reflection
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A Battle Emerging in Mobile Payments
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By 2018, roughly 5 billion people had broadband subscriptions.
Mobile payment systems developed by Apple, Samsung, and Google used NFC chips, merchant banks and Visa or MasterCard to complete transactions wirelessly.
In Asia and Latin America mobile payment systems such as Alipay used QR codes. Still other competitors such as PayPal used a downloadable application and the Web to transmit a customer’s information.
In India and Africa, systems like Inter-Bank Mobile Payment Service and M-Pesa were enabling “unbanked” and “underbanked” people access to fast and inexpensive funds transfer.
A mobile payment system that cuts out the credit card companies could potentially save (or capture) billions of dollars in transaction fees. Credit card companies and merchants thus both had high incentives to influence the outcome of this battle.
Mobile Payments Video
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A Battle Emerging in Mobile Payments
Discussion Questions:
1. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of mobile payment systems in a) developed countries and b) developing countries?
2. What are the key factors that differentiate the different mobile payment systems? Which factors do consumers care most about? Which factors do merchants care most about?
3. Are there forces that are likely to encourage one of the mobile payment systems to emerge as dominant? If so, what do you think will determine which becomes dominant?
4. Is there anything the mobile payment systems could do to increase the likelihood of them becoming dominant?
5. How do these different mobile systems increase or decrease the power of a) banks, b) credit cards?
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Chapter 4
Standards Battles and Design Dominance
Overview
• Many industries experience strong pressure to select a single (or few) dominant design(s).
• There are multiple dimensions shaping which technology rises to the position of the dominant design.
• Firm strategies can influence several of these dimensions, enhancing the likelihood of their technologies rising to dominance.
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Why Dominant Designs Are Selected
• Increasing returns to adoption • When a technology becomes more valuable the more it is adopted. Two primary sources are learning effects and network externalities.
• The Learning Curve: As a technology is used, producers learn to make it more efficient and effective.
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Why Dominant Designs Are Selected
• Prior Learning and Absorptive Capacity • A firm’s prior experience influences its ability to recognize and utilize new information. • Use of a particular technology builds knowledge base about that technology.
• The knowledge base helps firms use and improve the technology
Suggests that technologies adopted earlier than others are likely to become better developed, making it difficult for other technologies to catch up.
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Why Dominant Designs Are Selected
• Network Externalities • In markets with network externalities, the benefit from using a good increases with the number of other users of the same good.
• Network externalities are common in industries that are physically networked • E.g., railroads, telecommunications
• Network externalities also arise when compatibility or complementary goods are important • E.g., Many people choose to use Windows in order to maximize the number of people their files are compatible with, and the range of software applications they can use.
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Why Dominant Designs Are Selected
• A technology with a large installed base attracts developers of complementary goods; a technology with a wide range of complementary goods attracts users, increasing the installed base. A self‐reinforcing cycle ensues:
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Theory In Action
The Rise of Microsoft In 1980, Microsoft didn’t even have a personal computer (PC)
operating system – the dominant operating system was CP/M.
However, in IBM’s rush to bring a PC to market, they turned to Microsoft for an operating system and Microsoft produced a clone of CP/M called “MS DOS.”
The success of the IBM PCs (and clones of IBM PCs) resulted in the rapid spread of MS DOS, and an even more rapid proliferation of software applications designed to run on MS DOS. Microsoft’s Windows was later bundled with (and eventually replaced) MS DOS.
Had Gary Kildall signed with IBM, or had other companies not been able to clone the IBM PC, the software industry might look very different today!
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Why Dominant Designs Are Selected
Government Regulation
• Sometimes the consumer welfare benefits of having a single dominant design prompts government organizations to intervene, imposing a standard. • E.g., the NTSC color standard in television broadcasting in the U.S.; the general standard for mobile communications (GSM) in the European Union.
The Result: Winner‐Take‐All Markets
• Natural monopolies • Firms supporting winning technologies earn huge rewards; others may be locked out.
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Why Dominant Designs Are Selected
Increasing returns indicate that technology trajectories are characterized by path dependency:
• End results depend greatly on the events that took place leading up to the outcome.
A dominant design can have far‐reaching influence; it shapes future technological inquiry in the area.
Winner‐take‐all markets can have very different competitive dynamics than other markets.
• Technologically superior products do not always win. • Such markets require different firm strategies for success than markets with less pressure for a single dominant design.
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Are Winner‐Take‐All Markets Good for Consumers?
• Network externality benefits to customers rise with cumulative market share
• Potential for monopoly costs to customers (e.g., price gouging, restricted product variety, etc.) also rise with cumulative market share.
Curve shapes are different; Network externality benefits likely to grow logistically, while potential monopoly costs likely to grow exponentially.
Where monopoly costs exceed network externality benefits, intervention may be warranted. Optimal market share is at point where lines cross.
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Multiple Dimensions of Value
In many increasing returns industries, the value of a technology is strongly influenced by both:
• Technology’s Standalone Value • Network Externality Value
• A Technology’s Stand‐alone Value • Includes such factors as:
• The functions the technology enables customers to perform
• Its aesthetic qualities • Its ease of use, etc.
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Fig 4.3 The Buyer Utility Map with Toyota Prius Example
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Multiple Dimensions of Value
Network Externality Value • Includes the value created by:
• The size of the technology’s installed base • The availability of complementary goods
• A new technology that has significantly more standalone functionality than the incumbent technology may offer less overall value because it has a smaller installed base or poor availability of complementary goods. • E.g., NeXT Computers were extremely advanced technologically, but could not compete with the installed base value and complementary good value of Windows‐based personal computers.
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Multiple Dimensions of Value
To successfully overthrow an existing dominant technology, new technology often must either offer:
• Dramatic technological improvement (e.g., in videogame consoles, it has taken 3X performance of incumbent)
• Compatibility with existing installed base and complements
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Multiple Dimensions of Value
Subjective information (perceptions and expectations) can matter as much as objective information (actual numbers)
Value attributed to each dimension may be disproportional
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Competing for Design Dominance in Markets with Network Externalities
• We can graph the value a technology offers in both standalone value and network externality value:
Multiple Dimensions of Value
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Multiple Dimensions of Value 9
We can compare the graphs of two competing technologies and identify cumulative market share levels (installed base) that determine which technology yields more value. Fig 4.7
Multiple Dimensions of Value
When customer requirements for network externality value are satiated at lower levels of market share, more than one dominant design may thrive. Fig 4.8
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Are Winner‐Take‐All Markets Good for Consumers?
Economics emphasizes the benefits of competition. However, network externalities suggest users sometimes get more value when one technology dominates. Should the government intervene when network externalities create a natural monopoly?
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Are Winner‐Take‐All Markets Good for Consumers?
Network externality benefits to customers rise with cumulative market share Potential for monopoly costs to customers (for example, price gouging, restricted product variety, etc.) also rise with cumulative market share.
• Curve shapes are different; Network externality benefits likely to grow logistically, while potential monopoly costs likely to grow exponentially.
• Where monopoly costs exceed network externality benefits, intervention may be warranted. Optimal market share is at point where lines cross.
Modularity and Platform Competition
In some markets, industry players use modularity to create a platform ecosystem where many different firms contribute to the product system. Modular systems are those that can be separated and recombined to change their configuration, scale, or functions.
• Standardized interfaces ensure that components are compatible • In some product systems modularity enables components from different producers to be recombined (for example, smartphones with different apps); in others only components from a single firm are recombined (for example, Ikea shelving systems)
Modularity is more valuable when there are a) diverse technological options that can be recombined, and b) customers have heterogeneous preferences.
Platform Ecosystems
In a platform ecosystem, some core part of a product (such as a video game console) mediates the relationship between a wide range of other components or complements (for example, video games, peripherals) and prospective end‐users.
• A platform’s boundaries can be well‐defined with a stable set of members or amorphous and changing.
• The success of all members of the ecosystem depends in part upon the success of other members.
• Members often invest in co‐specialization or exclusivity agreements.
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Platform ecosystems strike a balance between pure modularity and pure integration
Pure Modularity
• Combinations take place in the market – no co‐ specialization
• Choice & reconfigurability Competition incentivizes firms to increase quality and decrease price
• Quality and compatibility is uncertain (can be hard for customer)
• Platforms
• Components not owned, but curated.
• Choice and reconfigurability, but shepherded by platform sponsor
• Competition still incentivizes
• Producer exerts some control over quality and compatibility
Pure Integration
• Combination pre‐ determined by firm (no reconfiguration)
• Captive supply (no competition)
• High co‐ specialization ensures components optimized to work together
• Producer controls quality and compatibility
Summary of Chapter 4
7. Customers weigh a combination of objective and subjective information. Thus, a customer’s perceptions and expectations of a technology can be as important as (or more important than) the actual value offered by the technology.page 92
8. Firms can try to manage customers’ perceptions and expectations through advertising and public announcements of preorders, distribution agreements, and so on.
9. The combination of network externality returns to market share and technological utility will influence at what level of market share one technology will dominate another. For some industries, the full network externality benefits are attained at a minority market share level; in these industries, multiple designs are likely to coexist.
10. In markets where customers have heterogeneous preferences and there are many potential technological options available, firms might use modularity to enable customers to mix and match components, producing a wider array of end products.
11. Platform ecosystems are an example of modularity in action. A stable core platform (e.g., a smartphone operating system) may mediate the relationship between many complements producers (e.g., applications developers) and end users.
Summary of Chapter 4
1. Many technologies demonstrate increasing returns to adoption, meaning that the more they are adopted, the more valuable they become.
2. One primary source of increasing returns is learning‐curve effects. The more a technology is produced and used, the better understood and developed it becomes, leading to improved performance and reduced costs.
3. Another key factor creating increasing returns is network externality effects. Network externality effects arise when the value of a good to a user increases with the size of the installed base. This can be due to a number of reasons, such as need for compatibility or the availability of complementary goods.
4. In some industries, the consumer welfare benefits of having a single standard have prompted government regulation, such as the European Union’s mandate to use the GSM cellular phone standard.
5. Increasing returns can lead to winner‐take‐all markets where one or a few companies capture nearly all the market share.
6. The value of a technology to buyers is multidimensional. The stand‐alone value of a technology can include many factors (productivity, simplicity, etc.) and the technology’s cost. In increasing returns industries, the value will also be significantly affected by the technology’s installed base and availability of complementary goods.
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Discussion Questions
1. What are some of the sources of increasing returns to adoption?
2. What are some examples of industries not mentioned in the chapter that demonstrate increasing returns to adoption?
3. What are some of the ways a firm can try to increase the overall value of its technology, and its likelihood of becoming the dominant design?
4. What determines whether an industry is likely to have one or a few dominant designs?
5. Are dominant designs good for consumers? Competitors? Complementors? Suppliers?
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