SOC assignment
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JD_powerpoints-Theory.pptExplanations for Delinquency
A Brief Introduction to Sociological Theory
Theory Without Panic!
- A simple definition of theory:
- Theories are nothing more than explanations for how 2 or more phenomena are related to each other.
- We all apply theories every day
- For example, we explain “getting wet” by the falling rain
- Scientific theory must be falsifiable:
- This means that it must be stated in such a way that it can be tested with empirical evidence;
- This evidence provides a litmus test--it either supports the theory or it fails to support the theory
- If supported, or verified, the theory gains credibility; if not supported, or falsified, the theory must be revised.
What Causes Delinquency?
- What propels youths to commit delinquency?
- Complex interplay of a variety of biological, genetic, and environmental factors
- Further complicated by various reactions to environmental factors
- Why do only a few individuals who experience the same environments as many others actually commit crime?
- Criminological theories provide a scientific way to approach and understand why people commit crime
Criminological Paradigms
- Classical School Theories
- Focus on individual free will and our ability to make choices as the central explanation for committing delinquency/crime
- Positive School Theories
- Embraces determinism and scientific method: Recognizes the role of forces that individuals cannot control or may not be aware of on crime and the role of science to discover what these factors are
- The positive school has 3 basic approaches: biological, psychological, and sociological
Theories Within Classical School
- Deterrence Theory
- Certainty, severity, and celerity
- General and specific
- Rational Choice Theory
- Decision to commit crime involves weighing the costs and benefits associated with that crime
- Bounded rationality
- Routine Activities
- Focuses on the opportunity for crime to occur
- Interaction of the following: suitable targets, absence of capable guardians, and presence of motivated offenders
Positive School—Biological Theories
- Genetic transmission of criminal tendencies
- Hormonal imbalances
- Neurological dysfunction
- Developmental Theory (Biosocial Theories)
Positive School—Psychological Theories
- Intelligence—IQCrime
- Personality types--Somatotypes
- Psychodynamic Theory (Freud & psychic phenomenon)
- Underdeveloped/Overdeveloped Superego
- Basis for Antisocial Personalities & Impulsivity
- Behavioral Theory (Skinner & measurable events)
- Used as basis for Social Learning Theory
Positive School—Sociological Theories
- Social Structure Theories
- Social disorganization
- Anomie/Strain
- Social Process Theories
- Differential Association/Learning Theory
- Social Control Theory
- Social Conflict
- Labeling and Stigma
What Do We Know About Offenders?
- Small group of offenders (6-25%) are responsible for majority of crime
- There is a pattern of offending that ultimately defines subgroups of offenders
- Serious: Commit serious property crime
- Violent: Commit serious violent crime
- Chronic: Commit 4 or more offenses of any type
- Serious, Violent, Chronic Offenders
- Patterns of offending in childhood and adolescence are related to adulthood offending
- Patterns of offending can be identified through the identification of behaviors related to offending pathways
Developmental & Life Course Theories
- The Life-Course Perspective
- Human development viewed across the life span
- Childhood, adolescent and adult experiences are continuous process of change
- Individuals progress within culturally defined roles and social transitions that are age-graded
- Trajectories or pathways=the avenue of development over time; long-term patterns of development in social institutions (e.g., educational career)
- Transitions=short-term changes in social roles within long-term trajectories (e.g., divorce)
- Developmental theories try to account for offender careers and their relationship with age
- This area or research began in criminology during the late 1980s and began to grow over the 1990s
Life Trajectories
- Life-course is a series of interlocking trajectories
- Generally consistent
- Impact all domains of life
- Short-term transitions (or life events) interrupt
- Transitions can be consistent or disruptive
- “Off-age” transitions (e.g., teenage pregnancy) can produce disorder and change the direction of a trajectory
- Key: How individuals adapt to changes
- Person A may start a life of crime while person B doesn’t get involved in crime
- Attempts to explain the onset, escalation, de-escalation, and desistence in offending careers
Various factors influence experience and change: individual factors, family factors, school factors, peer groups, and community factors
Research in this are requires longitudinal research and within-individual changes
- Previous research often relied on cross-sectional studies
- Previous research largely defined by between-group differences
Life Trajectories
Different Theories
- Many developmental/life course theories have been developed, only three will be highlighted for this class:
- Moffitt’s Dual Taxonomy
- Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory
- Gottfredson & Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime
Moffitt’s Developmental Theory
- Close inspection of crime rate trends over the life-course indicate that there are two types of offenders:
- Adolescent limited offenders: antisocial behavior is temporary and situational
- Life-course persistent offenders: antisocial behavior is permanent and stable
- Timing and duration of offending is critical aspect between the types of offenders—stable v. unstable antisocial behavior
Defining the Life-Course Persistent Offender
- Underlying trait that begins at very early age and continues throughout life and underlies a variety of problem behaviors
- Age 4: biting and hitting
- Age 10: Truancy and shoplifting
- Age 16: Sell drugs/steal cars
- Age 22: Robbery and rape
- Age 30: Fraud and child abuse
- Persistence of other problem behaviors throughout life: Drug addiction, homelessness, unstable relationships, domestic violence, and mental illness
Factors Related to Life Course Persistence
- Difference exists in individual differences in neuropsychological functions of infant nervous system
- What can cause these differences to occur?
- Disruption in fetal brain development/brain injury
- Maternal drug use
- Poor nutrition
- Exposure to toxic agents
- Birth complications
- Lack of stimulation and affection
- Abuse/neglect
- Results in neuropsychological deficits (temperament, behavior development, and cognitive abilities)
LCP Interaction in Environment
- Reactive interaction-react to environment with their style
- Proactive interaction-select or create environment to support style (e.g., selecting similar mate)
- Cumulative consequences-underlying trait sets downhill path in motion
- Contemporary consequences-impact of trait on environment
- Why do LCP fail to desist in their offending?
- Fail to learn conventional prosocial alternatives due to rejection and lack of opportunities
- Become ensnared in deviant lifestyle
Intervention
- Underlying trait underlies deficiencies in temperament, developmental milestones, and cognitive abilities
- Interaction with environment creates the antisocial personality and is fixed (according to Moffitt) before 18 years old
- Therefore, treatment is difficult after this point
Adolescent Limited
- Statistically, it is rare for individual to refrain from crime during adolescence
- The defining characteristic for most adolescents, however, is the lack of consistency in their offending
- Why do a few not get involved in delinquency during adolescence?
- No maturity gap: Late puberty or access to opportunities
- Personal characteristics that exclude from networks Few opportunities for mimicking
Explaining AL Behavior
- Motivation: Duration of adolescence has lengthened, forcing those in the 13-18 age group to delay their entry into adulthood
- Social mimicry: When one species adopts the social behavior of more successful species to obtain access to a valuable resource
- Valuable resource=Mature status and the power and privilege that comes with it
- LCP become influential in the peer structure—delinquency that was stigmatizing as a child is not normative group behavior because it provides an avenue to the valuable resource
- Reinforcement: The negative consequences that result from delinquency “fit” with need and desire to rebel
Explaining AL Desistence
- At the end of adolescence, motivation wanes because of the change in circumstance—entry into adulthood
- Exempt from cumulative and contemporary continuity, so opportunities and acceptance is not an issue
- Delinquency for these adolescents is considered normative rather than abnormal
- Best adjusted adolescents appear to be those who have experimented and been responded to with consistent and reasonable discipline
Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory
- Main proposition=an individual’s propensity to offend is dependent upon involvement in conventional activities
- Informal social controls are the main focus of this theory
- Although trajectories are influenced by early experiences, Sampson & Laub believe that social factors (specifically informal controls) can modify trajectories, reducing offending in adulthood—criminality is not solely defined by traits rooted in childhood
- “Turning points”=the mechanisms that alter the life course, changing a risk pathway to a more adaptive one
- Life-course development is dynamic regardless of age
- The role of transitions within life trajectories generates turning points or changes in one’s pathway
Influencing Factors
- Childhood: Family dynamics including erratic/harsh discipline, low levels of supervision, parental rejection
- Adolescence: Association with delinquent peer groups, lack of attachment to school, involvement in the juvenile justice system
- Young adulthood: Labor markets, marriage, prison, military
A General Theory of Crime
- Low self-control is ultimately the cause of criminality
- Low self-control results from parents failing to:
- Monitor behavior
- Recognizing problem behavior
- Punishing problem behavior properly
- People with low self-control will constantly be involved in delinquency and other problem behaviors
- Low self-control becomes “locked” for individuals at a very young age (8 or 9 years old)
Developmental Pathways for Females
- Requires attention to the gender-specific patterns in offender careers over the life course (e.g., victimization)
- Although factors influencing offending may be similar across gender, the intensity and role of these factors may differ
- Kempf-Leonard suggests the following “stepping stones” for females
- 1st Stepping Stone: Child Abuse
- 2nd Stepping Stone: Mental health problems
- 3rd Stepping Stone: Running away
- 4th Stepping Stone: Youth gang involvement
- 5th Stepping Stone: Juvenile justice involvement & experiences
In sum…
- Early intervention is needed to most effectively altering offending pathways
- Identification of persistent offenders is difficult and subject to inaccuracies because a small proportion of individuals who exhibit signs of offending careers actually become chronic offenders
INDIVIDUAL VIEWS OF DELINQUENCY
Biology
Rational Choice
Modern Individualism
Categories of Theories
- Classical/Choice
- Biosocial
- Psychological
Classical/Choice
- Cesare Beccaria
- Free will
- Pleasure-pain principle
- Problems
More Theories
- Routine Activities
- Rational choice
- Crime if:
- Suitable target
- No capable guardian
- Motivated offender
Deterrence
- Risk/benefit
- General v. specific deterrence
- Assumptions
- What does the evidence show?
Biological Theories
- Lombroso’s Atavism Theory
- “Born criminal”
- Discredited
Modern Biosocial Theories
- Minimal Brain Dysfunction
- Traits that heighten risk of delinquency
- Diet
- Schoenthaler research in public schools
- 2000 study
- Phoenix study
- Schoenthaler study of incarcerated juveniles
Modern Biosocial Theories
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- Childhood development
- Medical problems
- Connection to juvenile delinquency
- Learning disabilities
- What’s the connection with juvenile delinquency?
- ADHD
Genetics
- Twin studies
- Adoption
% Adopted Juveniles with Criminal Record
| Biological and adoptive parents NO CRIMINAL RECORD | 13.5% |
| BIOLOGICAL parents had criminal record | 20% |
| ADOPTIVE parents had criminal record | 15% |
| Biological and adoptive parents BOTH HAD CRIMINAL RECORDS | 25% |
Psychological Theories
- Psychodynamic
- Freud
- 3 part personality
- Social Learning
- How do we learn?
- Violent home
- Violence in TV, video and the movies
Cognitive Theory
- Kohlberg’s moral development theory
- Stages
- Punishment and obedience
- Hedonistic orientation
- Interpersonal concordance
- Law and order
- Social contract
- Universal ethical principles
- Which stages are delinquents stuck at?
Antisocial Personality Disorder
- Definition
- Conduct disorder
- Characteristics
- What correlates with it?
- **Cannot assume the role of another
Explanations of Female Violence
- Biological
- Lombroso’s masculinity hypothesis
- Pollack’s theory
- Psychological
Social Theories of Delinquency
- Social Structure
- Social Process
- Social Reaction
- Social Conflict
Structural Explanations for Delinquency
Defining Structural Theories
- Characteristic features of structural theories
- Focus on rates of crime rather than why individuals commit crime
- Crime rates are explained in terms of the structural features of society
- Two broad types of structural theories
- Strain Theory
- Cultural Deviance Theory
Structural Theories I:
Strain Theory
Strain Theory
Delinquency
Economic Inequality
Historical Foundation of
Strain Theory
The Legacy of Emile Durkheim
- Two themes dominate Durkheim’s work on crime
- The normality of crime
- Crime and anomie
Robert Merton
- Robert King Merton is one of the most influential sociologists in the field of criminology
- At age 27, (1938) he wrote a definitive article entitled “Social Structure and Anomie”
- This article still serves as an anchor in our understanding of delinquency
Social Structure and Anomie
Merton’s theory of “anomie” stressed two structural conditions:
The interaction of these conditions produce five adaptive responses:
Goals
Means
Conformist
+
+
Innovator
+
-
Ritualist
-
+
Retreatist
-
-
Rebel
-/+
-/+
Strain—Modes of Adaption
| Conformity | Accepts cultural goal | Accepts institution | Highly unlikely JD |
| Ritualism | Rejects cultural goal | Accepts institution | Unlikely JD |
| Innovation | Accepts cultural goal | Rejects institution | Most likely JD |
| Retreatism | Rejects cultural goal | Rejects institution | Likely JD |
| Rebellion | Rejects cultural goal | Rejects institution | Likely JD |
Differential Opportunity Theory
- This theory was developed by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin
- Agree with Merton that not everyone has equal access to social rewards, producing strain
- However, suggest that there is also an “illegitimate” opportunity structure with differential opportunities there as well.
- Failure to succeed in either the legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structure results in “double failure.”
Lloyd Ohlin
Differential Opportunity’s Three Subcultural Responses
- Criminal Subculture
- Occurs in neighborhoods where there are adult criminal role models
- Here, the delinquent youth succeeds in the illegitimate opportunity structure
- Conflict Subculture
- Adult role models are not available for successful crime
- Delinquent youth becomes angry and engages in violent crime
- Retreatist Subculture
- Adult role models are not available for successful crime
- Rather than angry retaliation, the youth withdraws or retreats, typically into a world of drug use.
Cohen’s Subcultural Strain Theory
- Cohen suggests that one of the central problems in life is conforming to social expectations.
- Since these expectations are largely determined by the middle class, Cohen calls these “middle class measuring rods.”
- The lower class has a much more difficult time in conformity than the middle class.
- For lower class youth, the context for this difficulty is typically the school.
- Lower class youth are confronted by “status frustration,” and turn to other youth for solutions.
- For Cohen, this is the genesis of the delinquent gang.
Cohen’s Adaptive Responses to Status Frustration
- Corner Boy Response
- Youth psychologically disengages from MC goals and accepts more humble goals
- This is the most common lower class response
- College Boy Response
- Lower class youth accepts the MC challenge and competes for MC goals
- Involves a rupture in his relationship with LC friends, a cost
- Delinquent Subculture Response
- Involves a direct repudiation of MC values in the form of delinquency
- Characteristics of the delinquent subculture
- Non-utilitarian
- Malicious
- Negativistic
Structural Theories II:
Cultural Deviance Theories
Cultural Deviance Theories
Cultural Orientation
Delinquency
Historical Foundation of Cultural Deviance Theories
- Intellectual roots of most cultural deviance theories are at the University of Chicago--hence called the “Chicago School.”
- This school stressed the need for empirical study of the issue of crime and delinquency
- Chicago was a natural laboratory to be doing these studies:
- It was a major urban center, drawing immigrants from all walks of life;
- Many people were threatened by the changes that were going on in cities like Chicago
- It was popularly believed that foreign and minority immigrants were inferior
- Cultural deviance theory emerged as a way to explain rising crime rates in the context of this rapidly changing environment
Robert Park
A founder of the
“Chicago School”
Social Disorganization Theory
- The Park-Burgess roots--concentric zone theory
- Zone in transition--the geographical center of crime
- this was also an area of physical deterioration and social disorganization
- social disorganization was measured by such things as homelessness, mental illness, crime and other pathologies
- The relationship between social disorganization and delinquency
- Moreover, delinquent traditions are passed on from generation to generation through delinquent gangs
Social Disorganization
Lack of Supervision
Delinquency/Gangs
Lower Class Focal Values
- Walter Miller suggests that delinquency results, not from a disorganized lower class, but from a united social class with their own distinctive values.
- The values, or “focal concerns” of lower class youth are but extensions of the focal concerns of adults in these communities.
- 6 focal concerns of the lower class:
- Trouble
- Toughness
- Smartness
- Excitement
- Fate
- Autonomy
Social Process Theories for Delinquency
Historical Background
- These theories reached their zenith in the 1960’s
- Self-report studies were revealing that crime was not limited to lower class
- It became necessary to develop a theory that could account for middle class crime as well.
General Assumptions
- Begin with the assumption that anyone is capable of committing a crime.
- Argue that delinquency can be explained by the nature of socialization experiences of individuals
- Hence, they tend to focus on the immediate social milieu of the individual--e.g., family, peer group, etc.
- As such they focus on the process of becoming delinquent
Types of Social Process Theories
- Two broad types of process theories:
- Social Learning Theories
- Social Control Theories
Social Process Theories I:
Social Learning Theories
Social Learning Theories
- General Features
- Children are not born with a tendency to want to do bad
- Delinquency is a function of learning the norms, values and behaviors associated with delinquency
- Without opportunities to learn the values and techniques associated with delinquency, individuals would not become delinquent
Differential Association Theory
- Developed by Edwin Sutherland
- The theory:
- Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons
- Principle part of learning takes place in intimate personal groups
- Learning includes: techniques of committing the crime and the drives, values and motives
- Direction of drives and motives determined by relative “definitions” (influences) favorable or unfavorable to law violation
- One becomes delinquent because of excess definitions favorable to violating the law
- Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
- Process of learning delinquency involves same process as any other learning
Edwin Sutherland
Differential Reinforcement Theory
- Developed by Ron Akers
- Represents a synthesis between differential association and operant conditioning
- The theory:
- Behavior is reinforced with positive rewards
- Rewards are given and evaluated in interaction with significant others
- Hence, the kinds of behavior that are reinforced depend on one’s differential associations
Ron Akers
Drift and Neutralization Theory
- The Drift Hypothesis
- Delinquents do not strictly adhere to delinquent cultural values, but are affected by both criminal and conventional values
- Hence, delinquents find themselves in “drift” between the two sets of values
- Subculture of delinquency provides the delinquent with a vocabulary to neutralize the demands of conventional society
- Techniques of Neutralization
- Denial of responsibility
- Denial of injury
- Denial of victim
- Condemnation of condemner
- Appeal to higher loyalties
Gresham Sykes
Social Process Theories II:
Social Control Theories
General Assumptions
- Human beings are predisposed toward maximizing self-interest
- Hence, everyone has the capacity to commit crime
- Most people don’t commit crime because of constraining influences
- Hence, what is to be explained is not “Why do some people engage in delinquency?” but “Why do most people not engage in delinquency?”
Containment Theory
- Developed by Walter Reckless
- The Theory
- “Pressures” and “pulls” toward delinquency are everywhere
- Counteracting these pressures and pulls are “containments” of which there are two types:
- outer containments--structural buffers, such as intact family, positive discipline, etc.
- inner containments--internalized values, high frustration tolerance, etc.
- Reckless identified a positive self concept as the critical containment insulating against delinquency.
Walter Reckless
Social Bond Theory
- Developed by Travis Hirschi
- The Theory:
- Assumes that all people have the capacity to be delinquent
- Preventing most people from engaging in delinquency is a “bonding” to conventional society
- Hirschi identifies 4 elements to the social bond (next slide)
The Social Bond
249.bin
250.bin
Societal Reaction Theories for Delinquency
Overview of Societal Reaction Theory
- Central focus of societal reaction theory is society’s reaction to particular behaviors
- Two broad streams of societal reaction theory
- Labeling Theory
- Conflict Theory
Historical Context of Societal Reaction Theory
- The recent emergence of labeling and modern conflict theory occurred in the tumult of the 1960’s and 1970’s
- Viet Nam War
- Civil Rights
- Youth “Hippie” Rebellion
- During this time many social institutions were being challenged, and assumptions questioned
Societal Reaction Theory
Labeling Theory
Broad Mosaic of Labeling Theory
- Labeling theory is a composite of the work of many theorists, including:
- Howard Becker
- Edwin Schur
- Edwin Lemert
- Erving Goffman
Central Questions of Labeling Theory
- 1. Why are certain behaviors defined as delinquent?
- 2. Why are certain individuals labeled delinquent?
- 3. What is the effect of the label?
Why are certain behaviors defined as delinquent?
- This question is largely addressed by Howard Becker
- Assumes that behaviors are not intrinsically delinquent
- Some behaviors are defined as delinquent
- This is done through a process called moral entrepreneurship.
Howard Becker
Why are certain individuals labeled delinquent?
- William Chambliss, among others address this question
- Chambliss suggests 3 crucial factors in the labeling of individuals:
- Visibility of delinquency
- Personal disposition of offender
- Mobilization of community bias
William Chambliss
What is the effect of the label?
- Erving Goffman and Edwin Lemert, among others, have addressed this question
- primary vs. secondary deviance (Lemert)
- dramatization of evil (Tannenbaum)
- stigma (Goffman)
Erving Goffman
Edwin Lemert
Societal Reaction Theory:
Conflict Theory
The Marxist Foundation
- The Infrastructure and the Superstructure
Economic Infrastructure
Law
Family
Religion
Education
Science
Marxist Foundation (cont.)
- The composition of the economic infrastructure
- Forces of Production
- Relations of Production
- Importance of the relations of production
- Own the means of production (bourgeoisie)
- Work for owners of production (proletariat)
- These two classes in continual conflict
Marx and Crime
- Marx said very little about crime
- The criminal was a member of a third marginal class Marx called the “lumpenproletariat”
- Marx’s contribution is tied to his analysis of law
- Law is part of the “superstructure” of society
- As such, it is controlled by the economic elite
- Its content reflects ruling class interests
- It is therefore the poor who will be victimized by law
Early Marxist Criminologists
- Frederick Engels
- Wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England
- Suggests that crime is a result of demoralization of proletariat caused by alienation from means of production
- Willem Bonger
- Wrote Criminality and Economic Conditions
- Capitalism encourages “egoism”, which in turn encourages crime.
- Four types of crime encouraged by capitalism:
- Economic Crimes
- Sexual Crimes
- Crimes of Vengeance
- Political Crimes
Frederick Engels
Themes of Modern Conflict Theorists
- Law and Justice
- Modern conflict theorists see the law as an instrument of the ruling class to serve their interests
- Demystification--exposing hidden power relationships in society
- Social Class and Delinquency Reconsidered
Social Correlates of Delinquency
Gender
Our Knowledge Gap on Gender and Delinquency
- It is commonly believed that girls engage primarily in status offenses; boys in more serious delinquent offenses
- Issue of female delinquency did not receive much scholarly attention until the 1960’s
- Most of the classical theories, therefore, are based on observations of male delinquency and may not be as appropriate to females
Nature and Extent of Male and Female Delinquency
Mr.
Streetman
Jason
1102 - 280 Bypass
Phenix City
AL
36867
Charles Bradshaw
Fall, 1999
Nature and Extent of Male and Female Delinquency
Nature and Extent of Male and Female Delinquency
Explaining Female (vs. male) Delinquency
Two Broad Categories of Explanations
- “Trait” Views
- Center on intrinsic biological and mental traits attributed to being “female” or “male”
- Sociological Explanations
- Focus on different social experiences boys and girls
“Trait” Explanations for Female Delinquency
- Lombroso--The Female Offender
- Women are lower on the evolutionary scale
- Pollack--The Criminality of Women
- Onset of criminality linked to menstruation, pregnancy and menopause
- Chivalry Hypothesis accounts for lower rates of female delinquency
- Freud--Penis Envy
- Lack of penis unconscious sign of punishment, resulting in inferiority complex
- Failure to resolve penis envy might result in crime
- Gluecks--Precocious Sexuality
- Early sexual experimentation by girls results in later delinquency
- Hormonal Explanations
- Testosterone Levels
- Pre-Menstrual Syndrome
Sociological Explanations for Female Delinquency
- Differential Supervision of boys and girls
- Quality of parental relations
- Feminist explanations
- Hagan’s “power-control” theory
- Societal Reaction explanations
Changing Gender Patterns
- Over the past 30 years, the gender gap in delinquency has been gradually converging
- From 1990-1994:
- male arrest rate increased by 19%, while female rate increased by 31%
- male arrest rate for serious violent crime increased by 23%, while female rate increased by 48%
- Self-report data also suggesting that females are engaging in more typically “male” offenses
Explaining Changing Gender Patterns
- Freda Adler--Sisters in Crime
- focus on impact of women’s liberation
- Rita Simon--The Contemporary Woman and Crime
- focus on changing sex roles
- Joseph Weis
- focus on changing school influences
- Differential societal reaction
Social Correlates of Delinquency
The Family
Why Look at the Family as a Causal Context for Delinquency?
- History of childhood and delinquency reveals that the family has been charged with primary responsibility for socialization of children
- It is within the context of the family that primary relations are first formed
- Basic values are first formed here
- We have also seen that historical forces in America disrupted family life
Family Variables Linked to Delinquency: The Broken Home I
- Variable interest in the broken family as a cause of delinquency
- Early research:
- Found that broken home had a profound effect
- Seemed to affect girls more than boys
- Seemed to affect whites more than other ethnic groups
- Seemed to affect the affluent more than poor
- Homes broken by divorce more devastating than homes broken by death
Family Variables Linked to Delinquency: The Broken Home II
- The broken home reconsidered
- More recent studies have been inconclusive
- Many of early studies were conducted among arrestees and in correctional institutions--possible bias in samples
- Self-report studies suggest a less clear-cut relationship
- Some concluding thoughts:
- Divorce does seem to be more correlated than death
- Broken home probably affects status offenses more than serious delinquency
- Remarriage does not mitigate effect of divorce on youth
- Continued contact with non-custodial parent does not mitigate
- Little evidence that behavior of children in broken homes improves over time
- Post-divorce conflict related to child maladjustment
Family Variables Linked to Delinquency: Family Conflict
- Intra-family conflict and discord have long been associated with delinquency
- Various factors operative:
- emotional disturbance
- low warmth and affection
- low social skills
- Difficult to establish whether family conflict causes childhood maladies or vice versa
- Relative consequences of the broken home vs. family discord
- Recent review of literature suggests that both situations are deleterious
- Children of divorced parents probably fare better than children of high-conflict families
Family Variables Linked to Delinquency:
Parental Rejection
- Generally believed that children need warm, supportive relationships to thrive
- Most studies have used boys in their samples
- Early studies suggested that rejection by either mother or father was related to delinquency
- Joan McCord’s research finds that mother’s rejection is more significant in early years; father’s in later years
Family Variables Linked to Delinquency:
Discipline
- Gluecks--found that lax or erratic discipline was most associated with delinquency
- Nye--found that very erratic, strict, or very permissive discipline most associated with delinquency.
- Strauss--found that physical punishment tends to be more associated with delinquency.
Family Variables Linked to Delinquency:
Family Role Models
- Gluecks--find discipline ineffective when parental behavior is inconsistent
- Hirschi--found that even criminal parents espouse conventional values. Intimacy between parents more important than role modeling
- Laub and Sampson--find that parental deviance related to chronic delinquency
- Rowe and Gulley--find that siblings have an impact on delinquency if relationship is intimate
Family Variables Linked to Delinquency:
Family Size
- Some evidence suggests that larger families may be productive of delinquency
- suggested that this may be due to a “dilution of resources.”
- Relationship is usually seen as more indirect
- resource dilution often leads to educational underachievement
- family size also related to social class
A Special Case:
The Abusive Family
- Defining child abuse and neglect:
- Abuse--historically defined as “any non-accidental physical injury inflicted on a child by a parent…”
- has come to be used more generically to include neglect as well
- Neglect--more passive, referring to the deprivations that children suffer at hands of parents or guardians. Three broad types:
- Physical neglect
- Emotional neglect
- Moral neglect
Extent of Child Abuse:
Reported Cases
- All states have laws for certain professionals to report child abuse, but these cases represent only a tip of the iceberg
- Leading organization in reporting is the National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse (NCPCA)
- Reported 3.1 million cases in 1995 (up 5% from 1994, and up 50% from 1985)
- 26% of these were physical abuse
- 10% sexual abuse
- 53% neglect
- 3% emotional maltreatment
- 17% “other”
- NCPCA estimates about 1,200 children killed each year because of abuse
Extent of Child Abuse:
Unreported Cases
- Research by Murray Strauss in 1980:
- between 1.4 and 1.9 million children abused annually
- the average number of assaults for each child was 10.5 (median 4.5)
- Estimates are that as many as 1 in 10 boys and 1 in 3 girls have been sexually abused
The Abused and the Abusers
- Most likely to be abused:
- Infants (especially premature infants)
- Illegitimate children
- Hyperactive children
- Boys
- Circumstantial
- Most likely to abuse (in order)
- Natural parents
- Step parents
- Paramours
- Other relatives
- Babysitters/non-relative caretakers
What Causes Child Abuse?
- Adults who have been abused themselves
- Social isolation and alienation
- Substance abuse
- Social Class
- This has been controversial, though most experts agree that there is a higher incidence in the lower class
- Perhaps due to financial stress
Relationship between Child Abuse and Delinquency
- Logical relationship
- Abuse provides a role model for aggression
- Abuse leaves one more vulnerable to stress
- Clinical Histories
- Studies of incarcerated delinquents reveal that a substantial majority have been abused in some way as children
- Problem with these studies is that they do not tell us about the known population of abused children and the % of them who are delinquents
- Also, it may be that child abused is caused by the delinquency!
Abuse
Modeling of Aggression
Vulnerability to Stress
Delinquency
Cohort Studies on Abuse and Delinquency
- This method follows up cohorts of children who have been abused and compares their delinquency to non-abused youth
- A major study by Cathy Widom found that 27% of abused youth (compared with 17% of non-abused youth) later had criminal records
- Certain categories more affected by abuse than others; older, black males most affected
- General conclusions:
- Abuse increases likelihood of juvenile arrest by 53%
- Abuse increases likelihood of adult arrest by 38%
- In a follow-up, Widom found greater likelihood of persistent offending over time by abused children
Social Correlates of Delinquency
The School
Significance of the School in the Study of Delinquency
- Compulsory school attendance means that all children spend significant time in school
- Hence, school is playing an increasing role in the socialization of children
- The time spent in school also means that children are spending significant time with peer groups
The School and Delinquency:
Proposed Effects
- Two contradictory predictions about the role of the school in delinquency:
- The school causes delinquency
- School experiences are frustrating, especially to underachievers and others who don’t fit in
- Hence, the more time spent in school, the more frustration, and the more delinquency
- The school prevents delinquency
- Here, the argument is that the school teaches children proper values, monopolizes their time, and builds positive relationships
- Hence, spending time in school should reduce the delinquency
School Attendance
Frustration
Delinquency
School Attendance
Positive Values,
Relationships
Less Delinquency
Theoretical Basis for Positions
- Each of these positions is grounded in two theoretical perspectives examined earlier:
- School produces delinquency:
- Strain theory
- School prevents delinquency
- Control theory
Testing the Theories:
Elliot Study
Hypotheses
Rate of delinquency greater for boys while in school than out of school
Delinquents who drop out have higher rate while in school than while out
Method
743 10th grade boys
Data gathered from 10th-12th grade
“Graduates”=those who graduated or were in school entire time
“Dropouts”=those who left school in the study period
Delinquency measured by official contact
Findings
SES
AREAS
In School
Out-of School
Graduates
Drop Outs
Subtotal
Drop Outs
Lower
4.13
8.70
4.96
2.42
Higher
4.92
4.95
4.92
4.63
Total
4.34
8.03
4.95
2.75
Testing the Theories:
Thornberry et al. Study
Hypotheses
Strain Theory: Criminal behavior of dropouts should decline more sharply than that of graduates after leaving school, and rates for dropouts should converge quickly with those of graduates
Control Theory: Natural decline during post-high school years should be more gradual for dropouts than graduates, and will not converge with decline for graduates
Method
Sample: 10% sample of Philadelphia Birth Cohort Study (N=567 boys)
Variables: Dropping Out, Criminal Involvement (arrests), Race, Father’s Occupation, Marital Status, Employment Status
Testing the Theories:
Thornberry et al. Study
Findings
Social Correlates of Delinquency
Social Class
Traditional Understanding
- Lower class is responsible for most crime and delinquency
- This view comes from several sources:
- Selective focus on “crime in the streets” (these are crimes more characteristic of lower class
- When MC commits these crimes, almost always presented as “the exception” (e.g., Columbine shooting)
- Police surveillance more close in lower class areas
- Early empirical studies which focused on lower class
Some Early Self-report Evidence:
Individual Social Class
Study by Empey and Erikson
- Methodology
- Self-report data from 180 males 15-17 years old
- 50 HS boys never in court (non-delinquents)
- 50 HS boys once in court (one-timers)
- 50 HS boys on probation
- 30 HS boys incarcerated
- Measures
- Social class (father’s occupation)
- 29% lower class
- 55% middle class
- 16& upper class
- Delinquency--22 separate offenses; asked if (1) ever committed; (2) how often committed; (3) ever caught; (4) how often caught
Study by Empey and Erikson (cont.)
Overall Findings
Social Class
Percent of Sample
Percent of Delinquency
Upper Class
16
9
Middle Class
55
59
Lower Class
29
32
Study by Empey and Erikson (cont.)
Findings for Specific Offenses
Offense
Lower Class
(29%)
% of viol.
Middle Class
(55%)
% of viol.
Upper Class
(16%)
% of viol.
Theft > $50
33%
59%
8%
Forgery
9%
90%
1%
B and E
24%
67%
8%
Vandalism
22%
70%
8%
Armed Robbery
12%
88%
0%
Driving w/o license
44%
51%
4%
Auto Theft
38%
60%
2%
Narcotics
64%
36%
0%
Skip School
46%
47%
7%
Some Early Self-report Evidence:
Community Social Class
Clark and Wenninger Study
- Focus of study
- Compares delinquency rates across communities with social class characteristics
- Also compares between social classes within the same community
- Hypotheses
- Will be differences in delinquency across communities of different social class composition
- Will be differences in delinquency among similar social classes in different communities
- Will not be differences across social classes in the same community
Clark and Wenninger Study (cont.)
Methodology
1154 children in grades 6-12 were given anonymous questionnaires
Represented 4 different kinds of communities:
Rural farm--communities where farming was primary occupation. Considered working class
Lower Urban--located in inner city Chicago
Industrial City--blue collar community
Upper Urban--wealthy suburb of Chicago
All respondents were asked if they had committed any or all of a list of 38 specific offenses; and how many times they had committed that offense
Offenses were then compared across the cities, and across social classes within each city.
Findings
Industrial City
Lower Urban
Similar Delinquency
Patterns
Upper Urban
Rural Farm
Different Delinquency
Patterns
Some Early Self-report Evidence:
Rising Affluence
Study by Jackson Toby
- Focus of Study
- Observed that delinquency rates were increasing just as rapidly in affluent societies as in poor societies. Sought to explain this phenomenon
- Methodology
- Used as indicator of affluence:
- # of radios/100 population
- # of TV’s/100 population
- # of cars/100 population
- Ranked countries from most to least affluent (USA most, Pakistan, least)
- Ranked % increase in affluence from 1954 to 1964
- Measured delinquency through this time
Study by Jackson Toby (cont.)
Findings
rising affluence is directly associated with delinquency (linked with rising expectations)
rising affluence results in less parental control (because of more women in the labor force
as a mitigating factor, rising affluence results in greater education, which is linked with lower levels of delinquency
Reassessing Social Class and Delinquency I: Criticisms of Prior Research
- Problems with measures of delinquency
- Much of early self-report studies used trivial offenses in addition to more serious offenses. These sorts of offenses will be disbributed more evenly
- Prevalence rather than incidence figures were used in early studies
- Prevalence refers to how many people have ever engaged in delinquency
- Incidence refers to the number of acts committed
- Early studies focused on delinquency over an entire lifetime
- Problems with measures of social class
- Most studies has been measured with “status attainment” variables--parent’s occupation, education, etc.
- Alternative measures, such as unemployment or welfare status, are more likely to show a relationship between social class and delinquency
Reassessing Social Class and Delinquency II:
Recent Studies
- Methodology
- Used a portion of the National Youth Study (from Seattle)
- Asked respondents how many times (incidence) they had committed a delinquent act
- Compared relationship between social class and delinquency in different communities
- Findings
- Weak associations between social class and delinquency, regardless how either of these variables are measured (strongest associations found when using parents education as measure of SC
- Neighborhood comparisons did not affect social class-delinquency relationship.
Joseph Weis Study
Social Correlates and Delinquency
Juvenile Gangs
History of Gangs in America
- American society has a long history of violent gang activity
- Boston Tea Party!
- Vigilante groups on the frontier
- Rioting farmers
- Racial riots
- “Youth” gangs also have a long history, though not always equated with delinquency
Defining “Gang”
- Problem with lack of consistent definition
- Erikson and Jensen’s implied definition:
- 2 or more youth engaged in delinquent behavior
- Walter Miller’s extended definition
- Conducted interviews with 445 staff members in over 160 youth service agencies in 24 major cities
- Asked them, “What is your conception of a gang?”
- On bases of these responses, developed definition and list of key characteristics (see next slide)
Miller’s Characteristics and Definition of a Gang
- Characteristics:
- Organization
- Identifiable leadership
- Identification with a territory
- Continuous association
- Specific purpose
- Engaging in illegal activity
- Definition (incorporating above):
“A youth gang is a self-formed association of peers bound together by mutual interests, with identifiable leadership, well developed lines of authority, and other organizational features, who act in concert to achieve a specific purpose or purposes which generally include the conduct of illegal activity and control over a particular territory, facility, or type of enterprise.”
Types of Gangs
- Gangs can be categorized on several dimensions:
- Social Class (e.g., lower class vs. middle class gangs)
- Type of activity:
- Cloward and Ohlin’s Typology
- Criminal gangs
- Conflict gangs
- Retreatist gangs
- Jeffrey Fagan’s Typology
- Social Gangs (alcohol and drugs)
- Party Gangs (heavy drug use, some vandalism)
- Serious Delinquent Gangs (serious delinquency; avoids drug use)
- Ethnic composition
- Type of organization (see next slide)
Lewis Yablonsky’s Typology
- Yablonsky identified 3 types of gangs, based on the sophistication of their organization
- Institutionalized Gang
- Usually very large gangs which have become intricately involved in their communities
- Often entail a “federation” of several local gangs
- Examples include Black P. Stone Nation, Vice Lords and possibly Crips, and Bloods
- Organized Club
- Organized around delinquency, but do not have the scale or organization of institutionalized gangs
- Near Group (see next page)
Yablonsky’s “Near Group”
- According to Yablonsky, the “near group” is the most common type of gang
- 7 characteristics of near groups:
- Diffuse role orientation
- Limited cohesion
- Impermanence
- Minimal consensus of norms
- Shifting membership
- Disturbed leadership
- Limited definition of membership expectation
- 3 levels of membership
- Leaders
- Affiliators
- Peripheral Members
Non-Sociological Theories of Gang Formation
- Early theories--that there was a natural propensity toward gang formation among boys
- Anthropological view--gangs fulfill deep-seated needs for tribal group process such as that which sustained our ancestors over the millenia
- Psychological view--gangs serve as an outlet for psychologically diseased youth
- Rational choice view--gangs provide opportunities to realize goals. Such goals include financial gain, protection, and social support.
Sociological Theories of Gang Formation
- Frederick Thrasher--gangs arise out of spontaneous play groups
- Tannenbaum--gangs fill a need for primary group involvement
- Review general theories of Cloward and Ohlin, Cohen, Shaw and McKay
Extensiveness of Gangs
Extensiveness of Gangs
Researcher
Year
Number of Gangs
Number of Gang Members
Walter Miller
1975
55,000
Walter Miller
1982
98,000
National Gang Assessment
1992
4,881
249,324
National Gang Assessment/
Replication
1994
8,625
16,643*
378,807
555,181*
Malcolm Klein
1995
500,000
Extent of Gang Delinquency
- Erikson and Jensen study
- Miller Study
Social Correlates of Delinquency
Drug Use
Types of Drugs Used
- Narcotics
- Opium, Morphine, Heroin, Dilaudid, etc.
- Depressants
- Alcohol, tranquilizers, most inhalants
- Stimulants
- Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, crack
- Hallucinogens
- LSD, mescaline, peyote, nutmeg
- Marijuana
How is Drug Use Measured:
Three National Surveys
- Institute for Social Research (ISR) Survey
- Annual survey of 50,000 students from in 8th 10th and 12th grades 400 public and private schools
- Asked about lifetime, monthly, and annual use of 16 commonly abused drugs (including alcohol and tobacco
- 10-year follow-up done on about 2,400 students
- Parents Resource Institute for Drug Abuse (PRIDE)
- conducts annual surveys ofmore than 200,000 juniors and seniors in 34 states
- National Household Survey (NHS)
- annually interviews about 10,000 people in their homes
Trends in Drug Use:
ISR Statistics
Trends in Drug Use:
NHS Statistics
Drug Use and Crime:
Three Models
Drug Use: A Career Model
Career Patterns of Heroin Use
Drug
Availability
Life Structure
High
Low
High
Stable
Addict
Free-Wheeling Addict
Low
Occasional
User
Street Junkie
The Juvenile Justice System
An Overview
Nineteenth Century Juvenile Justice
- American juvenile justice (and criminal justice) is rooted in the English legal system
- this system did not much discriminate between adult and child offenders
- Under age 7 (or 10) child was not considered prosecutable at all; over age 10, could be prosecuted as an adult
- Treatment was harsh, and children were often housed with adult criminals
- Some humanizing attempts were introduced:
- Massachusetts introduced probation in 1841
- By mid-century, special institutions introduced for children
Factors in the Development of the Juvenile Court
Industrialization and Urbanization
- 19th century witnessed massive population growth due to higher birth rates and immigration
- Industrial economy resulted in massive relocation to the cities
Child-Saving Movement
- This name was given collectively to those responding to the needs of primarily poor children in the 19th century.
- They engaged in various activities:
- lobbied state legislatures to enact laws to commit wayward youth
- instrumental in development of the institution
- launched propaganda campaigns
- generally, brought into focus the concept parens patriae
- Most of the child savers were white, middle class women
- The premiere organization to emerge was Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
- first established in New York in 1874
- By 1900, 300 SPCC chapters were formed
The Juvenile Institution
- This was a major contribution of the child savers
- Were called by various names, including Houses of Refuge, Reform Schools, etc.
- Initially, these were congregate living arrangements; later the “cottage plan” was implemented
Establishment of the Juvenile Court
- The juvenile court was the logical next step to the institution
- It was first established in Cook County, IL, in 1899
- By 1917, all but three states had adopted the juvenile court
- The Illinois invention a watershed:
- it set the model for courts to come
- made an official distinction between neglected and abused children, and those who were delinquent
- consequently, for the first time, juvenile misconduct was officially known as “juvenile delinquency.”
Twentieth Century Implementation
- The new juvenile courts handled three types of cases:
- criminal (delinquent) cases
- “status offense” cases (by about 1920)
- delinquent environment cases
- The Illinois model went unchallenged until after WWII
- Major challenges came in the 1960’s:
- In re Gault and other cases challenged the lack of constitutional rights for children, including right to attorney, etc.
- In 1962, New York created a “family court:”
- included other family issues such as adoption and support hearings
- established a new category: Person in Need of Supervision (PINS)
Contemporary Overview
- More than 3000 juvenile courts in the U.S.
- About 6500 juvenile probation officers
- Some statistics on juveniles:
- 2.2 million juveniles arrested each year
- 1.5 million of these are petitioned to the courts
- 500,000 children placed on formal or informal probation
- just under 100,000 held in institutions
- untold number diverted into community work
Philosophical and Procedural Distinctions between Juvenile and Criminal Justice
- Philosophical differences
- focus on rehabilitation (vs. punishment)
- concern for the welfare of the child (vs. community)
- Procedural differences
- effort made to reduce stigma attached to criminal courts
- proceedings are much more informal
- proceedings are usually kept private
- only recently have lawyers and cross examination been allowed
Key Court Cases in Twentieth Century Juvenile Justice
- Kent v. United States (1966)
- In re Gault (1967)
- In re Winship (1970)
- McKeiver v. Pennsylvania (1971)
- Breed v. Jones (1975
Official Reaction to Juvenile Delinquency
Components of the Juvenile Justice System I:
The Police
History of Police Work with Juveniles
- Roots are in the English system of policing
- 1st organized police force established in England in 1829. Called “bobbies”
- Children recognized as a special problem by mid-century
- Police departments organized in the US by mid-19th century
- Did not recognize special problems of children until late 19th century
- During 1960’s, attention to juveniles took on more importance with Supreme Court decisions
- By 1980’s most dep’ts had special juvenile officers and larger cities had entire juvenile units.
Common Perceptions of Policework
Typical Police Roles with Juveniles
- One study suggests only 5% of police encounters with juveniles are for felonies; 60% involve nothing more than rowdiness
- Juvenile work often involves conflict for the officer because it does not conform to stereotypical roles of law enforcement officer
Three Broad Types of Organization
Organization of Police Work with Juveniles
Juvenile cases handled by the regular police
This is the historic pattern
Only very small communities have this pattern today
Assignment of one or more officers to juvenile cases
Became a common strategy in the 70’s and 80’s
Officers were specially trained to deal with juveniles
Created morale problems as juvenile officers were stigmatized
Establishment of separate juvenile units
This is the practice of larger departments
Often there are subunits, such as drug education, child abuse, crime, missing children, and gang units
Police Decision-Making
- Ideally, officers should make decisions strictly on legally-relevant factors
- The reality is that they must often use personal discretion
- Because many of their decisions are “low visibility” there is great potential for bad decisions to be made
Factors Influencing Police Decision-Making
Included here are such factors as seriousness of the crime, prior record of the juvenile, and any aggravating or mitigating circumstances
Such factors include the general community’s tolerance of youthful misbehavior; policies, practices and customs of the local police department; and alternatives to arrest
Such factors include the attitude of the juvenile, attitude of the complainant, perceived willingness of parents to cooperate, etc.
Racial and gender prejudices; and organizational biases resulting from discriminatory police practices
Empirical Studies of Police Discrimination: Piliavin and Briar
For serious offenses, the nature of the offense itself was the primary factor in police disposition
For less serious offenses (90% of all police encounters) it was the officer’s assessment of the “character” of the offender.
This usually was assessed by demeanor (see table)
Demeanor
Disposition
Cooperative
Uncooperative
Total
Arrest
2 (4.4%)
14 (66.7%)
16
Citation
8 (8.9%)
5 (23.8%)
9
Informal Reprimand
15 (33.3%)
1 (4.8%)
16
Admonish and Release
24 (53.3%)
1 (4.8%)
25
Total
45
21
66
Empirical Studies of Police Discrimination: Black and Reiss
- the “social distance” between offender and victim is greater
- family situations--45% arrested
- friends/neighbors--77% arrested
- strangers--88% arrested
- the complainant prefers arrest
- prefers--50% arrested
- preference unclear--16% arrested
- prefered no arrest--0%
Found that an arrest is most likely when:
Suspect fails to show deference
“very deferential”--22% arrested
“civil”--16% arrested
“antagonistic”--22% arrested
Official Reaction to Juvenile Delinquency
Components of the Juvenile Justice System II:
Pretrial
Elements Involved in Pretrial
Intake
- Refers to the screening of cases by the juvenile court system
- Done by intake officers who are often probation officers
- Intake results in one of the following:
- send youth home with no further action
- divert youth to a social service agency
- petition to juvenile court and release until court date
- petition to court and hold in detention
- waive (transfer) case to adult court
Juveniles at
intake hearing
*
Photo taken from Senna and Siegel Juvenile Delinquency, 7th edition
Diversion
- Refers to screening children from the court without judicial determination
- Also referred to as:
- nonjudicial adjustment
- informal disposition
- adjustment
- Can be employed by police departments or courts
- Encourages the child to participate in a specific program or activity with implied threat of further prosecution
Pros and Cons of Diversion
Helps juvenile justice system run smoothly
Allows for reallocation of resources to other programs
Costs less than institutionalization
Helps children avoid being stigmatized
Results in “widening the net”
Many children who would have before simply sent home are now formally in the system
Detention
- Refers to the holding of children in secure facilities until trial
- Pretrial detention normally used only when:
- child might be inclined to run away before trial
- child might be inclined to commit another serious crime
- child is a violator from another jurisdiction
- Alternatives to detention
- send the child home (most common pre-trial procedure)
- send to shelter care--less restrictive, normally for status offenders
- send to foster care--normally for abused and neglected children
Trends in Detention
- Increases in detention are increasing despite decreases in delinquency
- Reasons include:
- rise in serious crime
- increased link between drug use and delinquency
- younger children becoming involved in serious crimes
Problems With and Recommended Changes for Detention
Seen by some as incarceration without a trial
Due to discretion in who is and is not detained, there tends to be racial and class discrimination
May have a strong negative effect on child due to lack of rehabilitative services
Some jurisdictions still detain children in adult facilities
Some suggest prohibiting detention altogether
Should be reserved for juveniles representing a major threat to community
Should be some rehabilitative services provided
Transfer to Adult Court
- All states now have a provision to transfer juveniles to adult courts when deemed appropriate
- Three models for adult transfer. They are not mutually exclusive:
- Concurrent jurisdiction--prosecutor is given total discretion
- Excluded offenses--statutorily identifies certain offenses as transferrable
- Judicial Waiver--the court (not prosecutor) waives jurisdiction
Pros and Cons of Adult Transfer
Some suggest that repeat, hardened offenders are beyond rehabilitation anyway
Need threat of tough punishment to deter them
Can you think of any other pros?
Opponents claim that that only half-hearted attempts have been made at rehabilitation
Claim that the transfer is a copout and admission of failure
Can you think of any other cons?
The Petition
- If a child is not diverted or waived, he/she will be petitioned to juvenile court
- The petition is the formal legal complaint that initiates judicial action
- A petition can be brought by:
- a police officer
- social service agency
- family member or guardian
- If child admits to allegations, hearing is scheduled to initiate a treatment plan
- If child does not admit to facts of petition:
- hearing is scheduled to hear the facts
- predisposition report is prepared
- parents are notified of hearing date
Official Reaction to Juvenile Delinquency
Components of the Juvenile Justice System III:
Trial and Disposition
Organizational Structure of the Juvenile Court
Three Organizational Models
Juvenile Court Organized as Part of a Lower Court
- Most common of all structures
- Might be part of
- District Court
- City Court
- Recorders Court
- Because lower courts tend to have lower prestige, juvenile courts in these jurisdictions also suffer in importance
Juvenile Court Organized as Part of a Higher Court
- The higher court is typically a circuit court or superior court
- These are also courts that hear adult criminal cases
- Juvenile court generally has more stature in these jurisdictions
Juvenile Court Organized as an Independent Court System
- Typically, the independent court system is devoted to family court matters
- Some states organize this way on a state-wide basis; others, such as Alabama, allow separate jurisdictions to do so.
- Advantages of separate court:
- Can better serve sparsely populated areas
- Permits judicial personnel to deal exclusively with juvenile (and family) matters
- More effective in obtaining legislative funding
- Provides more consistency in dealing with family matters
- Major disadvantages is that restructuring costs can be substantial
Actors in the Juvenile Court
Actors in the Juvenile Court: