatif ied in 1909, and, particularly af ter World War I soldiers'

accounts of visions of the heroine sustaining them through the horrors of the trenches, in addition to Vatican hagiographical politics, Joan was

canonized in 1920 by Benedict XV (Kelly in Wheeler and Wood). Her f east day, another topic of recurrent political manipulation, has shif ted in France

f rom among three options-May 30 (her martyrdom), May 8 (her Orléans victory), and most recently, May 1 (Workers' Holiday)-depending upon the

party in power.

Quicherat's edition of the trials has taken much time to update completely, with Pierre Champion's inf luential partial text (Condemnation Trial only) of

1920-1921, enriched by the editions of Paul Doncœur, Yvonne Lanhers, Pierre Tisset, and Pierre Duparc (1950s-1980s), with more documentation still

being completed at the Centre Jeanne d'Arc at Orléans, which also publishes a bulletin devoted to Joan of Arc studies-such is the vibrantly

variegated abundance of her af terlif e.

See also Christine de Pizan; Hagiography (Female Saints); Le Franc, Martin; Relics and Medieval Women

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[See also bibliographies to the works listed below].

Primary Sources

Joan's Trial

Champion, Pierre. Procès de Condamnation de Jeanne d'Arc. 2 vols. Bibliothèque du XVe siècle, 22-23. Édouard Champion Paris, 1920-1921.

[Notes still usef ul].

Champion, Pierre. The Trial of Joan of Arc. Translated and edited by Barrett, W. P.. Notes translated by Coley Taylor; Ruth Kerr. Gotham

House New York, 1932. Reprint, Notable Trials Library Birmingham, Ala., 1991. Introduction by Dershowitz, Alan.

Duparc, Pierre. Procès en nullité de la condamnation de Jeanne d'Arc. 5 vols. Société de l'Histoire de France. Klincksieck Paris, 1977-1989.

[Follows Tisset and Lanhers' ed. of Condemnation Trial, below].

Quicherat, Jules, ed., Procès de Condamnation et de Réhabilitation de Jeanne d'Arc Société de l'Histoire de France. 5 vols. Jules Renouard

Paris, 1841-1849. Reprint Johnson New York, 1965.

Tisset, Pierre; Yvonne Lanhers Procès de Jeanne d'Arc. Société de l'Histoire de France, 3 vols. Klincksieck Paris, 1960-1971.

Scott, Walter Sydney, trans. The Trial of Joan of Arc. Folio Society London, 1956. [Important annotated translation based on Doncœur's

f indings on the d'Urf é f ragment containing original French testimony].

Ot her Document at ion

Journal du Siège d'Orléans (1428-1429); augmenté de Plusieurs documents…. Edited by Paul Charpentier; Charles Cuissard. H. Herluison

Orléans, 1896.

[Chronicle and literary excerpts]. See under Quicherat, above, vols. 4-5.

[Joan's Letters]. See under Pernoud and Clin, below.

Visual port rait s

American Numismatic Society/Joan of Arc Statue Committee. Joan of Arc Loan Exhibition Catalogue: Paintings, Pictures, Medals, […] etc.

American Numismatic Society Building, New York, January 6th to February 8th, 1913. Wynkoop & Hallenbeck New York, 1913.

Rouen, Musée des Beaux Arts. Jeanne d'Arc, les tableaux de l'histoire (30 mai-1er septembre 2003). Réunion des Musées nationaux Paris,

2003.

.

Secondary Sources

Astell, Ann W. Joan of Arc and Sacrif icial Authorship. University of Notre Dame Press Notre Dame, Ind., 2003.

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Astell, Ann W., and Wheeler, Bonnie, eds. Joan of Arc and Spirituality. The New Middle Ages. Palgrave/Macmillan New York, 2003.

Beaune, Colette. Jeanne d'Arc. Perrin Paris, 2004.

Bouzy, Olivier. Jeanne d'Arc: mythes & réalités. L'Atelier de l'archer Orléans, 1999.

Contamine, Philippe. De Jeanne d'Arc aux guerres d'Italie. Paradigme Orléans, 1994.

De Vries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Military Leader. Phoenix Mill Sutton, U.K., 1999.

Fraioli, Deborah A. Joan of Arc: The Early Debate. Boydell Press Woodbridge, U.K., 2000.

Goy-Blanquet, Dominique, ed. Jeanne d'Arc en garde à vue. Le Cri Brussels, 1999.

Goy-Blanquet, Dominique Joan of Arc, A Saint f or All Reasons: Studies in Myth and Politics. Ashgate London and Burlington, Vt., 2003.

Krumeich, Gerd. Jeanne d'Arc in der Geschichte. Jan Thorbecke Sigmaringen, Germany, 1989.

Krumeich, Gerd. Jeanne d'Arc à travers l'histoire. Trans. Mély, Josie et al. Introduction by Pernoud, Régine. Albin Michel Paris, 1993. [With updated

bibliography].

Margolis, Nadia. “Joan of Arc.” In The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Women's Writing, edited by Carolyn Dinshaw; David Wallace, 256-66.

Cambridge University Press Cambridge, 2003.

Margolis, Nadia. Joan of Arc in History, Literature and Film: A Select, Annotated Bibliography. Garland Ref erence Library of the Humanities, 1224.

Garland New York, 1990.

Pernoud, Régine. J'ai nom Jeanne la Pucelle. Histoire/Découvertes. Gallimard Paris, 1994. [Excellent collection of images, caref ully labelled, of Joan

and her contemporaries through the ages].

Pernoud, Régine, and Clin, Marie-Véronique. Jeanne d'Arc. Fayard Paris, 1986.

Pernoud, Régine. Joan of Arc: Her Story. Revised and translated by DuQ, Jeremy. Adams. St. Martin's Grif f in New York, 1998. [Perhaps the most

comprehensive single-volume work on Joan in her time and thereaf ter].

Richey, Stephen W. Joan of Arc: The Warrior Saint. Praeger Westport, Conn., 2003.

Sullivan, Karen. The Interrogation of Joan of Arc. Medieval Cultures, 20. University of Minnesota Press Minneapolis, 1999.

Warner, Marina. Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism. Knopf New York, 1981. [Though not without errors, a pioneering study of Joan's

diachronic, international presence in word and image].

Warner, Marina. “Personif ication and Idealization of the Feminine.” In Medievalism in American Culture, edited by Bernard Rosenthal; Paul E.

Szarmach, 85-111. Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 55. CMERS Binghamton, N.Y., 1989.

Wheeler, Bonnie; Charles T. Weed, eds. Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. Garland New York and London, 1996.

Winock, Michel. “Jeanne d'Arc.” In Les Lieux de Mémoire. III: Les France. 3: De l'Archive à l'emblème, edited by Nora, Pierre, 675-733. Gallimard

Paris, 1992. [The most complete study of her political af terlif e].

Françoise Michaud-Fréjaville

© 2004 by Katharina M. Wilson and Nadia Margolis

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APA Michaud-Fréjaville, F. (2004). JOAN OF ARC, ST. (c.1412-1431). In K. M. Wilson, & N. Margolis (Eds.), Women in the middle ages: an encyclopedia.

Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved f rom http://ezproxy.library.dal.ca/login?

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Chicago Michaud-Fréjaville, Françoise. "JOAN OF ARC, ST. (c.1412-1431)." In Women in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia, edited by Katharina M. Wilson, and

Nadia Margolis. ABC-CLIO, 2004. http://ezproxy.library.dal.ca/login?

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Harvard Michaud-Fréjaville, F. (2004). JOAN OF ARC, ST. (c.1412-1431). In K.M. Wilson & N. Margolis (Eds.), Women in the middle ages: an encyclopedia.

[Online]. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Available f rom: http://ezproxy.library.dal.ca/login?

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[Accessed 19 February 2019].

MLA Michaud-Fréjaville, Françoise. "JOAN OF ARC, ST. (c.1412-1431)." Women in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia, edited by Katharina M. Wilson, and

Nadia Margolis, ABC-CLIO, 1st edition, 2004. Credo Reference, http://ezproxy.library.dal.ca/login?

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Accessed 19 Feb. 2019.

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