assignment

The Teachings of Hinduism 91

THE TEACHINGS OF HINDUISM Prior to the nineteenth century, the word "Hinduism" did not

exist. Most Hindus identified themselves by their sectarian orientation and their communal or caste affiliations. The word

Hindu was initially a term used by the ancient Persians to de-

scribe the people who lived beyond the Indus River in the

northwestern corner of the Indian subcontinent. By 325 B.C.E.,

Alexander the Great had crossed the Indus; the Greek conquer-

ors adopted the Persian convention of calling the river the "Indos" and the land beyond it "India." In the centuries that

followed, the term "Indu" or "Hindu" became a territorial, as

well as a racial, social, and cultural, designation for the people

of India. After the sixteenth century c.E., the word appeared occasionally in Indian literature to distinguish "Hindus" from

Muslims or other "foreigners ." Although the "-ism" was added

to "Hindu" in the early 1800s, only toward the end of the nine-

teenth century did the word "Hinduism" become widely used

by Hindus themselves.

Some Hindus look to the authority of a group of texts

known as the Vedas and may rely on brahmin priests to offici- ate at various rituals. Others reject the centrality of the Vedas

and brahmins. Some Hindus join organizations built around

saints or sages. Others seek solitude to practice contemplation, meditation, or yoga.

Some Hindus believe that God is a divine person with identifiable attributes. Others

say that divine reality is so expansive as to be beyond all description.

Despite Hinduism's diversity, it is possible to identify common core concepts in which most every Hindu believes. For instance, the law of karma determines the nature of one's incarnations in samsara, the continuing cycle of death and rebirth. At the end of this cycle is moksha, or liberation, the final release from the trials and tribu- lations of samsara.

For the sake of simplicity, in this chapter we have organized our investigation of

Hindu teachings around four main topics. First, we examine beliefs about God or divine reality. Next, we explore Hinduism's key doctrines and social concepts. We

then take up a discussion of Hinduism's foundational texts. We conclude with a brief

survey of Vedanta, a philosophical school, and Hinduism's three major sects.

Hindu Beliefs about Divine Reality In keeping with Hinduism's general diversity, Hindu beliefs about divine reality are

wide ranging. Indeed, one of the most fundamental differences in Hinduism is the

split between monistic and dualistic (or devotional) viewpoints. Monism, as explained

in this book's introductory chapter, is the doctrine that all reality is ultimately one. It is nondualistic in that there is no distinction between the divine reality and the rest

A photograph taken of a Hindu temple in Trinidad in 1931. The presence of Hindus in the Caribbean and South America can be traced back to the nineteenth century, when Hindus came as indentured workers on sugar cane plantations.

92 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

0 km 2000 4000

0 miles 2000

NORTH AMERICA

4000

SOUTH AMERICA

AUSTRALIA

World Hindu population (%)

1-15 15-55 55-70 70-100

World Hindu population. of reality. The Hindu dualistic viewpoint, on the other hand, understands divine real-

ity as God, a personal being separate from the rest of reality. This means that God is

separate from the individual, and therefore devotion to God is possible. Devotional

practice of this sort is a primary religious activity of Hindus who hold this dualistic

viewpoint. The majority of Hindus understand divine reality in this dualistic manner.

Names of the Divine Reality Hindus refer to divine reality in a variety of ways. In this chapter, in order to maintain clarity between references to the monistic and the

dualistic viewpoints, we use two distinct terms. When referencing monism, we use the

term Brahman (lit. "expansive") to denote the divine reality, which monistic Hindus believe is the supreme, unitary reality that is the source of all being and all knowing.

When referencing dualistic or devotional Hinduism, we use either "God" or the name

of the specific deity under consideration.

In actual Hindu practice, conventions of naming the divine are often not so simple

as our chapter's use of these two distinct terms might imply. Sometimes monistic

Hindus, for example, refer to Brahman as "God." Many dualist Hindus use "God"

to denote a universal being that encompasses all the various deities worshipped in

Hinduism, and sometimes they use the term Brahman. When dualistic Hindus refer

to a particular deity, they often use the specific name, such as Krishna, Rama, or

Shiva. Devotees of the goddess traditions refer to God as Mahadevi ("Great Goddess")

or Mataji ("mother"). Sometimes Hindus use Sanskrit terms such as Bhagavan (lit.

The Teachings of Hinduism 93

"Magnanimous One;" also an epithet for Vishnu) and Svami (or Swami, lit. "Master";

also denoting an initiate of a monastic order).

One Divine Reality, Many Gods The monistic viewpoint does not preclude belief in gods and goddesses. In a famous passage from the Upanishads (a collection of early philosophical texts), a sage is asked how many gods there are. Initially, he says there are "three hundred and three, and three thousand and three," but, upon reflection, he ul-

timately concludes that there is only one.1 The sage explains that the various powers of

the divine manifest as countless deities. In later times, the traditional number grew to 330 million. The passage from the Upanishads concludes with the sage giving the name

of the one god: Brahman, which is the supreme, unitary reality, the ground of all Being.

Although Brahman is the true nature of all that exists, including ourselves, it is indescribable from the ordinary human perspective. Brahman can be described only

by way of some general attributes: infinite being (sat), infinite awareness (chit), and

infinite bliss (ananda). A passage from the Upanishads states that Brahman is neti, neti:

"not this, not this."2 When all of the identifiable particulars of the universe are sub-

tracted away, what remains is Brahman, the essential substratum of all existence. This

is monism, the belief that all reality is ultimately one. These passages from the Upanishads influence how later monistic Hinduism forms

its understanding of the mystery and majesty of Being. M any monistic Hindus believe

that God is simultaneously one-as Brahman, the ground of all Being-and many.

Given the worship of many deities, along with affirmation of the ultimate singularity

of the divine, and indeed of all reality, this form of Hinduism can be described as both

polytheistic and monistic. Unlike polytheistic religions that see the various gods as limited, Hinduism regards each god as a manifestation of Brahman.

Divine Reality as Sound The primordial sound OM (or, more literally, AUM), is constituted of three sounds of the Sanskrit language: A, U, and M-the first two, vowels, and the last, a consonant, respectively. OM therefore encompasses all words and all things they represent. OM is the sound through which the universe is manifested and thus is the very expression of Brahman. Some Upanishads also identify it with four

states of consciousness: A is waking consciousness, U is dreaming consciousness, Mis deep sleep without dreaming consciousness, and A UM in its entirety is the fourth and

final state, oneness with Brahman. In later Hinduism, the sounds are identified with the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva and their functions of creating, preserving, and dissolving the universe.

God as Image Paradoxically, given the difficulty of comprehending the nature of divine reality, Hinduism is an intensely imagistic religious tradition. This is especially

true of dualistic Hinduism, as imagistic representations of God are naturally well

suited for devotional practices.

94 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

Ringed by cosmic time represented by a fiery ring, Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraj a) performs his Five Activities: creation (represented by the drum in his upper right hand), preservation (signified by the positions of his lower right and left hands), destruction (symbolized by the fire in his upraised left hand), illusion (personified by the tiny Demon of Forgetfulness crushed beneath his right leg), and liberation (offered by surrendering to his upraised left foot). Chola period, c. eleventh century. India, Tamil Nadu.

Images of supernatural beings and mythical beasts decorate Hindu temples, as well as Hindu homes. This love for the divine

form emerges from Hindu notions of the simultaneous imma-

nence and transcendence of God. An image of a deity is a sym-

bolic representation meant to aid devotees in contemplating the

deity's divine attributes, but the image is also believed to be suffused with divine presence, as we saw in the opening narra-

tive about the Ganesha temple. Thus, Hindus believe that God

becomes accessible to devotees through images. For Hindus, an

image of a god is God.

Some images feature multiple limbs and faces that represent

the deity's many aspects (such as compassion, serenity, or fer-

ocity). The multiple hands of a deity depict gestures or hold objects that reveal his or her activities, such as providing protec-

tion, granting wishes, or holding a book of wisdom. Images can

be richly adorned stationary icons enshrined in temples or beau-

tifully crafted bronze icons carried in religious processions.

Some images are quite large, such as the statue of Ganesha we encountered at the beginning of this chapter. Icons in personal

shrines in Hindu homes tend to be small. Today, some Hindus revere print and online

images of the divine. Because of the emphasis on divine images and their worship,

Hindus sometimes have been falsely characterized as idolatrous. For Hindus, however,

images of God are imbued with the divine essence. It is this essence that is worshiped

and invoked through ritual action.

The Divine in Nature If Brahman is everywhere and everything, it follows that the natural world is an expression of the divine. This belief is held by most Hindus,

whether inclined toward the monistic or the dualistic viewpoint. The worship of such natural entities as rivers, the earth, mountains, and the sun, as well as a reverence for

certain trees and animals, can be traced back to the roots of Hinduism.

Many sacred sites arose in conjunction with the worship of rivers and mountains.

Rivers in particular are worshipped as embodying the creative energy that generates

the universe, as well as being powerful places of crossing between the divine and ter-

restrial worlds. It is for all of these reasons that many Hindus bathe in rivers-of which the Ganges in India is the most important-believing that they wash away one's sins. The renowned classical Sanskrit writer Kalidasa (fifth century C.E.) de- scribed the Himalayas as a devatatma, a great spiritual presence. For centuries, the

awe-inspiring peaks of the Himalayas have attracted monks, yogis, and pilgrims seek-

ing an experience of the divine. Mount Kailasha, believed to be the home of the god

Shiva, draws devotees who perform a ritual circumambulation of the mountain over

the course of several days, reaching elevations of greater than 18,000 feet on the trek. Hindu mythology portrays the sun, planets, and other celestial bodies as gods.

The Teachings of Hinduism 95

For Hindus, all living things are sacred, and some

especially so. For example, the Pipal (ficus religiosa), the type of fig tree under which Gautama the Buddha at-

tained enlightenment (Chapter 5), is sacred to the god

Vishnu. As is well known, a special place is given to the

cow in Hindu society, a practice that has deep historical roots in the various pastoral, cattle-tending communi-

ties found throughout India. Because a child, once

weaned from its mother's breast, is frequently given

cow's milk, the cow is revered by Hindus as a second

mother. Cows are worshipped on the first day of the im-

portant Hindu festival of Diwali, as well as on the first day of a harvest festival observed in southern India. For

Hindus, the worship of cows is an expression of respect

for creatures that help humanity.

Although Hinduism has a long history of reverence

for natural entities, this has not always translated into

ecological awareness and activism. The worship of rivers does not mean that India's sacred waterways are pristine.

Because rivers are divine, they are said to be able to

absorb the sins of worshippers and still remain un-

affected. Thus, for many Hindus, rivers remain pure

even if they are polluted by waste. In recent years, Hindu

environmental activists have begun to challenge these assumptions by employing Hindu beliefs about the div-

inity of the natural world to promote more informed

ecological awareness.

God Comes Down: Avatars Two of the most popular deities in Hinduism are Krishna and Rama. Each is an avatar, a "descent" (Sanskrit, avatara) of God to earth in a physical form with the specific goal of aiding the world. Like most avatars, they

are manifestations of Vishnu, whose primary function is the preservation of order in

the world. Vishnu is believed to have ten such forms, of which nine have already ap-

peared. As noted, the most popular of the avatars are Rama, Vishnu's seventh form, and Krishna, his eighth. It is said that Vishnu's final avatar, Kalki, will arrive at the

end of the present age to usher in an era of peace. We have seen that Hindus often use the names of particular gods as a way of refer-

ring to divine reality. This is the case with avatars. For example, Hinduism's best-

known sacred text, the Bhagavad Gita (The Song of the Lord), presents Krishna as a manifestation of the supreme Being.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna asserts the principle that although God's essen- tial nature is unchangeable, God chooses to descend into the world in the form

A Hindu devotee performs rituals dedicated to the Sun God as he takes a holy dip in Allahabad, India, at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers, one of Hinduism's important centers.

96 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

of an avatar when intervention is necessary to reinstate peace and harmony.

Krishna says:

Although I am unborn, an imperishable self, and the Lord of all Beings, I govern my own earthly nature, and come into being by my own creative force. Son of Bharata, whenever there is a decline in dharma, and the absence of dharma increases, I create myself. I come into being from age to age with the purpose of fixing dharma- as a refuge for those who do good and as a doom for those who do evil. (Bhagavad Gita, 4:6-8)3

We will learn more about the Bhagavad Gita later in this chapter.

The Individual and the Quest for Liberation Having explored Hindu perspectives on divine reality, we turn now to basic concepts

that form the framework of the Hindu outlook on the individual and the quest for liber-

ation. Some of these concepts, such as samsara and karma, are shared by other religions (Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism), although each treats these concepts in different ways.

Atman All Hindus believe in an undying soul or self, the atman, whose nature is neither limited by the physical body nor defined by its relationship to the world. It is

the atman that moves from body to body through successive incarnations. The task of recognizing the true nature of the essential self is understood to be ar-

duous and rarely achieved. Most Hindus assume that this will require many lifetimes.

The Teachings of Hinduism 97

One's life ordinarily revolves around a sense of selfhood that is limited, constrained by

desires and by ignorance of the true nature of atman. Life, therefore, ordinarily is lived

by the egoistic "self" that is by nature (as the term suggests) selfish and stuck with the

false identification of the self with the physical body. This leads to suffering, as the

body undergoes painful changes brought on by disease, old age, and death.

Monistic Hinduism, true to its basic premise that all reality is ultimately one,

teaches that the atman is Brahman. In a famous passage from the Upanishads, a young man named Svetaketu receives instruction from his father on the true nature of the

atman. Using a number of analogies, the father explains that despite the appearance of

multiplicity, all reality is one. The father emphatically declares: Tat tvam asi svetakato iti ("You are that, Svetaketu!").4 Atman is Brahman.

Karma The course of the atman through successive incarnations is determined by karma. In its original, most basic sense, karma means "action," but for Hindus it

means the consequences of action as well. Karma functions in accordance with the law

of cause and effect: good actions produce good effects, bad actions produce bad effects.

Karma encompasses all kinds of action, physical as well as mental. A person's situation

in any given moment has been shaped by all previous actions. Consider, for example, being a college student. This situation is no accident, but rather the effect of certain

kinds of thought and behavior during high school years that put the person on this

course. Similarly, the karmic forces that we set in motion in our present lives will de-

termine the nature of our future incarnations. To ensure that the future will be good,

our actions now must be good-and that means living in conformity with dharma.

Dharma For Hinduism, the term dharma can mean law, duty, righteousness, or even "religion," all of which have to do with living in a way that upholds cosmic and

social order. Dharma is traditionally believed to have been divinely revealed to the

rishis, the poet-sages who composed the Vedas.

Through the centuries, Hindu texts have set forth ritual and social obligations that

define a good life. The Laws of Manu, for example, a classic juridical text from the period 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E., contains detailed prescriptions for correct behavior in all

aspects of life. The two ancient and enormously influential Indian epic poems, the

Ramayana and the Mahabharata, depict the simultaneous particularity and universal-

ity of dharma. As we will consider in more detail in a later section, both poems present

epic heroes who must resolve conflicts between social or family obligations and their own personal sense of what duty demands from them.

Samsara Hindus use the term samsara in two closely related ways. Samsara is the continuing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Samsara is also the this-worldly realm in

which birth, death, and rebirth recur. When the physical body dies, the eternal self or

soul, the atman, moves on to another body. This process continues until the true nature of the atman is recognized. As noted previously, the nature of each rebirth is

98 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

A sannyasi, or Hindu ascetic. His sectarian affi liation is indicated by his forehead marking, which demonstrates that he is a worshipper of Vishnu.

determined by karma. Virtuous acts of kindness and generosity over lifetimes ensure

favorable rebirths, perhaps even in the blissful heavens of the gods. Selfish action and

meanness lead to undesirable rebirths.

Hindus believe in a multitude of heavens and hells, as well as other regions in between.

A rebirth in a heaven or hell could last for thousands of years but is still only temporary.

The most desirable rebirth of all is as a human being in a situation that offers the greatest

opportunity for realizing liberation from samsara; for example, as a sage or an ascetic.

The concept of samsara presents some basic questions. What gives rise to samsara? And why are human beings so prone to remain stuck in this samsaric realm? Through

the ages, Hindus have offered various answers to these questions. Some of these an-

swers have involved the concept maya, which in the Vedas refers to the magical power the gods used to create this world. Is the world an illusion, as is often the case

with magic, or real? Hindus are divided on this issue. In

either case, they agree that human beings are powerfully

attracted to this world, with its many particulars-our ego-

istic selves, our relationships, our possessions, and the seem-

ingly countless objects of our desires. Our attachment to

such things in all that we think and do and the karma it

generates steer us after each lifetime back into the samsaric realm of particulars.

All of this leads to another basic question: Why should

anyone want to escape from samsara? After all, the prospect of a future filled with numerous lifetimes would seem to be

appealing. Hinduism's answer is simple: beyond the samsaric realm lies something inexpressibly better.

Moksha Freedom from the bondage of samsara is achieved through moksha, "release" or "liberation." Having overcome at-

tachments to this world, the atman realizes its true nature. For monistic Hindus, moksha is the union of the atman with Brah- man, such that no sense of individuality any longer exists. For dualistic or devotional Hindus, for whom the divine reality is

identified with their supreme God (be it Vishnu, Shiva, or

another), moksha involves the eternal existence of the atman in

the company of God. Hindus also have differing opinions

on whether moksha can occur for a living person or whether it must await death of the physical body. For all Hindus, however, moksha marks the end of the samsaric cycle of rebirth and the end of the effects of karma. Like Brahman, moksha is virtually impossible to describe, beyond being characterized-also like

Brahman-as infinite awareness and eternal bliss. It almost goes without saying that the quest for moksha, for liberating oneself from

samsara even while constrained to the limits of this world, is extremely challenging.

The Teachings of Hinduism 99

Hinduism offers three main paths to moksha, each one providing means of eradicating ignorance and egoistic attachment and thus freeing the atman.

Three Paths to Liberation Typical of the diverse nature of Hinduism, there are a variety of approaches to the goal of

liberation. Traditionally they have been categorized as three paths, or margas (also called yogas), each one featuring its own set of practices and being suited to certain personality traits and life situations. Karma ma,xa, for those engaged in the activities of family and career, emphasizes ritual and ethical works. Bhakti marga, for the vast majority of Hindus who regularly worship in temples and in their homes, is devotion to a deity.

Jnana ma,xa, for those privileged to devote time and energy on study and contempla- tion, focuses on spiritual insight. The paths are by no means exclusive of one another:

Hindus commonly engage in more than one. Almost all Hindus, for example, practice

some form of bhakti marga, and karma marga is a natural way to approach life's everyday tasks. All three margas function to diminish the ignorance, attachment, and false identi- fication of the self with the physical body that characterize life in the samsaric realm.

Typical ofits synthesizing nature, the Bhagavad Gita, which was composed in about the first century of the Common Era, sets forth all three margas, explaining character- istics common to all three and making dear their mutual compatibility. Of fundamen-

tal concern is the need to eradicate the ignorance and attachment born of an egoistic

sense of selfhood. One passage puts it this way: "He who abandons all desires and acts

free from longing, without any sense of mineness or egotism-he attains to peace."5

Karma Marga As noted previously, all Hindus are required to act in conformity with dharma, the duty to live in a manner that upholds cosmic and social order. Karma marga combines focus on dharma with an attitude of detachment with regard to acting and to the results of action. In the words of the Bhagavad Gita:

Relinquishing attachment, men of discipline perform action with body, mind, understanding, and senses for the purification of the self. Relinquishing the fruit of action the disciplined man attains perfect peace; the undisciplined man is in bondage, attached to the fruit of desire.6

When the self, or atman, is devoid of attachment to the results of action, the problems of egotism, and the suffering brought about by birth, disease, old age, and death, are resolved.

Bhakti Marga The path of devotion, bhakti marga, is the most widely practiced of the three paths to liberation. This chapter's survey of the history of Hinduism in-

cludes a section detailing the rise of the bhakti tradition. In an important manner, the

100 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

tradition is grounded in the Bhagavad Gita, which, along with prescribing the other two margas, gives pride of place to bhakti. In the Bhagavad Gita, the featured deity is Krishna. Bhakti, however, can be directed toward whatever deity one chooses. Hindus typically worship more than one deity, depending on personal preference and on the

occasion; for instance, during the festival in honor of Saraswati, goddess of education,

Hindu schoolchildren offer devotion to her. There are numerous such festivals of the gods in the Hindu year.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna makes clear to his devotee Arjuna the great benefits of bhakti:

But men intent on me

renounce all actions to me

and worship me, meditating

with singular discipline.

When they entrust reason to me,

Arjuna, I soon arise to rescue them from the ocean

of death and rebirth.

Focus your mind on me,

let your understanding enter me;

then you will dwell

in me without doubt.7

Like karma marga and jnana marga, bhak-ti marga functions to eradicate egotism, ignor- ance, and attachment to the objects of desire. By devoting one's time and energy to a deity

rather than to one's individualistic yearnings and concerns, the true nature of reality is

realized, the effects of karma are neutralized, and liberation from samsara is achieved.

Jnana Marga Generally agreed to be the steepest ascent to liberation,jnana ("know- ledge") marga requires disciplined study of sacred texts and intensive contemplation, typically through the practice of meditation. This is the path of wisdom, the special

pursuit of philosophers. The Bhagavad Gita says:

There is nothing on earth equal in purity to wisdom. He who becomes

perfected by yoga finds this of himself, in his self [atman] in course of time.

He who has faith, who is absorbed in it [i.e., wisdom], and who has

subdued his senses, gains wisdom, and having gained wisdom he at-

tains quickly the supreme peace.8

The wisdom gained through jnana marga is spiritual knowledge or insight of a special kind. To attain this wisdom is to become aware of the true nature of atman. For monistic

The Teachings of Hinduism 101

Hindus, this is to become aware that the atman is none other than Brahman, the

ultimate, unitary reality.

In a later section of this chapter we explore Yoga, one of the most important of

Hinduism's six philosophical schools. The Yoga school teaches specific physical and

mental exercises designed to promote jnana. It is this form of jnana marga, with its meditative practices often performed in the lotus position, that is commonly envi- sioned by non-Hindus when pondering the spiritual life of India.

Here, we turn our attention to Vedanta, the most influential of Hinduism's philo-

sophical schools and a primary example of jnana marga.

Vedanta: The Predominant School of Hindu Philosophy The philosophical system that emerged out of the Upanishads is called Vedanta, which in Sanskrit means "the end of the Vedas"-"end" not only as conclusion but also as

culmination. The Vedanta school asserts that the Upanishads reveal the truth about the fundamental questions of existence. The Upanishads are both profound and challen-

ging and are open to a variety of interpretations. Following the composition of the

early Upanishads, philosophy became a very important part of Hinduism. Predictably,

there even arose a number of different schools within Vedanta. Each school of Vedanta

sought to understand the precise nature of the relationships between Brahman, atman,

and the world. The impact of Vedanta on the development of Hinduism cannot be overestimated.

As different Hindu sects emerged, their distinctive understandings of Vedanta shaped

their philosophical orientations. Of the many schools of Vedanta, the three most im-

portant are Advaita, Vishishta-Advaita, and Dvaita.

Advaita Vedanta Known as Hinduism's uncompromisingly monistic school of phil- osophy, Advaita ("Non-dualist") Vedanta teaches that the atman is identical to Brahman

and denies any distinction whatsoever between Brahman and everything else. This

school of thought grew directly out of the Upanishads but was further developed in the

eighth century c.E. by Shankara, its most famous proponent. Shankara posited that

the world is maya, "illusion." Earlier in this chapter we noted that the Vedas present

maya as the magical power the gods used to create this world. For Shankara, maya veils the mind, such that it does not discern the true nature of the self (atman). According

to Shankara, it is this lack of discernment, or ignorance, manifesting as attachment

and desire, that keeps one bound to the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara). When one

uses wisdom and discernment, one can cut through ignorance and recognize the in-

herent unity of all things, including the oneness of Brahman and atman. This in turn

results in moksha and the complete dissolution of one's sense of individual selfbood.

Vishishta-Advaita Many of the sects that worship Vishnu differ on the subtler as- pects of the relationship between Brahman and atman. For Vaishnavas, Brahman is iden- tified with Vishnu. The school of Vishishta-Advaita, founded by the twelfth-century C .E.

102 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

philosopher Ramanuja, declared that all is Brahman and that the material world and

individual souls also are real. The world is not illusion (maya); rather, it is the body of

God. All beings are a part of God, eternally connected to Vishnu but not the same as

him. We are more like cells in the divine body. Unlike Shankara, Ramanuja inter-

preted the ignorance that obscures true knowledge as forgetfulness-in particular,

the devotee's forgetfulness of our eternal relationship with Vishnu. In this manner, Ramanuja's Vedanta marries philosophy to the devotional, sectarian traditions of

Vaishnavism.

Dvaita Vedanta The school of Dvaita ("Dualist") Vedanta, founded by the thirteenth- century theologian Madhva, advocates a complete distinction between Brahman and

atman. It posits that there are five acknowledged aspects of complete separateness or difference: between the atman and Brahman, between Brahman and matter, between

the various souls, between the souls and matter, and between various forms of matter.

This philosophical strain, too, is associated with the worship of Vishnu, particularly in his avatar as Krishna.

The Individual and Society The Hindu individual's quest for liberation is played out in a life situation that is de-

fined to a large extent for that particular person depending on factors such as gender,

caste status, and age. Like all aspects of the religion, the rules governing these factors admit to diversity even while conforming to basic patterns that have persisted through

the centuries. Collectively, these rules are known as varnashrama dharma: the religious

law regulating caste (varna) and stage of life (ashrama). Traditionally, all Hindus are

required to comply with varnashrama dharma.

The Caste System The Sanskrit term varna (literally, "color"), commonly trans- lated as "caste," refers to a system of hierarchical social organization. A more accurate

way of expressing the meaning of varna in this context is through the English term "class." There are four main classes in Hindu society: brahmin, the priestly class;

kshatriya, the warrior and administrator class; vaishya, the producer class (farmers and merchants); and shudra, the servant class. Varna is determined by birth and is propagated through endogamy, or marriage only within a particular group. The caste

system, and varnashrama dharma generally, has traditionally been most important for males of the three higher classes, the so-called "twice-born" castes.

We encounter the first mention of varna in a poem known as the Purusha Sukta,

an early Sanskrit poem found in the tenth book of the Rig Veda (c. 1200 B.C.E.). The

poem, which describes the primordial sacrifice of the cosmic man, ascribes a mythical

origin to the varna system. From the various parts of the cosmic man emerge the com-

ponent parts of the universe-the sun, the moon, the breath, and fire among them. At

the very end, people emerge. From his mouth emerge the brahmins, from his arms the kshatriyas, from his thighs the vaishyas, and from his feet the shudras.

The Teachings of Hinduism 103

The varnas are organized along a continuum of purity and pollution. A person's

state of purity or pollution is determined by the degree of contact with substances that

are considered polluting (corpses, for example). Although it might appear from the

varna system and from the Purusha Sukta that brahmins are at the top of the hier-

archy, we know that from the earliest period brahmins and kshatriyas (and to some

extent vaishyas as well) existed in close, mutually dependent relationships. The brah- mins, with their ritual knowledge, gave legitimacy to kings and ambitious chieftains

who might come to power. In turn, kings supported the priestly class with gifts of

wealth and land, while merchants and landlords paid taxes and sponsored priestly

activities. A fifth group below the shudras, called the "untouchables" or "outcastes," was later

added. Today, this lowest group constitutes nearly 20 percent of the population of India. During the Indian Independence movement of the early twentieth century,

Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi (whom we will discuss later in

the chapter) sought to uplift this class socially, referring to

them as Harijans, "Children of God." Many people of this class now refer to themselves as dalit, a word that means "op- pressed." In modern India, educational institutions and gov- ernment jobs have been opened to the dalits and have helped

many with social and economic mobility. Nevertheless, dalits

continue to suffer terrible oppression, especially in rural com-

munities in India.

The caste system is further classified through thousands of

subcastes called jatis. fati literally means "birth group." The term is often used to describe different orders of plants and

animals, implying that the difference between human groups

is similar to that between different species. Usually, a jati is

composed of an endogamous group. One can marry within

jati communities that are equal in social and ritual status, but not into a jati above or below one's own position. Marriage

across jatis is usually undertaken to widen communal alli-

ances. Over time, the jati system has made social hierarchy

more fluid.

In modern times, the strictures of caste have broken down.

Many Hindus have embraced a more utilitarian and even egalitarian outlook formulated by nineteenth-century Hindu

reformers. These reformers regarded intercaste marriage as essential to bringing about

social equality and the development of the Indian nation. In urban areas, caste status

has often given way to a modern class-based system in which one's marriageability is

based on education, current employment, and financial status, rather than solely on

caste. But caste remains a challenging issue for many Hindus, particularly those living in rural settings.

The Hampi Bazaar in Karnataka, India, a sacred town where doorsteps and houses are decorated by rangoli or kolam ritual protective drawings.

104 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

The Four Stages of Life Another main aspect of the varnashrama dharma system involves the ashrama, or "stage of life." Traditional Hinduism describes four ashramas:

1. The student

2. The householder

3. The forest-dwelling hermit

4. The renouncer (the sannyasi)

As affirmed by the Laws of Manu, the repository of dharma discussed earlier, ful-

filling the duties of these stages is said to repay three debts of life, which are:

1. To the ancient seers (by studying the revealed texts known as the Vedas)

2. To the gods (by making offerings as a householder)

3. To the ancestors (by having a son-again, as a householder-who will continue to

perform ancestral rites)

The specific regulations pertaining to each stage oflife are meticulously spelled out

in Hindu texts. For example, the Laws of Manu prescribes the ritual of initiation for

boys who are about to enter the student stage:

In the eighth year after conception, one should perform the initiation

(upanayana) of a brtihmin, in the eleventh [year] after conception (that) of a k~atriya, but in the twelfth that of a vaisya.9

The student's main duty is to acquire a sufficient understanding of the Vedas. Upon

getting married, he enters the stage of the householder, whose duties include support-

ing those in the other three stages oflife. Hindus in the last two stages focus primarily

on seeking moksha or liberation, first by detaching themselves from the worldly con-

cerns of the householder and then, once this detachment has been achieved, by enter-

ing the fourth stage of the renouncer, or sannyasi. Renunciation is understood to be the most effective life situation for working to

achieve moksha. As we have seen, attachment to objects of desire binds one to sam-

sara. Renouncing, or no longer clinging to, such objects is empowering. By not in-

dulging one's desires for the impermanent things of this world, the true nature of the

self (the atman) can be realized. Most renouncers are ascetics, celibate wanderers who

engage in meditation and yoga. Some take formal vows and join a monastic order.

Although estimates of the number of sannyasis vary, there may be as many as 15 mil-

lion in India.

The four stages define the ideal life for men. Women participate primarily in

vaguely defined supporting roles through the last three stages and thereby assist in

repaying the three debts. Some Hindu texts, including the Laws of Manu, emphasize

that women hold a place of honor because of these roles. In general, however, Hindu

The Teachings of Hinduism 105

society has been highly patriarchal. (The place of women in Hinduism is explored in more detail a later section.)

The Four Aims of Life Whereas the four stages oflife describe an individual's social and familial responsibilities from birth to death, the four aims oflife set forth Hindu-

ism's primary spiritual purposes and goals. The four are: dharma, duty or righteous-

ness; kama, sensual enjoyment; artha, material wealth and social prestige; and moksha, liberation. A Hindu is meant to diligently pursue all four of these goals.

As we have seen, dharma applies throughout life. Along with taking care to ob-

serve regulations governing everyday routines, some Hindus may take vows to practice

nonviolence, perhaps maintaining a vegetarian diet as part of that goal. Others have

strict rules for maintaining ritual purity or observe a complex ritual regimen each day to ensure the harmony and well-being of their household and family members.

The next two aims of life-kama and artha-apply especially to the second stage

of life, that of the householder. Kama is directed at the fulfillment of desire. It encour-

ages Hindus to enjoy the human experience and celebrate the sensual aspects of life.

Artha, the pursuit of wealth and social prestige, is also encouraged. It is a Hindu's duty

to provide security for loved ones but also to savor and share life's bounty. Of course, kama and artha must conform to dharma.

Moksha, the ultimate aim of human existence, is the special focus of the last two

stages oflife (the forest-dwelling hermit and the renouncer). Having fulfilled the duties

and obligations of student and householder, one is ready to turn inward, to contem-

plate the nature of the atman.

The four stages and the four aims of life represent traditional ideals intended pri- marily for upper-caste men. We do not know the extent to which the prescriptions of

the stages and aims have been followed in the long history of Hinduism. These ideals,

while to some extent impractical in today's contemporary society, still inform the be-

liefs and practices of many Hindus.

VOICES: An Interview with Jayashree Venkatesan

jayashree Venkatesan is a wife, a mother, and a retired accountant who lives in Chennai, India. She is a devotee of the goddess Sharada (a form of Saraswati, Goddess of Wisdom), whose most important temple is in the town of Shringeri, South India.

As a Hindu, what is the most important part of human existence? What should Hindus do or focus on in life?

As a Hindu, I believe that God is in all things, in every aspect of creation and in every aspect of life. Consequently, one must practice compassion and nonvio- lence towards all things. It is how we learn to see and experience the divine

106 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

Jayashree Venkatesan

presence all around us. I also believe in the tenet that work is worship. It is an act of surrender. You don't shirk your responsibilities, whatever they may be- whether as a mother, a student, a professional-but do not cling to the fruits of work. As a Hindu I trust that when you surrender fully, God will provide you with the solution and guide you through both the happy and difficult moments of life.

What aspect of your day-to-day life as a Hindu would you characterize as being most spiritually gratifying?

Every morning and evening, I light an oil lamp in my puja room (home shrine) before the image of the Supreme Mother, Sharada Ambal. I see Sringeri Sha rad a Ambal as my mother, as one who takes care of everyone in this world. In these moments of quiet peace, I feel Her presence and Her guidance. I begin my day by surrendering myself into Her loving care.

What is your favorite Hindu holiday, and why?

I would not say I have a favorite Hindu festival. I like them all, as they are all so different. However, one of the most important festivals for me is Navaratri, which celebrates the Great Goddess. The festival falls sometime between September and October. We worship the goddess in Her three forms as Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati over nine nights and ten days. During this festival, I recite the Lolita Sahasranama, the one thousand names of Devi, several times a day. I do more elaborate puja (home rituals) to the goddess. Most importantly, it gives me the opportunity to invite several women of all ages to my home to feed them and give them clothes as I honor them as aspects of the Great Goddess.

Hindu Sacred Texts The great diversity within Hinduism is reflected in its astonishing array of texts, com-

posed in many different languages over the course of centuries. Down to present

times, Hindu texts have facilitated the asserting of new ideas, the overturning of old

ones, and the reasserting of the dominance of fading traditions. In this next section,

we undertake a brief survey of Hinduism's main texts and their continued relevance.

The Vedas The term Veda ("knowledge") is used in two ways when categorizing Hindu texts. In the broader sense, the Vedas refers to all of Vedic literature. These texts are regarded by most Hindus as revealed. That is, they are believed not to have been com-

posed by man but rather "heard" by the rishis, the poet-sages of ancient times who were divinely inspired. Vedic literature thus belongs to the category of Hindu texts known as shruti ("that which is heard"), as opposed to the other category, smriti ("tradition").

In the more narrow sense of the term, Vedas refers to four collections (Sanskrit, samhitas) of texts. Composed in Sanskrit between 1200 and 900 B.C.E. and drawing on centuries of oral tradition, these are the earliest Hindu texts and are generally

considered to be the world's oldest scriptures. The four Vedas are: the Rig Veda, a col- lection of hymns to the gods; the Sama Veda, melodic renditions of hymns from the Rig Veda; the Yajur Veda, ritual formulas; and the Atharva Veda, hymns, spells, and incantations.

The Teachings of Hinduism 107

Following upon the four samhitas, the Brahmanas set forth instructions for brah-

min priests. The next collection of texts, the Aranyakas (or "forest treatises," so-named

because they record esoteric teachings conveyed to students in secret), form a bridge

from the samhitas to the Upanishads by exploring hidden meanings of rituals. The

Upanishads are speculations with regard to the deeper truths of the samhitas, especially

the Rig Veda. The 1,028 hymns of the Rig Veda, the oldest and by far the most important of the

samhitas, praise the gods and ask for their blessings. The gods include Indra, God of

Rain and Thunder and King of the Gods; Agni, God of Fire and Messenger of the

Gods; and Varuna, the God of Law and Order (who later becomes the God of the Sea).

New deities emerged in the later portions of the Rig Veda. One that has enduring in- fluence is the Purusha (literally, "Man"), who is praised and described in the famous

Vedic hymn known as the Purusha Sukta, which was discussed earlier in connection

to the caste system. This later Vedic hymn is also significant for the ways in which it

asserts the centrality of sacrifice, and it continues to be recited in Hindu rituals even

today. The Purusha Sukta describes the sacrifice of a primordial, cosmic man out of

whose body the universe is created. As a creation myth, it has parallels in numerous

Indo-European traditions. As we have seen, the Purusha Sukta not only details the first sacrifice but also delineates the structuring of society.

The Upanishads (900-200 B.C.E.) The Upanishads, also known as Vedanta ("end of the Vedas"), are so distinctive from the earlier Vedic texts and so important as to de- serve their own treatment here. The term Upanishad means "sitting down near [a teacher]."

The term Vedanta, while identifying these texts as the concluding portion of Vedic

HINDU SACRED TEXTS

SHRUTI ("THAT WHICH IS HEARD") Samhitas ("Collections")

Rig Veda Yajur Veda Sama Veda Atharva Veda

Brahmanas Aranyakas

Upanishads

SMRITI ("TRADITION") Dharma Shastras (including Laws of Manu) Epics and Puranas

Ramayana Mahabharata Bhagavata Purana Markandeya Purana

Darshanas (treatises of the philosophical schools) Tantras (scriptures of the various sects) Writings of Hindu gurus

108 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

What advantages and disadvantages can you think of when comparing the flexibility of Hindu beliefs with that of other religions?

Hindu priests perform arati, waving a lamp of burning camphor before an image of Hanuman (the monkey god of the Ramayana) at a temple in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, during the festiva l of Diwa li.

literature, implies for some Hindus-for example, followers of the Vedanta philosophical school-that the Upanishads contain the culmination of the wisdom of the Vedas.

Departing from the Vedic focus on ritual, and especially sacrifice, the Upanishads feature philosophical speculation on the nature of the divine, the self, the world, and

the relationships between them. These texts signal a significant shift away from em-

phasis on the external performance of sacrifice characteristic of the Vedic era. The Upanishads also mark a new stage in the development of religious texts, having been composed in part by people of non-brahmin backgrounds. The newfound emphasis on philosophical speculation, no longer the sole domain of the brahmin class, had an enormous impact on the development of Hinduism. It propelled the development of the contemplative disciplines of yoga and meditation and influenced the philosophical

concepts found later in the Bhagavad Gita. The Upanishads are also significant for describing for the first time the concepts of

karma, samsara, reincarnation of the soul, and the soul's immortality, which were ini- tially closely guarded secrets. We had occasion earlier in the chapter, when discussing

Brahman and the monistic concept that atman is Brahman, to draw from the Brhada- ranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads. They are two among the thirteen so-called "prin- cipal Upanishads" (some scholars set this number at ten). Traditionally there are 108 Upanishads, although the term has been applied to some 200 texts, some of which were written in recent times.

Ramayana For most Hindus, belief and practice are informed by and disseminated through storytelling traditions and narrative texts. Two of the most significant of these

are the Sanskrit epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, both of which are catego- rized as smriti rather than shruti-although this in no way diminishes their relevance as Hindu sacred texts. Both epics are among the most important sources of Hindu

notions of duty, or dharma. The Ramayana ("The Journey of Rama"),

composed between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E ., is a

compelling tale of political intrigue, romance, and philosophical speculation. It tells the story of

a ten-headed demon King named Ravana, who

was rewarded for his austerities with the granting

of a wish by Brahma. Ravana asks for protection

from gods, celestial beings, and other members of his own demon race. Protected in this way, he

and his demon hordes dominate the earth and

eventually even enslave the gods of heaven. But

in his arrogance, Ravana neglects to ask for pro-

tection from humans and animals.

In the meantime, King Dasharatha of Ayodhya and his three queens, desiring an heir, perform

The Teachings of Hinduism 109

a sacrifice in hopes that the gods will grant their wish. The king is blessed with four

sons-Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna. Rama, as we have noted ear-

lier (p. 95), is an avatar of Vishnu. Rama eventually marries a princess, Sita. As

Rama is beloved by all for his righteousness and virtue, King Dasharatha, wishing

to step down from the throne, announces that Rama's coronation will soon be held. Then Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favorite wife, suddenly calls in two wishes that the

king had once granted her. She demands that Rama be banished to the forest for

fourteen years and that her own son, Bharata, ascend to the throne of Ayodhya

instead. Distraught, King Dasharatha dutifully grants Kaikeyi's wish but dies of a

broken heart.

Rama accepts his exile without protest and is accompanied by his brother Lakshmana

and his wife Sita into the forest, where they spend many years, until one day Ravana kid- naps Sita and carries her off to his demon stronghold on the island of Lanka.

A despairing Rama and Lakshmana wander in search of Sita. They eventually

meet Hanuman, a messenger from a kingdom of monkeys. Hanuman, along with the

support of the kingdom of bears, helps to search for Sita. At the citadel of Ravana on

Lanka, Hanuman finds Sita held prisoner in a garden. He tells her not to lose hope,

promising that Rama will soon come to free her. Upon hearing Hanuman's news, Rama and his army march to Lanka. During the

fierce battle that ensues, Rama kills Ravana and is united with Sita. However, after

spending a year in another man's house, Sita must publicly prove her chastity through

a trial by fire. With the fire-god Agni as her witness, she passes

through the flames and into Rama's embrace. Their exile con-

cluded, Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana return to Ayodhya, where Rama is reinstated as the rightful king. All are happy for a time,

but later, because of rumors circulating about Sita's chastity,

Rama is compelled to abandon Sita in the forest. He doesn't

know she is pregnant with their two sons, who are raised by the

hermit Valmiki. Valmiki, who, while meditating, has seen all

that has come to pass, composes the Ramayana and teaches it to the two boys, who eventually sing it before their father. Rama

dies shortly thereafter, sadly pining for Sita.

For many Hindus, the characters in the Ramayana serve as

exemplary social role models. Sita is the faithful wife, Rama is

the ideal man and perfect king, Lakshmana is the loyal brother, and Hanuman is the selfless devotee. The text grap-

ples with issues involving dharma, both in the public, political

realm and in the private, familial realm. The characters of the

Ramayana, however, are also understood to be divine. Thus

the Ramayana is as much a text that imparts religious and eth-

ical knowledge as one that reinforces Hindu beliefs about the accessibility and immanence of God.

Rama and Lakshmana, with their army of monkeys and bears, are camped outside the palace of the demon- king Ravana on the isle of Lanka, while the demons try to rouse Kumbhakarna, the giant brother of Ravana. India, Mughal period, C. 1595-1605.

110 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

Krishna, in the guise of Arjuna's charioteer, counsels the warrior on the verge of battle against his kinsmen. The battle scene in the Mahabharata is the setting of the Bhagavad Gita.

Mahabharata The other great Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, is composed of over 100,000 verses and is the longest epic poem in the world. Like the Ramayana, this work is deeply concerned with issues of dharma. The epic also introduces Krishna, the beloved avatar of Vishnu.

The main storyline of the Mahabharata concerns a dynastic conflict between two groups of royal cousins. These are the Pandavas (the five sons of King Pandu), the heroes of the epic who are all descendants of the gods, and their antagonists, the

Kauravas (the hundred sons of the blind king, Dhritarashtra). Their dispute ultimately results in a terrible war that marks the end of an epoch for humanity.

On the eve of the great battle, as the two armies face each other across the battle-

field, the great Pandava warrior Arjuna experiences crippling doubt. When Arjuna asks his charioteer, Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu), to pull the chariot into the middle

of the battlefield, he sees his friends and relatives on both sides clamoring for war. He

does not want to commit the sin of killing his kinsmen; and overcome with sorrow,

he refuses to fight. It is at this key point in the story that the profound philosophical

discourse known as the Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Lord") begins. Many Hindus regard this conversation between Krishna and Arjuna as the most significant philo- sophical work in Hinduism.

The Bhagavad Gita (The Song of the Lord) The Bhagavad Gita, the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna, was prob- ably composed around the first century c.E. The text, which

seeks to reconcile the tension between renunciation and worldly

life, also presents radical new ideas about the pursuit of moksha, including the three margas or paths to liberation that we ex- plored in an earlier section.

The Gita begins with Arjuna refusing to act on his dharma, as is demanded of a member of the kshatriya, or warrior class, out of fear of the consequences of killing his kinsmen. Krishna re-

sponds to his dilemma by revealing that one does not need to give up action to achieve moksha. Rather, as we noted before, one gives up the fruit of action. That is, one cultivates "desireless action," or acting without attachment to the fruit or benefit of the action.

Arjuna must honor his dharma as a warrior and fight his own kinsmen. But he transcends the karmic repercussions of this act by relinquishing personal attachment and realizing that

Krishna is the primary cause leading all the individual actors

toward this inevitable outcome.

The Gita emphasizes the concept of bhakti (devotion), which later comes to dominate Hindu practice and belie£ The Gita sug- gests that the path of bhakti is available to anyone, regardless of caste or gender, as its only requirement is devotion. By allowing

The Teachings of Hinduism 111

people to live in this world, adhering to their dharma, bhakti offers an alternate course to moksha. The Gita teaches that it is possible to achieve moksha by being active in the world, provided that, through selfless devotion, one surrenders clinging to the expectation of

any particular result. This contrasts with earlier philosophical systems that advocated

complete detachment through renunciation as the primary means for escaping samsara. The concept of bhakti influences the development of the dualistic or devotional

Hindu traditions. Bhakti is intimately connected to the rise of Hinduism's various sectarian affiliations and the growth of temple cultures. Bhakti advocates a deep, abid- ing love for God and encourages the devotee to nurture an intimate and personal rela-

tionship with the divine. The devotee is free to choose a favored, personal deity, who

is perceived as the supreme entity and toward whom devotion is directed. For many

Hindus, bhakti is both a belief and a practice. That is, they cultivate bhakti as the most effective way out of samsara.

Puranas In addition to the rich storehouse of narrative material in the epics, there are equally important collections of mythic stories known as Puranas (Sanskrit purana, "ancient"). Like the epics, the Puranas existed in oral form before being com- mitted to writing-in this case, between the fourth and sixteenth centuries. The Pura- nas contain useful historical data, such as the genealogies of regional kings, but they also reflect the rise of dualistic or devotional Hinduism. This is evident primarily in

their narrations of the deeds of the great deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, and Devi. They

also take great interest in the genealogies of gods, rules governing the proper worship

of the gods, the construction of temples, the observance of festivals, the undertaking

of pilgrimages, and similar topics. There are eighteen major Puranas, two of the most influential of which are the

Bhagavata Purana and the Markandeya Purana. The Bhagavata Purana focuses on Vishnu and his incarnations, most especially Krishna. It is one of the most widely re-

cited, performed, and studied texts in contemporary Hinduism. The tenth book,

which serves as the primary source for Krishna's life story, is particularly important. The Markandeya Purana includes within it the Devi Mahatmya, which is an important text of Shaktism, one among various Hindu sects that we explore in the next section.

The Sects of Hinduism There are three primary sects in Hinduism. Each features veneration of one of the

major deities at the center of Hindu cosmology. The devotees of these sects are called Vaishnavas (devotees of Vishnu and his avatars), Shaivas (devotees of Shiva), and Shaktas (devotees of the Great Goddess, Devi). Within each of these sects are numer- ous individual orders that differ in the sacred texts and saints they revere, their modes

of worship, and their philosophical orientation.

Vaishnavism Vaishnavas worship Vishnu and his consort (wife) Lakshmi as su- preme. Vishnu mercifully intervenes in the world through his avatars (such as Rama in

112 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

A contemporary painting of the inner sanctum of the famous temple at Sri Rangam. Sri Ranganatha ("Lord of the Stage") is a cosmic form of Vishnu lying on the serpent, Ananta ("Infinity"). as he floats on the Cosmic Sea of Milk. This signifies the place of primordial essence from whence he emanates all of the universe.

the Ramayana and Krishna in the

Mahabharata) and is inseparable from

his beloved Lakshmi, who is the god-

dess of auspiciousness and good fortune.

For Vaishnavas, Vishnu is the source of

all existence and, as his name denotes, "The All-Pervading One." These ideas

about Vishnu's fundamental nature

are expressed in myths and poems that

invoke him as the lord who measured

out the universe in a primordial act of

creation. Hindus worship Vishnu in a

number of different forms. He is often

depicted reclining with Lakshmi on a

thousand-headed serpent that floats

on the cosmic ocean. From his navel

rises a lotus, upon which Brahma the Creator God is seated. Visually, this image as- serts that the world is born from Vishnu and he is its sole originator and sustainer.

Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva constitute the so-called trimurti, a triad of gods whose

roles are, respectively, to create, preserve, and dissolve the universe as it moves through

epochal cycles. For Vaishnavas, Vishnu is not just the preserver but the supreme god

who performs all three roles, thus incorporating the functions of the trimurti within

his own being. In Hindu sacred art, Vishnu typically is shown holding objects in his four hands

that symbolize his powers and characteristics. In his upper right hand, he holds a flam-

ing discus (symbolizing the sun and omniscience); his upper left hand bears a white

conch shell (the moon and creativity). In his lower right hand, he holds a mace (power), and in his lower left hand, he holds a lotus (purity). Most Vaishnavas have special de- votion for Vishnu's avatars, Rama and Krishna.

Shaivism Shiva is the destroyer while at the same time a benefactor. He embodies both the ideal of ascetic renunciation and a full and sensual participation in the mater-

ial world. Beyond being the god of spiritual insight and of yogis and ascetics, Shiva is

also the god who destroys the universe at the end of time before a new cycle of creation can begin. Most Shaivas worship Shiva as a god with no beginning or end who tran-

scends time but also presides over its endless cycles. Some Shaivas emphasize that

Shiva is also a family man, to be venerated with his divine queen Parvati and their two

sons, the divine princes Ganesha and Skanda.

Shiva is usually depicted sitting in deep meditation on Mount Kailasha in the

Himalayas, with a tiger skin wrapped about his waist and wearing serpents for jewelry. His third eye is turned inward in meditative contemplation, and he wears the crescent

The Teachings of Hinduism 113

moon and the holy river Ganges in his matted hair. A common symbol of Shiva is the

linga, an abstract phallic symbol that represents his creative potential. His consort Parvati is also believed by Shaivas to represent the creative energy of the universe.

Shaktism The cults of the Great Goddess venerate her as the supreme cause and end of the universe. Although she has many names and many forms, the Great Goddess is most often referred to as Devi, Mahadevi, or Shakti. Devotees of the Goddess are re-

ferred to as Shaktas. The primacy of Devi is definitively asserted in the fifth century C.E. Sanskrit text

called the Devi Mahatmya (The Greatness of Devi) which, as noted previously, is part of the Markandeya Purana. The Devi Mahatmya posits that the supreme cause of the uni- verse is feminine. The text argues for Devi's greatness through three main myths, the most important of which tells how she killed the buffalo-headed demon, Mahisha,

who threatened the world and whom even the gods Vishnu and Shiva were not able to

vanquish.

To Shaktas the Goddess is all-powerful and pervades the entire universe. She is the one who creates, preserves, and destroys the universe in harmony with the rhythms of

cosmic time. The Devi Mahatmya teaches that the goddess is eternal and that she manifests herself over and over again in order to protect the universe as a mother

would her child.

Shaivas and Shaktas have much in common, as Shiva and Devi (also called Parvati) are believed by both sects to be married. So the difference between Shaivism and Shak-

tism is a matter of emphasis regarding the importance of each of these two primal forces.

For Shaivas, Shiva is pure consciousness that pervades all existence, and Devi is his cre- ative (but subordinate) power. On the other hand, Shaktas believe that Shiva is entirely passive, and that Shakti is the creative energy that constitutes and governs the whole of

existence. Thus the Shaktas say that "Shiva without Shakti is shava" (Sanskrit, "a corpse"). This idea, iconographically represented

in the form of the goddess Kali dancing

upon the inert body of Shiva, is a pro- found metaphor for the embodied soul.

Shiva represents the pure consciousness

in all beings that is transfixed by Kali,

who is creative energy made manifest

as all form, feeling, thought, and sen- sation. Kali's enrapturing dance makes

one forget that one's true nature is

Shiva/Brahman. But Kali also delights in granting moksha by letting believ- ers awake to the true nature of her

cosmic dance and the reality that atman is really Brahman.

Accompanied by a legion of other goddesses and fierce creatures and riding a lion, Devi, in the form of the goddess Durga, protects the world by battli ng the buffalo demon Mahishasura. (The buffalo is associated with Yama, the God of Death.) Pallava period, seventh century, Mahishasura Mardini Cave, Mamallapuram Tamil Nadu, Ind ia.

114 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

A modern painting of the goddess Kali, whose name means both "Black" and "Time," dancing on the body of Shiva. From the Indian state of Orissa.

Gurus, Saints, and Sages Entire sects of Hinduism are constantly forming around the veneration of gurus,

saints, and ascetics. The fully enlightened are regarded

as being one with God and therefore the most immedi-

ate means of accessing God directly, either for material and mundane blessings or to receive spiritual teaching to

quicken one's own journey toward moksha. Some saints are venerated not as embodiments of God but for being

humble and perfectly surrendered devotees. Some gurus

are powerful religious authorities and preside over well-

established institutions, in which the divine authority of a guru has been passed down to his senior disciple in an

unbroken lineage for many generations. Certain import-

ant gurus and saints have been responsible for the formu-

lation of the specific philosophical orientation of various

sects and monastic orders, making interpretation of

sacred texts and belief more systematic and consistent.

THE HISTORY OF HINDUISM Hinduism is a vibrant tradition that has exhibited dy-

namic change and a willingness to embrace innovations

in thought and practice. At the same time, Hinduism has preserved many of its most

ancient elements to the present day, cherishing some traditions that go back more than

3,000 years. The history of Hinduism can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization

(c. 2600-1700 B.C.E.) and to the Indo-Aryan peoples who composed the Vedas (c. 1200-900 B.C.E.).

The Indus Valley Civilization As its name suggests, the Indus Valley Civilization developed along the river Indus, which flows through modern Pakistan. It reached its developmental peak between

2300 and 2000 B.C.E., when its thriving cities, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, enjoyed a surprisingly high standard of living. Extensive archaeological excavations at

Indus Valley sites have yielded evidence of trade with regions as far away as Mesopotamia

and impressive skill in metallurgy, handicrafts, and urban planning. The archaeological

finds include a vast number of stone seals that were perhaps used to stamp products for trade. These are decorated with depictions of animals and people and with a script that

has not yet been deciphered.

Some scholars believe that in the Indus Valley seals we can detect very early ele-

ments of Hinduism. For example, the most famous seal has been called the Proto-

Shiva seal because its central image may be an archaic form of Shiva. The male figure is seated in a yoga posture, wears a buffalo-horned headdress, is surrounded by

The History of Hinduism 115

AFGH ISTAN

IRAN PAKISTAN

Arabian Sea

0 km 200 400

0 miles 200 400

\ KARNATAKA

~ ingcri

TIBET

INDIAN OCEAN

SRI LANKA

CHINA

Bay of

Bengal

•

animals, and appears to have three faces. Later images of Shiva often show him in meditating in a yoga posture, being in the company of animals, and having three faces.

Of course, without a decipherment of

the script it is difficult to understand

fully this and other images depicted on

the seals.

Archaeologists working in the Indus Valley have also discovered a number

of terracotta figures depicting women.

Some scholars have identified these as

representations of a mother goddess. It may be that the widespread worship of

goddesses in later Hinduism originated in the veneration of female deities in the

ancient Indus Valley Civilization.

At some point early in the second

millennium B.C.E. there was a sudden

N

·*· s

THAILAND

Significant sites in the

history of Hinduism.

The Proto-Shiva seal.

The male figure,

sometimes called the

"Lord of the Animals,"

is surrounded by various totemic animals, such

as an elephant, a tiger,

a rhinoceros, a water

buffalo, and two

antelopes or deer.

116 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

The great bath can be

seen amid the ruins of

the ancient cityscape of Mohenjo-Daro, an

important city of the

Indus Valley Civilization. A towering granary can

be viewed in the

distance.

decline in the Indus Valley Civilization,

which was to collapse by 1300 B.C.E. Al-

though most scholars believe that the pri-

mary cause of the fall of the Indus Valley

Civilization was climatic change that dis-

rupted agriculture, it is possible that the migration of Aryans into the Indus Valley

was a contributing factor.

Who Are the Aryans? The brilliant English linguist Sir William

"Oriental" Jones (1746-1794) described how Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, and several

other ancient languages shared a common

linguistic ancestor. These languages are re-

ferred to as "Indo-European" and probably

stem from a lost language we call "Proto

Indo-European." Jones's discoveries astounded Europeans, who soon learned that Sanskrit was closest to the original language spoken by the earliest Indo-Europeans.

The ancient speakers of Sanskrit who moved into the Indian subcontinent around

1500 B.C.E. referred to themselves as the Arya-that is, those who are "noble," "culti-

vated," and "civilized." Today, we call them Indo-Aryans or, more simply, Aryans.

Skilled in handling the horse and chariot, the Aryans were a warlike and nomadic

people who were well prepared to make themselves the dominant elite soon after they entered the Indian subcontinent.

Like other Indo-European peoples, the Aryans revered the horse, placed special

importance on sacrifice, and organized their society into a three-part structure. For

the Aryans, sacrifice was a means to maintain order in the universe. The priests (brah- mins) who conducted sacrificial rituals occupied the top rung of the social order be- cause of the religious power they wielded. The rulers and warriors (kshatriyas) were equally important. Last were the traders and farmers (vaishyas) . As the Aryans did not place a great deal of emphasis on agriculture, one can see why the vaishyas would occupy a lower social position. This threefold social structure has remained funda-

mental to Indian society until today.

The Aryans, who eventually settled across northern India, have left us a body of

texts composed in Sanskrit, of which the earliest example is the Vedas. It is to the era of these texts that we now turn.

The Vedic Period Ritual was of ultimate importance in Vedic times, as rites of sacrifice were performed

to sustain cosmic order and please the gods. Much of ritual sacrifice involved the pour-

ing of offerings into a sacrificial fire as Vedic hymns were recited. Although the con- struction of their fire altars became quite elaborate, Indians of the Vedic period inherited

The History of Hinduism 117

from their nomadic ancestors a very "portable"

religion with no fixed buildings or icons and with

sacred knowledge maintained by priests.

In Vedic times, as today, fire was considered

a god. Known as Agni, he was the mouth of the

gods and the gateway to the celestial realms,

so offerings were magically transported through Agni to whichever god was invoked.

In Vedic mythology it is Indra, god of thunder

and lightning, and the virile god of fertility itself,

who is the most powerful of the gods. More hymns

in the Vedas are addressed to Indra than to any other god, but in later Hindu tradition and myth-

ology he is somewhat comical: haughty, proud,

and often drunk. Many of the Vedic gods con-

tinue to play a part in the later Hindu pantheon

but endure only in a subordinate status.

In the later Vedic period, philosophical innovations began to supplant the older Vedic emphasis on sacrifice. It is in hymns from the later period that Vedic religion begins to take a decisive turn, shifting away from an emphasis on myth, cosmology,

and sacrifice to a keener interest in philosophy and introspection. In these hymns the

perception of the nature of existence emerges as being more important than uphold-

ing the cosmic order through sacrifice. Late Vedic hymns mark a transition toward

what would be the philosophical revolution of the speculative texts known as the

Upanishads.

During the time of the Upanishads (c. 900-200 B.C.E.), contemplative and philo- sophical reflection became more widespread. Many philosophers moved from urban

areas to the forest in order to lead simpler lives. Some lived as hermits, some lived in

colonies of contemplatives, and others practiced strict ascetic disciplines in the soli-

tude of the jungle. Still others became wanderers, going from town to town begging

for food and engaging in lively philosophical debates.

The Age of the Guptas Most scholars characterize the time of the Gupta Empire (c. 320 to 540 c.E.) as a period of remarkable creativity. The Guptas, who ruled much of northern India, pa- tronized the arts, sciences, religion, and literature. Their reign was an era of relative

peace and prosperity, often described as "the Golden Age of India." It was during

this period that the epics took on their definitive forms and the first of the Puranas

was compiled.

The Gupta rulers practiced religious tolerance and sponsored groups and institu-

tions associated with Buddhism, Jainism, and other religions. The Guptas, who were themselves Hindus, promoted Hinduism and sought to organize society in accordance

A yajna or fire sacrifice, one of the most archaic of Hindu rites, is performed by priests before an image of Durga during the Durga Puja festival in Calcutta, India.

118 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

with Hindu beliefs. Thanks in part to Gupta patronage, the worship of Vishnu and Shiva became increasingly popular during this period, which also saw a shift from

worship at open-air sacrificial altars to worship in temples. As temple institutions

arose, so did special forms of temple art and architecture. These developments quick-

ened the spread of bhakti and the emerging devotional sects.

A very significant religious development during the age of the Guptas was the rise of devotional Hinduism. The two great Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and the Maha-

bharata, had been completed and were well established by this time. As we have seen,

these epics are concerned with political problems, dynastic successions, duty, and

obligations. But they also feature the exploits of the gods and have much to tell us

about popular deities and avatars and forms of devotion to them. Composition of the

Puranas commenced during this period, indicating the growing popularity of devo- tional Hinduism.

The Development of Bhakti The devotional aspects of Hinduism became increasingly popular under the Guptas,

but they took on new life in southern India between the sixth and ninth centuries C .E. in the form of the ecstatic movement of bhakti. This movement and ideology spread all

over India, changing and adapting to new regional and linguistic circumstances. Like

the radical innovations of the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, bhakti changed the

course of Hinduism, giving it an ecstatic dimension that expressed itself through

poetry, art, architecture, and temple building. Bhakti was instrumental in the devel-

opment of the various sectarian orientations of Hinduism and in its vibrant temple cultures. Closely linked to the most important dynasties of the time, bhakti was

equally important for the challenge it issued to caste and gender hierarchies.

By the late fifth century C.E., Buddhism (Chapter 5) and Jainism (Chapter 6) were

deeply entrenched in southern India. Bhakti arose as a challenge to these traditions.

Over the next four centuries, wandering poets roamed the Tamil country and con-

verted royalty and commoners alike to the devotional ethos of bhakti. Royal patronage for Jainism and Buddhism waned, and kings sought legitimacy through poets' songs

that praised the kings as the representatives of the gods Shiva and Vishnu. The reli-

gious networks forged by the itinerant poets sometimes developed into political net-

works and strengthened alliances between religion and politics.

By the twelfth century, the bhakti movement had taken on a new role, becoming

a weapon wielded against caste and gender prejudice. It often rejected ritual and temple-based worship, insisting that the body is itself a temple and that God dwells in

every individual.

Caste and Bhakti Many scholars argue that the bhakti movement had such a far- reaching impact because it was egalitarian, revolutionary, and frequently anti-brahmin.

Bhakti poet-saints represented a variety of caste backgrounds. Furthermore, rather

than using Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas and of priestly authority, the bhakti

The History of Hinduism 119

poets used vernacular languages such as Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, and an early form

of Hindi. The bhakti poets asserted that caste and other circumstances of one's birth

did not determine one's access to God. Rather, it was the quality of one's surrender to

God that mattered. Although a text such as the Bhagavad Gita espoused similar ideas,

that text also simultaneously stressed the importance of one's duty according to caste.

In defining one's sole duty as the practice of perfect surrender to God, the bhakti poets

were revolutionary. Nonetheless, the radical ideas espoused by the poets were often

blunted when absorbed into mainstream Hinduism.

Tantra Bhakti was not the only revolutionary new idea to challenge the strictures of gender

and caste. Tantra, another new system of thought and practice, emerged alongside it.

Making use of symbols, rituals, yogic postures, breathing techniques, mantras, and

other spiritual practices-sometimes in shocking or forbidden ways-Tantra offered

the possibility of sudden liberation from samsara. By the seventh century it had come

to influence not only Hinduism but Buddhism and Jainism as well.

Tantra (Sanskrit, " loom") assumes the interweaving and interconnectedness of all

things. These include pure consciousness (identified with Brahman or Shiva) and

material reality in its most basic state (prakriti, identified with Shakti), which are in-

terwoven in a relationship of mutual interdependence and love. Similarly, samsara

and moksha are not understood as two different things but as aspects of a single con-

tinuum of being. For practitioners of Tantra, the material world is a manifestation of

the divine energy associated with pure consciousness (Brahman/Shiva) . Their spiritual

practices are said to give them the ability to manipulate or channel that energy in order

to gain liberation. Unlike the ascetics who renounced the material world and its sens-

ual pleasures as part of their spiritual quest, practitioners of Tantra made use of mater-

ial things and the senses as means by which to transcend them. For them, moksha

could be found in the midst of everyday experience.

Tantra likely arose among mystics in Kashmir, Nepal, and possibly Bengal and

Assam. These Tantric sages and yogis asserted that the ritual transgression of social

boundaries could create ideal conditions for transcending the egocentric self and

achieving instantaneous moksha. Recognizing that people's egos are deeply embedded

in caste identity and rooted in taboos regarding purity and pollution, practitioners of

Tantra performed transgressive rituals in which they identified their bodies as deities,

ritually consumed meat, fish, and wine, and engaged in ritual sex with low-caste part-

ners. Such rituals were designed to break through the narrow confines of what one

assumes the self to be.

As Tantra increased in popularity, it also became increasingly secretive. Many

were attracted by its reputed ability to enable one to avoid the rigors of spiritual pro-

gress over the course of many lifetimes by using its rituals to achieve liberation in one's

present life. But there were also allegations that some adherents exercised seductive

magical powers, reports of others suffering mental breakdown, and disapproval of

How does the criticism of special knowledge and power wielded by brahmins compare to criticism of the power of priests and religious authorities in other religions?

120 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

rituals that violated social conventions. For these reasons, much of Tantra remained

hidden during its later development.

Early Hindu Encounters with Islam and Rule Under the Mughal Dynasty One of the earliest sustained encounters between Hindus and Muslims in India was initi- ated by the raids of Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan) early in the eleventh century.

Attracted by India's immense wealth and motivated by religious zeal, Mahmud repeat-

edly raided the subcontinent, annexed states headed by Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain kings,

and left them in charge as his vassals. His most famous incursion involved the looting and

destruction of the great temple of Shiva in Somnath (1025). According to Muslim sources, more than 50,000 defenders of the temple were killed, and its immense wealth taken back to Ghazni. These Muslim accounts also speak of the forced conversions of Hindus

to Islam. Contemporary Hindu nationalists often point to this early encounter with

Islam as the beginning of centuries of oppression and persecution under Muslim rule.

By the time the Mughal Empire was established in India, Islam had established a

strong foothold there, particularly in the northern regions. The Mughals were Muslim

rulers of Turkic-Mongol origin. They ruled from 1526 until the mid-eighteenth cen- tury, after which their state continued to exist but with weakened rulers incapable of

exercising control over it. Under the Mughals, a complex relationship existed between

Hinduism and Islam. Some Mughal emperors were hostile to religions other than their

own and to Hinduism and Jainism in particular. Others, such as Akbar (1542-1605), were open to them. Akbar encouraged dialogue with representatives of different reli- gions at a weekly salon. He even invented his own religion, the "Divine Faith" (Din-1-

Ilahi), which incorporated elements of various religious traditions including Hinduism,

Islam, and Zoroastrianism. Akbar was a clever political strategist who understood

non-Muslims as subjects rather than infidels, counted Hindu kings among his closest

advisors, and married the daughters of Hindu kings to cement political alliances with

them. Good relationships between Mughal emperors and high-ranking Hindus helped

to produce a vibrant pluralistic culture. Under the Mughals, the conversions of Hindus to Islam do not appear to have

been forced. Instead, Hindus converted for a variety of reasons, the most common

being improved economic and social standing and sincere belief in the teachings of

Islam. There were also conversions of Muslims to Hinduism, especially when Muslims

married into Hindu families. Some of the greatest of Hindu thinkers, poets, and philosophers lived during the

time of the Mughals. The influential poet-saint Tulsidas (1532-1623), a member of Akbar's court and a devotee of Rama, wrote the Ramcharitmanas, an epic retelling

of the original Sanskrit Ramayana in Hindi. The Muslim weaver-mystic Kabir

(c. 1440-1518) was inspired by a Hindu teacher and composed poetry that seamlessly combined Hindu and Islamic philosophical ideas while at the same time critiquing the social policies of H indu and Muslim rulers.

The History of Hinduism 121

Colonial Critique and the Hindu Reformers When employees of the British East India Company established an imperial presence

in India in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, they initially adapted

themselves to local customs and practices. They learned regional languages, married

into local families, and even embraced local religious beliefs. One particularly colorful example is that of an Irish general in the Bengal Army, Charles Stuart (1758-1828).

Stuart was such an avid admirer of Hinduism that his colleagues nicknamed him

"Hindoo Stuart." His book, Vindication of the Hindoos (1808), was intended to discour-

age the ever-growing support for British missionaries who sought to convert Hindus to

Christianity. When these missionaries tried to embarrass Stuart by calling attention to aspects of Hindu mythology that seemed strange to Westerners, he eloquently wrote in

response: "Whenever I look around me in the vast region of Hindoo Mythology, I dis-

cover piety in the garb of allegory: and I see Morality, at every turn, blended with every

tale; and, as far as I can rely on my own judgment, it appears the most complete and

ample system of Moral allegory that the world has ever produced."10

But not everyone involved with the British East India Company admired Hindu

beliefs and customs. Many felt that the "primitive backwardness" of Hindu belief was

enough to warrant colonial intervention. By the middle of the nineteenth century, and

certainly after the 1857 Indian Uprising (referred to as the "Mutiny" by British chroni-

clers, but as the "First War of Independence" by many Indian historians), the attrac-

tion to Hinduism and Indian culture represented by figures such as "Hindoo" Stuart and the linguist William "Oriental" Jones began to fade. As the commercial and ad-

ministrative presence of the British East India Company gave way to the colonial con-

trol of the British Crown, critiques of Hinduism became an increasingly important

means of exerting political power over the subcontinent.

By the mid-nineteenth century, English-educated Hindus took up the work of

reform as a response to colonial critiques of Hinduism. They, too, began deriding Hin- duism's many gods, erotic symbolism, temple worship, and rituals as crass corruptions

of the purity of the authentic Hinduism embodied in the Vedas and Upanishads. They

sought to transform Hinduism from within.

One of these reformers was Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833), a member of a wealthy

Bengali brahmin community who established the Brahmo Samaj (Community of

Brahman Worshippers) in 1828 as a neo-Hindu religious organization open to all, re- gardless of religious orientation. Believing that British rule offered India considerable

opportunities for progress, Roy devoted his life to religious, social, and educational

reform. He was particularly concerned with issues involving the protection of women,

such as child marriage, polygamy, dowry, and the practice of sati. Sati was an upper-

caste practice in which a widow immolated herself on her husband's funeral pyre. This

ritual suicide was believed to bring great honor to the family and raise the status of the dead widow to that of a goddess. Roy campaigned for the abolition of sati, arguing

that there was no scriptural basis in the Vedas for this practice. Finally, in 1829, sati

was made illegal in Bengal. Roy was among the first members of the Indian upper

122 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

Temple volunteers unveil a statue of Swami Vivekananda at the Hindu Temple of Greater Chicago, Saturday, July 11, 1998, in Lemont, Illinois. The statue honors Vivekananda as "the first man to bring Hindu religion and the practice of yoga to America."

classes to visit Europe, traveling there in 1830 to ensure that the British would not overturn the sati law. He died

in 1833 and was buried in Bristol.

Another influential reformer was Dayananda Saras-

wati (1824-1883). Having become a wandering monk early in life, Dayananda studied under a blind sage who urged him to campaign for a return to what he con-

sidered the pure and original Vedic religion. Following

his advice, Dayananda rejected the epics and Puranas as

departures from the purity of the Vedas and spoke out

against all aspects of temple tradition, image worship,

and pilgrimage. In 1875 he founded the Arya Samaj (the Noble Community) as a "Vedic" religious organization

whose social reform platform condemned child mar-

riage and untouchability while promoting the equality

of women. He rejected social hierarchies in the form of

jati and thought varna should be decided based on one's

character, which the organization would determine in a public examination. Although Dayananda Saraswati,

like Ram Mohan Roy, favored a return to Vedic religion,

his Arya Samaj distinguished itself from Roy's Brahma

Samaj in its encouragement of Hindu nationalism, an-

ticipating the more extreme Hindu nationalist groups

that would appear in the early twentieth century. Other figures, less influenced by colonial and Chris-

tian critiques of Hinduism, were not as concerned as

Ram Mohan Roy and Dayananda Saraswati to reform

Hinduism in ways that would appeal to the West. One

was the enormously popular Bengali mystic, Rama- krishna (1836-1886). A devotee and temple priest of the goddess Kali, as a young man Ramakrishna prayed for

and then experienced a vision of her as an ocean of bliss-

ful light. He then devoted himself to spiritual exercises drawn from different religious

traditions, including Vaishnavism, Advaita Vedanta, Tantrism, and even Islamic

Sufism and Roman Catholicism. These deepened his sense of identity with the divine and served as the basis for his teaching that all religions are directed toward the experi-

ence of a God who creates religions to suit the spiritual needs and tastes of different

peoples. Seen in this way, Hinduism could claim the same legitimacy as any other

religion.

Among Ramakrishna's disciples was Narendranath Datta (1863-1902), a former law student who took monastic vows during Ramakrishna's last days and was there- after known as Swami Vivekananda, founder of the Ramakrishna Math, an order of

The History of Hinduism 123

monks devoted to the teachings of Ramakrishna. Swami Vivekananda had an enor-

mous impact on the representation of Hinduism in the West, particularly in the United

States. In 1893, he visited the United States to speak on behalf of Hinduism at the

World Parliament of Religions in Chicago. Quoting from the Bhagavad Gita, he rep-

resented Hinduism as a tolerant and universal religion. Like his teacher, Ramakrishna,

Vivekananda asserted that all religions are true. His stirring speech was a milestone in

changing Western attitudes toward Hinduism. It also ensured his fame and popularity

in America, and he went on to establish the Vedanta Society of New York. Today,

Vedanta Societies throughout the world are dedicated to the study, practice, and pro-

motion of Hinduism, emphasizing the philosophical tradition originating in the Vedas

and Upanishads.

Gandhi and the Struggle for Indian Independence Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948), a towering religious, political, and

social reformer in India, recast many Hindu ideas in the service of the fight for Indian

independence. Born into a middle-class family of merchants, Gandhi was an English-

educated lawyer and a deeply religious man. As a law student in England, he had read

the Bhagavad Gita, and it had a profound impact on him.

Gandhi's political career began in South Africa, where he worked as a lawyer. It

was here, in a struggle against racial discrimination, that he began to develop his pol-

itical philosophy of nonviolent resistance. He characterized nonviolent resistance as

satyagraha (Sanskrit, "grasping the truth") and explained that its strength lay in con-

verting wrongdoers to justice rather than striving to coerce them.

Gandhi returned to India in 1915 to join the fledgling Indian independence move- ment, which sought to free India from British colonial rule. Deeply influenced by the

American writer Henry David Thoreau (1817 - 1862), especially his thoughts on civil

disobedience, Gandhi established an ashram (a place of religious seclusion) to train

freedom fighters. The ashram chose as its motto a statement from the Upanishads:

satyameva jayate, "the truth alone will prevail." Like his Upanishadic forebears, Gandhi

believed that truth could be sought only through selfless service and humility, which

could in turn be achieved by disciplining the body through fasting and celibacy.

Gandhi did not hesitate to criticize certain Hindu beliefs and practices, particu-

larly that of varnashrama dharma, the ancient system by which society was ordered

into various classes or castes. He worked tirelessly to abolish untouchability, calling

the untouchables Harijans ("Children of God"), thereby seeking to increase their re-

spectability. Gandhi also strove to improve the status of women.

Gandhi's charisma and influence were so great that even in his lifetime he was

revered as a saint or Mahatma (Sanskrit, "Great Soul"). A lifelong Hindu, Gandhi also

advocated the universality and truth of all religions and sought throughout his life to

reconcile Hinduism and Islam. Tragically, on January 30, 1948, he was assassinated by

Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist who thought Gandhi was too accommodat-

ing of Muslims. Godse was later executed for the crime despite the pleas of Gandhi's

124 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

two sons and Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964), India's first prime minister, who be- lieved that violence would dishonor everything Gandhi represented. After decades of struggle, Gandhi had lived to enjoy just five months of freedom after Great Britain

had partitioned colonial India into the independent states of India and Pakistan in mid-1947.

Hindu Nationalism and Hindutva Whereas reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy, Vivekananda, and Gandhi sought to build bridges with the West and other religions by calling attention to their common-

alities with Hinduism, other figures, such as V D. Savarkar (1883-1966), insisted on the distinctiveness of Hinduism. Savarkar called this concept hindutva (Sanskrit, "Hindu-ness"), a term he coined in a 1923 pamphlet. For Savarkar, hindutva was a force to unite Hindus in repelling all dangerous foreign influences. As president of the Hindu Mahasabha, a Hindu nationalist political party that embraced this concept, Savarkar argued that India was an exclusively "Hindu Nation."

In 1925, the Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS; National Volunteer Corps) was founded. Although it has presented itself as a Hindu cultural organization, its mem- bers have a long history of political actions that have intensified communal tensions, precipitated violence, and propagated religious intolerance. The founder of the RSS, K. B. Hedgewar (1889-1940), was himself inspired by V. D. Savarkar's concept of hindutva. The RSS was meant to be a training ground for the self-empowerment of

Hindu youth who were committed to defending a Hindu nation from the perceived threat posed by the Muslim world. Gaining independence from oppressive foreign rule can often rob nationalist movements of their momentum, but this was not the case in India after 1947. H indu nationalists continued to be a major force in that coun- try. The political backlash following Gandhi's assassination led many Mahasabha

members to leave the party and ally themselves instead with a new political organiza- tion called the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (Indian People's Alliance). Its founder, Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953), had been a member of both the Mahasabha and the RSS when he organized the Indian People's Alliance in 1951. This was a Hindu na- tionalist party specifically created to oppose the Indian National Congress, the more moderate party of Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi. In 1981 the Indian

People's Alliance became the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Today, the BJP and the Indian National Congress are the two major parties in India's political system. In 2014, the BJP won a landslide victory in India's national election. Narendra Modi, India's new prime minister, has been one of the party's most visible leaders.

Today, organizations espousing Savarakar's hindutva ideology come under an um- brella group called the Sangh Parivar (Family of Associations). The RSS is the cultural

wing, the BJP is the political wing, and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP; World Hindu Organization) is the religious wing of the Sangh Parivar. The RSS continues to attract mostly lower-middle-class male youth, who feel empowered by the strong sense of cultural identity that it advocates. The RSS has awakened a deep sense of cultural

Hinduism as a Way of Life 125

pride among Hindu youth, but some of its members have been leading participants in sectarian violence against Muslims in recent years.

In 1991 the BJP led a pilgrimage around India gathering bricks to build a temple

to Rama in Ayodhya, India. This was to be no ordinary temple. The pilgrims claimed

that a fifteenth-century c.E. Islamic mosque called the Bahri Masjid had been erected

over an older Hindu temple that marked the exact birthplace of Rama. Their purpose was to tear down the mosque and build a grand Rama temple in its place. Members of

Sangh Parivar rallied around the cause, which culminated in more than 200,000 par-

ticipants converging on Ayodhya and demolishing the mosque with their bare hands.

RSS youth then targeted the local Muslim community, destroying other mosques,

ransacking Muslim homes, raping Muslim women, and murdering Muslim men. The

backlash of these events echoed throughout India and Bangladesh, resulting in more than a thousand incidents of riots and communal violence perpetrated by both Hindus

and Muslims. By the time calm had been restored, more than 4,000 people had been

injured and at least 1,100 had lost their lives.

The BJP has also employed less aggressive strategies in its campaign to create a

thoroughly Hindu India. For example, in the 1980s and 1990s it attempted to rewrite

Indian history by distributing new school textbooks throughout India. These text- books reflected the BJP's vision oflndia as a Hindu nation and Hinduism as a unified,

monolithic tradition. Most important, and dangerously, this historical revisionism

minimized Muslim contributions to the development of India and described India's

Muslim rulers as foreign invaders. The RSS also has a strong presence in the Hindu

diaspora communities in Europe and North America. Many Hindu emigrants send

their children to RSS youth camps to give them a sense of their Hindu identity and cultural pride.

The Future of Hinduism Encouraged by nationalist groups and political parties in India, some of today's

Hindus see Hinduism as monolithic, homogeneous, and impermeable, closed off from

what they perceive as the corrupting influences of the West and foreign religions. At

the same time, an emerging global movement is seeking to transcend traditional

boundaries to better serve the needs of an increasingly diverse Hindu community.

Hinduism has always displayed a unique ability in the face of changing conditions to sustain ancient traditions within new and ever-changing contexts. How this ability

will manifest itself in the future remains to be seen, but it seems certain that the efforts

of both Hindu traditionalists and progressives will ensure the continuing vibrancy of

the world's oldest religions.

HINDUISM AS A WAY OF LIFE Hindus often insist that Hinduism is more a "way of life" than a system of beliefs.

Indeed, Hinduism does place greater emphasis on what one does rather than on what one believes. The emphasis on doing rather than believing might explain the disconnection

126 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

VISUAL GUIDE Hinduism

In Hinduism, folding one's hands

and offering salutations by saying

namaste (nom-us-tay) is a simple way of giving a respectful greeting,

as well as saying, "I bow to the

divine in you."

OM or AUM is the most sacred

syllable in Hinduism and may be

traced back to the Vedas. It is

regarded as the primordial sound

through which the universe is

manifested. It is considered

sacred by Hindus, Jains, Buddhists,

and Sikhs.

The word "swastika" (Sanskrit,

svastika) is derived from the Sanskrit su (good) + asti (it is), and may be understood as "fortunate"

or "auspicious." The swastika itself

is an ancient so lar symbol and de-

notes harmony, balance, and good

fortune. It is venerated by Hindus,

as well as Buddhists and Jains.

Hindu forehead markings: bindi, tripundra, and namam. Bindi (drop) is a decorative mark on the fore-

head signifying auspiciousness. An

additional "dot" is often applied by

married women to the top of the

head where the hair is parted. The

mark between the eyes is situated

to signify t he "third eye" (the fac-

ulty of perception beyond ordinary

sight). Some forehead markings

denote sectarian affiliation, such as

the three horizontal lines of sacred (continued)

between textual injunction and actual practice that

one often encounters in Hinduism. Hindu texts

provide many prescriptions for how to live (e.g., the

aims of life and the varnaashrama dharma system), bur these do not always translate into actual lived

practice. In chis section, we will explore Hinduism as a way of life.

Seeing the Divine Image: Temples and Icons Hinduism encourages a sensory religious experi-

ence in its adherents. This experiential aspect is

nowhere more evident than when a H indu goes to

a temple. As religion scholar Diana Eck observes,

the devotee doesn't say, "I am going for worsh ip."

Rather, the devotee asserts, "I am going for dar-

shan." The Sanskrit word darshan means "to see,"

but in the Hindu context it refers specifically to the interlocking gaze shared by the deity and the

devotee. That is, darshan is the intimate act of both

seeing the deity and being looked upon by the

divine, an act which establishes a loving relation-

ship between devotee and God.11

As we learned earlier in chis chapter, the image

of a god in a temple or a personal shrine at home is

not just a representation of the deity; rather, it is

imbued with the divine presence. Thus, devotees

believe that to see an image of a deity is to see the

deity itself. In turn, the gaze of the deity's image is believed to confer blessings on every person who

comes into its presence. In many ways, the act of

darshan is often the most meaningful experience fo r Hindus.

Today, most Hindus go to a local temple or on

pilgrimage to a sacred site for darshan. For this

reason, the temple is a central religious and cul-

tural institution in Hindu religious practice.

Temples generally house two different kinds of

icons. The first type is the main image (or images) ,

which resides at the center of the temple. These

images are generally made of stone and perman-

ently fixed in the shrine. The second type of icon is

the processional image, typically cast from an

amalgam of five metals. Smaller and more mobile

than fixed images, processional images are brought

out of temples on special platforms or chariots for

temple festivals and are usually adorned in elabor-

ate costumes and jewels. Hindus gather for a dar- shan in the presence of the divine form these

mobile images embody. Although both types of

icons are made by human hands and are consti-

tuted of material substances, while the icon is

being worshipped it is understood not to be merely

stone or metal but the very body of God.

In temple rites, deities are treated as royal

guests. Temple worship usually involves sixteen

different offerings. Of these, the most significant

is the eighth offering, which involves pouring

various types of auspicious substances over the

icon. These might include scented water, milk, and

sandalwood paste. After the ritual, the deity is

adorned in ornaments, textiles, and flowers. The

temple rituals end with a waving of lamps before

the image. For Hindus, this is the ideal moment

for darshan.

Divine images can also directly convey reli-

Hinduism as a Way of Life 127

VI s u AL Gu I DE (continued) Hinduism

ash worn by worshippers of Shiva

and the vertical "V" of the wor-

shippers of Vishnu. The red "drop"

in the middle represents the des-

cent of grace in the form of

Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune.

The term yantra means "device," but these sacred diagrams may

also be referred to by the term

mandala, or "circle." They vary in form and function. Some are used

to map cosmology, others embody

deities, and stil l others function as

talismans. These geometrical de-

signs may be used for meditative

contemplation.

gious teachings. For instance, Nataraja, Lord of the Dance, is one of the most iconic

forms of Shiva. In his dance, Nataraja represents what Shaivas call the Five Activities

of Shiva, which can also be understood as the five principal manifestations of divine

energy: creation, preservation, destruction, illusion, and liberation.

Forms of Worship The Sanskrit word puja is commonly used to describe worship in Hinduism. In its most simple form, puja involves making some offering to the deity (such as fruit, in- cense, or flowers). The deity is then believed to partake of the devotion inherent in the

offering. The material aspect of the offerings left behind is thought to be infused with

the deity's blessing.

Puja can be simple or elaborate. Along with material items, offerings can consist of such things as washing or clothing the image of the deity, greeting it, prostrating

oneself before it, and similar gestures. Puja can be offered almost anywhere-before a home shrine, at a temple, at pilgrimage sites, by sacred trees or rivers, at roadside

shrines, or within temporary structures specially made for a specific rite. Rituals may

be carried out as an expression of love for the deity, in a rite of passage, in celebrating

a holiday or festival, when asking for blessings, in order to create an atmosphere of

128 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

Clouds of incense billow

from a terracotta censer

as devotees pray before

a multi-armed clay icon

of Durga (upper center),

Ganesha (lower left),

and other deities. This

is the final opportunity

for darshan, as the icon is about to be dissolved

by immersion into

the Ganges River at

the conclusion of the festival of Durga Puja.

Kolkata, India.

The majestic gate of a Shiva temple in southern India is reflected in one of the two ritual

bathing tanks found within its precincts. These towers are erected in the four directions

and are often covered in sculptural imagery that refers to the sacred myths of the gods

venerated within. Arunachaleswar Temple, Tiruvannamalai, India, eleventh century.

peace and harmony, or to propitiate the gods in times of trouble. Ritual occasions are

ideal for maintaining and strengthening community ties, as we learned at the begin-

ning of the chapter with the consecration of the Sri Ganesha Hindu Temple of Utah. Certain particular forms of Hindu worship are so popular as to deserve our special

attention. Here we describe three of them: arati, mantras, and sacrifice.

Arati As a form of puja, arati involves an offering of light. Arati is a very common practice; in fact, some Hindus use the term arati rather than puja to refer to worship

generally. A lamp fueled with ghee (clarified butter) or camphor is lit and waved in a clockwise direction in front of the deity. The five flames used in arati symbolize the five elements (earth, water, fire, air, and ether), as well as the totality of the universe.

This waving of the lamp is thought to remove evil influences and to return the object

or recipient of the offering to an auspicious state, regardless of any negative thoughts

or desires that might have been projected onto it. At the end of the ritual, participants

wave their hands over the flame and touch them to their foreheads, taking the divine

light of the deity into their innermost being.

Mantra Nearly all rituals in Hinduism are accompanied by the recitation of mantras. These are ritual formulas used to produce a spiritual effect. M antras can be used for a

Hinduism as a Way of Life 129

variety of reasons: to heighten awareness of God, to enhance the efficacy of an offer-

ing, to aid the practice of meditation, or to produce some magical effect. Mantras are

usually-but not always-in Sanskrit.

The mantra that we have considered previously, OM, is prominent throughout

Hinduism. The intonation of OM, the sound through which the universe is mani- fested, is thought to attune the mind to the essence of reality. Various Hindu sects use

specific mantras especially suited to them. For example, the most important mantra for Vaishnavas is Om Namo Narayanaya, which means "obeisance to Narayana" (another

name for Vishnu). For Vaishnavas, this mantra articulates the relationship between God

and the devotee while also asserting the fullness and unity of Vishnu. Reciting and con-

templating the mantra is an act of devotion that brings the devotee closer to Vishnu.

Sacrifice Fire sacrifice has been an essential component of Hinduism since the Vedic period. Sacrifice usually involves building an altar, kindling a fire, feeding it with ghee,

and casting auspicious offerings (milk, cereals, fruits, flowers, etc.) into the fire while

chanting mantras. Although fire sacrifice is usually performed by a brahmin priest,

these rites can be performed by any married upper-caste man. A fire sacrifice is a cru-

cial component of life cycle and temple rituals. Although sacrifice has persisted as an important feature of Hindu worship

through the centuries, perspectives on the relevance and meaning of sacrifice have

varied. In the Vedic period, sacrifice was seen as essential to maintaining cosmic

order. This is the reason that one of the most important Vedic myths describes the

universe as being born from the sacrifice of the cosmic man. The Upanishads, how-

ever, tend to diminish the relevance of sacrifice as an effective means of liberation from samsara. These texts argue that the true sacrifice takes place internally, with

the breath itself fueling an inner sacrificial fire that awakens one to knowledge. The

Bhagavad Gita follows in this line of interpretation, asserting that it is the surren-

der of the fruit of action (through bhakti) that is the true meaning and purpose of

sacrifice. In the earliest period, the sacrifice of animals was an important aspect of Hindu

ritual. However, over time (and particularly under the influence of Jainism and

Buddhism), animal sacrifice ceased to play a role in upper-caste sacrificial rituals. In

such sacrifices, coconuts and pumpkins came to act as substitutes for the animals.

Animal sacrifice continues to play a significant role in folk Hinduism.

Yoga Yoga in its most basic sense means a "yoking" or "uniting." In religious discourse, it refers to the uniting of the self with God. Yoga is sometimes used instead of marga

(path) to designate any one of the three great paths one can take in the pursuit of

moksha: karma, jnana, and bhakti. Yoga is also used more narrowly as the name of one

of the six schools of philosophy and is one form of jnana. Understood in this way, yoga refers to the many systems of physical and mental exercise that have developed within

130 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

A Hindu ascetic sits

in the lotus position,

a prominent bodily posture for the practice

of yoga.

the Hindu tradition. Most of us are familiar with hatha

yoga, which makes use of physical exercises to promote

the health of the body. But there are also forms of yoga,

such as Raja ("Royal") Yoga, that employ both physical

and mental techniques in order to make liberation from

samsara possible. It is this form of yoga that most con- cerns us here.

The origins of yoga are obscure. Most scholars see ele-

ments of yoga in the Vedas and Upanishads. It is unmis- takably present in the Ramayana and Mahabharata,

whose heroes perform yogic exercises. By the fourth cen-

tury C.E. the principles and techniques of yoga had been systematized in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.

The Yoga Sutras consist of 196 instructional sayings about the moral, physical, and

mental conditions and techniques that can enable the individual to achieve moksha.

These are evident in the eight steps through which practitioners move in their quest for

liberation. The first two steps have to do with moral preparation. Prohibitions against

harming other beings, lying, stealing, sexual irresponsibility, and greed must be ob- served. In addition, the five virtues of cleanliness, contentment, discipline, studious- ness, and devotion to a god must be practiced. The next three steps involve preparation

of the body. The practitioner learns postures (especially the lotus position) that pro-

mote comfort and alertness and how to breathe in rhythmic patterns that calm the

body. Once these ends have been achieved, it becomes possible to withdraw the senses

so that they no longer demand the mind's attention. The next two steps prepare the mind for liberation. By focusing its attention on a single thing, all other particulars

fade away. All that remains is to gently remove this single object of attention from

the field of the mind's awareness. This brings the practitioner to the eighth step, which

is also the ultimate goal: samadhi, a state in which one's awareness is of the self as

Brahman.

Rites of Passage Hindu rites of passage are intended to invoke blessings and divine favor during im-

portant times of transition. In addition, they help socialize individuals, assisting them as they move into new roles and stages oflife. Some rites of passage occur very early in

life. These include the naming ceremony of a child, typically held on the tenth or twelfth day after birth; a child's first haircut, usually performed between the first and

third years of life; and ear piercing, which is typically done for both boys and girls

before age five. The following are also major rites of passage.

A Boy's Initiation Historically, the upanayana, or sacred thread ceremony, was an initiatory rite for brahmin, kshatriya, and vaishya boys. (Recall the passage from Laws of Manu, p. 104) Today, it is performed almost exclusively for brahmin boys at about

Hinduism as a Way of Life 131

the age of eight, giving them permission to perform certain religious functions. Begin-

ning with a fire sacrifice, the ritual culminates in the promotion of the initiate to the

category of "twice-born." The initiate is given a sacred thread that symbolizes a kind

of umbilical cord linking the boy to the sun, the source of all light and knowledge. The

sacred thread lies across the chest, resting over the left shoulder and under the right

arm, and consists of three cotton threads, each composed of three strands, that are joined together by a single knot. The sacred thread is a very visible sign of caste status.

It is worn throughout one's life and is discarded only if a man renounces the world.

A Girl's First Menstrual Period The onset of a girl's first menstrual period, which marks the transition from childhood to adulthood, is celebrated with rituals per-

formed for girls from all castes. Sometimes these observances include spending the first three days of her first period secluded, although friends can visit. The young

woman takes a ritual bath on the fourth day, and a feast is held in her honor. This

transition is a public affair because it announces her availability for marriage. Often

the young woman is taken to the local temple to receive a special blessing from an

older married woman in her community, who will perform an arati ceremony to honor

her new potential to bear children. Her life radically changes afterward and, for many communities, her freedom to have unsupervised interaction with boys may be greatly

curtailed.

Marriage Marriage is a very important rite of passage. It is through marriage that one enters the householder ashrama that provides the main support for society as a

whole. Marriage was traditionally arranged by the parents between a bride and groom of the same jati after consulting an astrologer, who determined the couple's compati-

bility. In the last few decades, caste strictures have eased somewhat. As a result, mar- riages for love have become more commonplace.

The marriage ceremony is sanctified through a fire sacrifice in which the gods are

asked for blessings and offerings are poured into the fire. A thread is tied around the bride's wrist, and she is asked to step three times on a grinding stone from the groom's

family as a demonstration of her fidelity to the new household she is joining. At the

high point of the rite, the bride and groom walk together seven times around the sacred

fire. The bride's family then provides a sumptuous meal for all guests. After the last day

of celebration, the bride goes to the home of her husband and begins her new life.

Death Hindus often liken the cremation pyre to a fire sacrifice and speak of the funerary ritual, which usually involves cremation, as "the last sacrifice." Generally,

cremation takes place on the same day as death. The body is washed, smeared with

sandalwood paste, wrapped in a cloth, and then carried on a litter by male relatives,

who chant a holy name or phrase as they bear the body to the cremation ground. It is

usually the duty of the eldest son of the deceased to conduct the last rites and light the pyre. An ancient practice that is still often observed requires him to also crack the

132 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

Hindu pilgrimage routes in Ind ia.

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IRAN

0 km 200

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AFGH ISTAN

PAKISTAN

Arabian Sea

400

200 400

skull of the deceased in order to release the soul from the body, a daunting task for a

son to perform.

Although cremation is the usual means of disposing of the body, there are excep-

tions. Earth burial is practiced for babies and among some low-caste communities.

Saints, yogis, and ascetics are also buried. Their bodies are placed in special tombs,

around which shrines are sometimes erected and worship performed. Following the funeral ceremony, the family and home of the deceased are con-

sidered to be polluted for a period of about ten days. The bereaved are expected to keep to themselves until rites of ancestral offerings are completed. During this period, the

deceased is offered balls of rice with which he or she is believed to construct a body in

the spirit world or intermediate realm. This rite, which reflects the gestation of a

human embryo for ten lunar months, may very well predate the formulation of a belief in reincarnation that was developed by the time of the Upanishads.

Pilgrimage In Hinduism, sacred pilgrimage sites are believed to lie at the border between this world and that of the divine. Many of the earliest pilgrimage sites were located at sacred rivers and pools, and pilgrimage specifically involved ritual bathing as a means

CHINA

TIBET

INDIAN OCEAN

SRI LANKA

Bay of

Bengal

• -.,

\

Pilgrimage Sites in Hindu India

• Hindu places of Pilgrimage

Pilgrimage route

THAILAND

Hinduism as a Way of Life 133

of purification. Some revered sites, marked by a shrine or temple, commemorate a

sacred event or the life of a holy person. For pilgrims, these sites allow immediate, tan-

gible access to the sacred.

One of the most important Hindu pilgrimage sites is the sacred city ofVaranasi on

the banks of the Ganges. Many Hindus believe that to die in Varanasi is to be imme-

diately released from samsara. For this reason, many old and sick people travel to Varanasi to die. However, because the Ganges is held to be the most sacred river in

India, people who are unable to go to Varanasi to die arrange to have their ashes scat-

tered in the river. In this way, the sacred river is believed to carry the dead from this

life into the divine realm.

The largest pilgrimage in India is to the sacred city of Prayag (Allahabad), where

the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers (as well as the Sarasvati, a now-vanished river men- tioned in sacred texts) come together. To bathe at the confluence of these three rivers

is considered especially auspicious. Every twelve years, the Kumbha Mela festival takes

place at Prayag. During the Kumbha Mela, the largest gathering of humans on earth

takes place as pilgrims converge to bathe in the holy waters in the hope that all their

sins will be washed away.

There are many other important pilgrimage sites in India. Some are dedicated to the goddess Devi and are referred to as Shakti Peethas ("Seats of Power"). Still others,

like the city of Vrindavan in northern India, attract devotees of Krishna, who believe

that it is not only the site of the god's birth and childhood but also the place where he

continues to live.

Women in Hinduism Hindu tradition has tended to be patriarchal, both subordinating and marginalizing

women. Although there is some evidence in the Vedic literature that some women

participated in early philosophical movements or dialogues, for the most part their

public roles have been secondary to those of men. The role of Hindu women has been

primarily domestic.

Classical Hindu texts generally give little attention to women, but there are excep- tions. One example is the Laws of Manu, which, in the course of its extensive coverage

of varnashrama dharma, includes some statements that confer upon women a relatively

high place: "Where women are honoured, there the gods are pleased; but where they

are not honoured, no sacred rite yields rewards."12 At the same time, numerous pas-

sages subordinate and marginalize women, clearly asserting the predominance of father, husband, and even sons.

The bhakti movements enabled women to overturn social hierarchies. Women

poets and saints such as Meera, who lived during the fifteenth century in Rajasthan,

rejected marriage, devoted themselves to a spiritual life, and challenged the limits of

gender, class, and caste. Today, Hindu women are increasingly assuming leadership

roles in India and in the Indian diaspora. Women sometimes act as priests and are be- ginning to wield influence as spiritual teachers, monastics, and theologians. One of

How do Hindu pilgrimage practices compare to those of other religions, such as Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity? How do pilgrimage sites arise, and how do they serve the practical and spiritual needs of the visiting pilgrim?

134 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

the most important contemporary female gurus is Mata Amritanandamayi Devi (b. 1953). Known to her followers as Ammachi ("Mother") and popularly referred to

as "the hugging saint," she is believed by her devotees to be the embodiment of Devi,

the divine mother.

In contemporary South Asian and Southeast Asian Hindu society, women are re- garded as the custodians of traditional beliefs and ritual for the family. Generally, the social roles of men and women are expressed through clothing and other outward

signs. While men wear contemporary slacks, dress shirts, and ties, women prefer trad-

itional modes of dress. While many men eschew sectarian forehead markings except

on ritual occasions, most Hindu women, especially those who are married, adorn their

foreheads with the bindi. In addition to performingpuja at the home shrine, observing festivals, and encouraging regular temple visits for the family, women also perform pujas and vrata for the spiritual welfare of their husbands and children on certain

holidays.

Vrata A vrata is a vow of temporary self-denial usually undertaken by a woman. This generally involves a short period of fasting, but a vrata can also be a vow of silence or a

short-term renunciation of anything to which one is attached. A woman usually under- takes a vrata for a specific purpose, such as to ensure the health and well-being of her

husband and family. There are many special vratas observed at specific times through-

out the calendar year. One of the most popular, observed by married women through-

out southern India, always falls on a Friday in early August. This vrata involves a

period of purification and fasting, after which the woman invites the goddess Lakshmi

into her home. The hope is that Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and good fortune, will bring these things to the home.

All vratas are vows taken by women on special festival days. Let us now examine

what are the key holidays and festivals observed by all Hindus.

Festivals and Holidays Hindus make use of both solar and lunar calendars, as well as a calendar based on

twenty-seven different constellations. All three calendars are consulted to determine

when festivals and holidays will be observed. Many Hindu festivals link mythic events

to the agricultural cycle. There are also innumerable holidays and observances that commemorate saints and sages, historical events, and sacred sites of regional interest.

Three popular Hindu festivals that are celebrated with many regional variations

serve to illustrate the diversity of observances in Hinduism.

Navaratri or Dashera Navaratri ("nine nights") or Dashera ("ten days") is a holiday cycle celebrating the end of the monsoon season in India. In some regions, Dashera

also commemorates the conclusion of a great war between Rama and the demon-king,

Ravana. In other regions, such as southern India and in Bengal, the festival celebrates Devi's battle against the buffalo-demon, Mahisha (p. 135). To commemorate this

Hinduism as a Way of Life 135

conquest, altars are set up with images of the Goddess. For the first three days of the

festival, devotees worship Devi in her manifestation as Durga. They then turn their

attention to worshipping her as Lakshmi. On the concluding three days, she is wor-

shipped as Sarasvati, the embodiment of knowledge. In Bengal, the eighth day is espe-

cially important, as it celebrates Durga slaying Mahisha and is marked with the

sacrifice either of black goats or a substitute sacrifice of pumpkins. The festival culmi- nates with street processions of large painted clay icons of Durga that are later dis-

solved in the nearby river or the sea. The "victorious tenth day," Vijaya Dashami, is

celebrated all over India as Rama's final victory over the demon Ravana.

Diwali Diwali, the five-day "Festival of Lights," is celebrated in October. For many Hindus, it commemorates Rama's rescue of Sita and their heroic return to Ayodhya. Other myths are invoked as an explanation for the festival in different regions oflndia.

At Diwali, oil lamps are set out on doorsteps and window ledges, and floating lamps

are placed as offerings in rivers and reservoirs to signify the triumph of good over evil.

Fireworks are lit on the night of the new moon, when Lakshmi is worshipped. The

third day of Diwali marks the end of the harvest season, and Lakshmi Puja is per-

formed to thank the goddess for the abundance that she has given. New clothes are worn and gifts are exchanged. Diwali is also celebrated by Sikhs and Jains.

Holi The spring festival of Holi, always celebrated at the vernal equinox, is Hindu- ism's most colorful holiday. Celebrated in either February or March, its festivities take

place over two days. On the first night, bonfires are lit, and coconuts are offered as a

sacrifice. The following day is a carnival celebration during which social and gender hi- erarchies are temporarily inverted, as crowds of young and old alike frolic in the streets,

spraying colored water and staining one another with brightly colored powders.

Performance Traditions There is a multitude of performance traditions in

Hinduism, many of which cross over into the

realm of ritual. Even the act of publicly reciting

the Ramayana in Hinduism is believed to trans-

form the performance site into sacred space. Hindu sacred performance traditions include many differ-

ent genres: theater, puppetry, dance, music, story-

telling, processions, and street festivals.

Ram Lila The Ram Lila (The Play of Rama) is one of Hinduism's most popular performance

traditions. During the month of September,

northern Indian villages and cities host Ram Lila

festivals to coincide with the festival of Dashera.

Fun and frolic characterize the spring festiva l of Hali, as participants mischievously smear colored powders or spray colored water on each other.

136 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

A performance in

Mumbai, India, of Ram Lila, the very popular enactment of the

Ramayana.

These festivals, lasting anywhere from ten days to a

month, are costume dramas based on the Ramayana. The

most famous and elaborate Ram Lila is sponsored by the

Maharaja (the hereditary ruler) of Ramnagar, a city lo-

cated across the Ganges from Varanasi. The Ramnagar

Ram Lila attracts pilgrims from all over northern India who come not only to participate in this annual festival

but also to have darshan of Rama. The roles of Rama,

Lakshmana, and Sita (the three principal characters of the

Ramayana) are played by young upper-caste boys. For the

duration of the Ram Lila, these boys are worshipped as

the embodiments of divinity. Every evening, a priest waves a lamp, illuminating the

principal characters who give darshan to the assembled pilgrims and devotees. Just as in a temple, where God is actively present in the icon, here too the very act of perform-

ing the Ramayana enables the young boys to embody divinity.

Sacred Songs: Bhajan and Kirtan The term bhajan refers specifically to devo- tional songs in Hinduism and Sikhism. The bhajan helps the gathered community to contemplate the divine. This is usually achieved through repetition of key phrases

and lines and also through a call-and-response format of singing. Often, profound

mystical concepts are presented in simple language that everyone may understand.

Bhajan may be contrasted to kirtan, which is neither formal in form nor structure,

nor is it constrained by setting. Kirtan may be performed in lively sing-along proces-

sionals that roam the streets. Instruments are not necessary for kirtan performance, although they are often used. There are two different types of kirtan performances: in

one type, the kirtan leader and the chorus alternate singing the divine name; and in

the other, a hymn is communally recited, usually with an opening invocation, and

then the body of the composition that describes the pastimes of the deity. For Hindu

devotees, kirtan is a key spiritual practice, and it continues to be popular today, par-

ticularly for Vaishnava sects.

Storytelling An important way in which Hindus learn about the content of their religion is through storytelling. Even today, as in centuries past, professional story-

tellers continue to travel particular routes throughout India to visit local festivals,

where they sing the epics and other myths in all-night performances. Modern Hindus enjoy sacred narratives through new and equally vibrant media,

such as movies, television, and even comic books. Throughout the history of Hindu-

ism there have been numerous versions of sacred narratives, the Ramayana being

perhaps the most obvious example. In recent decades, sacred narratives have been in-

vigorated through print, radio, and television, as well as the Internet, with ever-new

and imaginative retellings of these ancient stories.

CONCLUSION Throughout this chapter, we have explored the rich diversity of the Hindu tradition.

The extent of this diversity has prompted some observers to remark, "There are as many Hinduisms as there are Hindus." But we also have noted aspects of Hinduism

that tend to unite Hindus. For example, all seek moksha, the ultimate liberation

from samsara, and the realization of the true nature of the self and its relationship to

the whole of reality. Hindus traverse three main paths to liberation, karma marga,

jnana marga, and bhakti marga. In these various paths, we see diversity and unity

together, with three different sets of teachings and practices all leading to the same goal. We see a similar blending of diversity and unity when we consider the detailed

system of varnashrama dharma, which assigns to each individual Hindu a specific

place and stage in life, while asserting the overall duty to conform to that which

upholds the cosmic and social order. The history of Hinduism, therefore, exhibits a

succession of inventions and reinventions in thought and practice with respect to

these teachings. For the most part, Hinduism developed in a rural setting, in small villages, and

even (as we have noted) in the forest. In recent decades, however, there has been a pronounced shift in population from rural to urban settings. Furthermore, India,

the world's second largest country and its largest democracy, is fast becoming a

leader in high-tech industries, with cities like Bangalore and Mumbai rapidly devel- oping as epicenters of international corporations. Hinduism is facing significant

challenges brought on by modernization and the accompanying phenomenon of

globalization. The religion is being constantly reshaped. But as this chapter has

shown, the diversity of the Hindu tradition is integral to its identity, in the present

just as in the ancient past. Whatever shape Hinduism takes in the future, it is likely

to thrive, drawing on its age-old ability to adapt and to reform with even greater di-

versity and vitality.

SEEKING ANSWERS

What Is Ultimate Reality?

Conclusion 137

Monistic Hindus believe that Brahman is the supreme, unitary reality, the ground of all Being. Understood as undifferentiated and without attributes, Brahman manifests itself as the world, in all its particular forms. Thus, all things are inherently divine. Humans are unable to apprehend this ultimate reality because of attachment, delusion, and identifica- tion with the limited ego-self. For dualistic or devotional Hindus, ultimate reality is typically understood to be fully embodied in a deity, such as Vishnu or Shiva.

(continued)

138 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

SEEKING ANSWERS (continued)

How Should We Live in This World?

Powerfully attracted to the samsaric realm of particulars-our egoistic selves, our relation- ships, our possessions, and the seemingly countless objects of our desires-we are caught up in the continual cycle of death and rebirth. Hinduism prescribes living in a manner that moves the self toward liberation from samsara. Three paths (margas or yogas) lead to moksha: karma (action),jnana (knowledge), and bhakti (devotion) . All the while, Hindus are required to live in conformity with dharma, upholding the cosmic and social order.

What Is Our Ultimate Purpose?

Moksha is liberation from samsara-the continuous cycle of death and rebirth, and the this- worldly realm in which this cycle recurs. Impossible fully to describe from the perspective of this world, the experience of moksha is said to be one of infinite awareness and eternal bliss. For monistic Hindus, moksha involves the full realization of the identity of the self with Brahman rather than with the world. For dualistic or devotional Hindus, moksha is the complete realization of the soul's perpetual and deep loving relationship with God.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

For Review ,. What were the essential features of Vedic

religion? How was it different from Hinduism as it is practiced by most Hindus today?

2. In what ways do Hindus seek an experience of the divine?

3. What is the relationship between the ideas of karma, samsara, and dharma?

4 . Describe the three margas, or paths, to liberation.

5. Describe the Vedas, Upanishads, epics, and Puranas. What are the most important fea- tures of each?

For Further Reflection ,. What are the various ways in which Hindus

understand divine reality? How do these compare with those of other religions?

2. What is an avatar? How does the concept of avatar compare with the ways in which other religions speak of God on earth?

3. How does the traditional system of varnash- rama dharma compare to systems of social organization with which you are familiar?

4. How were Hindus and Hinduism affected by British colonialism?

5. What are the most important turning points or milestones in the history of Hinduism?

GLOSSARY

arati (aah-ra-tee; Sanskrit) Worship with light, in- volving the waving of a lamp in front of the deity.

atman (aat-mun; Sanskrit) The eternal self or soul that is successively reincarnated until released from samsara through moksha.

avatar (ah-vah-taahr; from Sanskrit avatara) A "de- scent" of God (usually Vishnu) to earth in a physi- cal form with the specific goal of aiding the world.

bhakti marga (bhah-k-tee; Sanskrit) The path of devotion.

Brahman (braah-mun; Sanskrit, "expansive") For monistic Hinduism, the supreme, unitary reality, the ground of all Being; for dualistic Hinduism, Brahman can refer to the supreme God (e.g. Vishnu).

brahmin (braah-mun; Sanskrit) A member of the priestly class of the varna or caste system.

dalit (daah-lit; Sanskrit, "oppressed"; Marathi, "broken") Self-designation of people who had tradi- tionally been classified as untouchables or outcastes.

darshan (dur-shaan; Sanskrit, "to see") Worship through simultaneously seeing and being seen by a deity in the presence of its image.

dharma (dhur-mah; Sanskrit) Duty, righteousness, "religion"; basis for living in a way that upholds cosmic and social order.

hindutva (hin-doot-vah; Sanskrit, "Hindu-ness") A modern term that encompasses the ideology of Hindu nationalism.

jati (jaah-tee; Sanskrit, "birth group") One of thousands of endogamous groups or subcastes, each equal in social and ritual status.

jnana marga (nyah-nah mar-guh) The path of knowledge.

karma (kur-mah; Sanskrit, "action") Action; also the consequences of action.

karma marga (kur-mah mar-guh) The path of eth- ical and ritual works, or "action."

kshatriya (kshut-ree-yuh; Sanskrit) A member of the warrior and administrator class of the varna or caste system.

Glossary 139

mantra (mun-trah; Sanskrit) A ritual formula re- cited to produce a spiritual effect.

maya (my-yah: Sanskrit, "magic" or "illusion") In the Vedas, the magical power the gods used to create this world; in Vedanta philosophy, illusion that veils the mind.

moksha (mohk-shah; Sanskrit, "release") Liberation, the final release from samsara.

OM (oh-m) (from three Sanskrit letters: A-U-M) The primordial sound through which the uni- verse is manifested.

puja (poo-jah; Sanskrit, "worship") Generally, wor- ship; usually the offering before an image of the deity of fruit, incense, or flowers.

Purana (pooh-raa-nah; Sanskrit, "ancient") A com- pendium of myth, usually with a sectarian emphasis.

samsara (sum-saah-rah; Sanskrit) The continuing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; also the this- worldly realm in which the cycle recurs.

sannyasi (sun-nyaah-see; Sanskrit) Renouncer in the fourth stage (ashrama) of life.

Shaiva (shay-vah; Sanskrit) A devotee of Shiva.

Shakta (shah-k-tah; Sanskrit) A devotee of the Great Goddess, Devi.

shruti (shroo-tee; Sanskrit, "that which is heard") Term denoting the category of Vedic literature accepted by orthodox Hindus as revealed truth.

shudra (shoo-druh; Sanskrit) A member of the ser- vant class of the varna or caste system.

smriti (smree-tee; Sanskrit, "tradition") Term de- noting the vast category of Hindu sacred texts that is not shruti.

Upanishad (ooh-pah-nee-shud; Sanskrit, "sitting down near [a teacher]") A philosophical text from the later period of Vedic literature, also called Vedanta ("end of the Vedas") .

Vaishnava (vie-sh-na-vah; Sanskrit) A devotee of Vishnu and his avatars.

(continued)

140 Chapter 4 HINDUISM

GLOSSARY (continued)

vaishya (vie-sh-yuh; Sanskrit) A member of the producer (farmer and merchant) class of the varna or caste system.

varna (vaar-nah; Sanskrit, "color") Caste or class; the four main classes form the basis of the traditional hierarchical organization of Hindu society.

Vedas (veh-duh; from Sanskrit veda, "knowledge") Broadly, all Vedic literature; narrowly, four an- cient collections (samhitas) of hymns and other religious material.

Vedanta (veh-daan-tah; Sanskrit, "end of the Vedas") Synonym for Upanishads; prominent Hindu philo- sophical school.

yoga (yoh-gah; Sanskrit, "yoking" or "uniting") Generally, uniting of the self with God; some- times used as an alternative to marga when refer- ring to the three main paths to liberation; also (normally capitalized: Yoga) one of the six philo- sophical schools, focusing on moral, physical, and spiritual practices leading to liberation.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Eck, Diana. Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India.

New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. An

excellent discussion on the significance of dar- shan and traditions of Hindu temple worship.

Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,

1996. A concise and in-depth study of Hinduism.

Flood, Gavin, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Hin-

duism. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2003. A presen- tation on select special topics that are key to

understanding Hindu belief and practice.

Hawley, John Stratton, and Mark Juergensmeyer.

Songs of the Saints of India. Oxford, UK: Oxford

University Press, 2006. A survey of the lives of

medieval bhakti saints, with excellent transla-

tion of some of their poetry.

ONLINE RESOURCES

The Internet Sacred Text Archive of Hinduism

www.sacred-texts.com/hin/

The Internet Sacred Text Archive of Hinduism

provides an excellent array of the many genres of

Hindu sacred texts with multiple public domain translations of key works.

Hawley, John Stratton, and Vasudha Narayanan, eds.

The Life of Hinduism. Berkeley: University of

California Press, 2006. Special topical articles that explore personal voices and perspectives on

Hindu life experience.

Klostermaier, Klaus K. Hindu Writings: A Short Introduction to the Major Sources. Oxford, UK:

One World Publications, 2000. A keen survey

of excerpts from many of the important textual sources that inform Hindu belief

Knipe, David M. Hinduism: Experiments in the

Sacred. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. A de-

pendable and clear study organized based on the

history of the tradition; includes a helpful time-

line and glossaries.

The University of Wyoming Hinduism Website

http://www.uwyo.edu/religionet/er/hinduism/

index.htm

The University of Wyoming Hinduism website

offers concise but in-depth discussions on numerous aspects of Hindu tradition, literature, and belief

(continued)

ONLINE RESOURCES (continued)

Understanding Hinduism www.hinduism.co.za/index.html

An informal collection of articles and infor-

mation on key topics offering some range of

viewpoints.

The Sri Vaishnava Homepage

www.ramanuja.org

The Sri Vaishnava homepage is a unique resource

for adherents to this important sect of Hinduism,

yet is accessible and informative for outsiders.

The Shaivam.org Site www.shaivam.org/index.html

Online Resources 141

The Shaivam.org site is a unique resource in that

it explores multiple sectarian views of Shaivism

yet is vast in scope and rich in detail.

The Internet Sacred Text Archive on Yoga

www.sacred-texts.com/hin/yoga/index.htm

The Internet Sacred Text Archive offers an exten-

sive array of works on yoga, including both original

sacred texts in translation and modern explorations

of the subject.

BUDDHISM

IN A ZEN BUDDHIST MONASTERY IN NEW MEXICO, a young Buddhist

nun named Jisen has spent years preparing for her ordination as a Zen

priest. For the past week, she has spent each night sleeping outdoors

under a tree that her fellow monks and nuns honor as the living embodi-

ment of an ancient monk named Jizo, a bodhisattva famed for his com-

passion and devotion to others. Now the day has arrived for Jisen to take

her vows. It is her hope that, as a priest, she will be better able to follow in

Jizo's footsteps, working to alleviate suffering in the world by helping others

to understand the workings of the mind and the nature of reality.

Before dawn, Jisen walks from the tree down to the river. There, in a

rite called the tonsure ceremony, a small group of monks and nuns from

her monastery shaves her head, leaving only a single strand at the crown.

The tonsure ceremony symbolizes the letting go of worldly attachments,

a step Buddhists believe is necessary on the road to enlightenment.

Jisen next joins a procession of monks and nuns who make their way

to the temple, where the ordination ceremony will be completed. As she

kneels before the altar, the monastery's Preceptor, or principal teacher,

invokes all the buddhas, bodhisattvas, and earlier teachers of this lin-

eage of Zen Buddhism. Then the Preceptor turns and addresses Jisen:

"J isen, clinging and delusion do not cease, yet your original true nature

has been revealed. After entering the priesthood, heaven neither covers nor

does the earth sustain. Having nothing with which to cover your round

Tonsure ceremony of a Buddhist nun in Vietnam.

144 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

AFGH ISTAN CHINA

\ TIBET IRAN

F

Bay Arabian of ~ Bengal

0 km 200 400

0 miles 200 400

Significant sites of early Buddhism.

INDIAN • OCEAN

, ~ilt-,adhapura i ol naruva

SRI LANKA

head and your robes embodying enlightenment, you stand out .... You will now be

able to dedicate this life freely to the welfare and service of all beings."

An ordination robe is placed in Jisen's outstretched arms, and the elder nuns and

monks help her to put it on. The Preceptor then continues, "Now, the last of your hair

will be cut. Will you allow me to cut it?"

The Preceptor repeats this question three times, and each time Jisen answers

"I will." Finally, as the Preceptor cuts the final strand of hair, Jisen recites her vows,

pledging to let go of all attachments while helping to end the suffering of others. The

Preceptor then ceremoniously invests Jisen with the begging bowl of a Zen priest and

calls her to atone for any harmful actions done in both th is and all of her previous

lives. Having formally committed herself to observing the Buddhist precepts of her

order, Jisen is now an ordained priest. ~€

J isen is one of nearly 500 million Buddhists in the world today, about 7% of the population.1 They belong to a vast number of Buddhist groups. Each has its dis-

tinctive characteristics, and their differences are sometimes remarkable, but all

trace their origins back to the life and teachings

of the Buddha, our point of departure for this

chapter. We will then briefly survey the history of

Buddhism and, finally, take note of the more im-

portant features of the Buddhist way of life.

THE TEACHINGS OF BUDDHISM The Buddha, the ''Awakened One," lived in northern India more than 2,500 years ago. It was the Buddha

who set in motion the "wheel of the Dharma," the

body of teachings about the cause and end of suf-

fering that lies at the heart of Buddhism.

The Life of the Buddha There is little we know with certainty about the

life of the Buddha. The many accounts we have are

legendary rather than historical, although their

agreement on many points suggests they are based

on a genuine historical figure. As much as reliable

historical sources might do to satisfy our curiosity

about the course of the Buddha's life, the legends

about him are more helpful to us here. This is be-

cause they are didactic in character, telling the story

of the Buddha in a way that educates us about the

essential features of his teaching.

Because both Sanskrit and Pali (another lan-

guage of ancient India) were so instrumental in the

early transmission of accounts of the Buddha's life

and teaching, we will make occasional use of both,

aiming in each instance to provide only what is

most helpful.

The Early Life of the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, who was to become the Buddha, was

probably born in the sixth century B.C.E. Western

scholars have traditionally set the dates for his life

at 583-463 B.C.E., though good arguments can

TIMELINE Buddhism

The Teachings of Buddhism 145

c. 563-483 a.c.E. Traditional dates for the life of the Buddha

c. 483 B.C.E. First Buddhist Council.

c. 383 B.C.E. Second Buddhist Council.

c. 360 a.c.E. Council of King Mahapadma.

c. 272-231 a.c.E. Reign of Ashoka in India.

c. 247 a.c.E. Third Buddhist Council.

250-200 B.C.E. Buddhism arrives in Southeast Asia.

65 c.E. Buddhism arrives in China.

100-200 Composition of the Lotus Sutra.

300-400 Buddhism arrives in Korea.

400-450 According to tradition, Bodhidharma brings Chan (Zen) Buddhism from India to China.

552 Buddhism arrives in Japan.

775 The first Buddhist monastery in Tibet is built at Samye.

c. 800 Borobudur Stupa built in Java.

c. 1200 Destruction of Buddhist universities at Nalanda and Vikramasila.

1185-1333 Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren flourish in Japan during the Kamakura period.

c. 1500 Virtual disappearance of Buddhism in India. 1890-1921 T. W. Rhys-Davids, professor of Pali at the

Universities of London and Manchester, translates Buddhist texts into English.

1899 The Buddhist Churches of America founded in San Francisco by Japanese immigrants of the Jodo Shinshu sect.

1900 Over 40,000 Buddhist and Daoist texts are rediscovered in a cave at Dunhuang, in western China.

1956 Indian social act ivist B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) converts to Buddhism along with 400,000 others to protest Hindu oppression of "untouchables."

1959 The 14th Dalai Lama flees to India from Tibet.

be made for moving them as much as a century earlier or later. According to trad-

ition, Siddhartha's father was the ruler of a small kingdom that straddled part of what

is now the border of India and Nepal. It is said that astrologers and seers observed

auspicious marks on the infant Siddhartha's body, indicating that he was destined to

146 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

Siddhartha cuts his hair. Mural depicting the Life of Buddha, Jogyesa Temple, Seoul, South Korea.

conquer the world. But there was a question: Would he conquer the outer world as a victorious monarch, or the inner world as a holy sage?

Siddhartha's father was determined that his son would follow in his footsteps.

Fearing that Siddhartha would be drawn to the spiritual life if he became aware of the

existence of suffering in the world, the king went to great lengths to shield him from

the harsh realities of life. And so Siddhartha grew up surrounded by palace walls, living an idyllic life in which every pleasure was made available to him and there was

no hint of pain. In time, he married a beautiful princess, Yasodhara, whom he loved

deeply and with whom he had a son. It was what many would consider a perfect life-

and yet Siddhartha grew restless.

Finally, at the age of twenty-nine, Siddhartha ventured outside the sheltered world

of the palace. Accompanied by his charioteer, he saw things that were to change the course of his life. Buddhists call these the "Four Sights." The first was a frail old man,

bent and leaning on his staff Siddhartha, who had never seen old age, asked if he, too,

would become old and decrepit. He was dismayed when his charioteer assured him

that he would. The second sight was a man afflicted by disease. Sickness, said the

charioteer, is also a part of human life. The third sight, a corpse being carried off to a

cremation, was terrifying. Death, too, said the charioteer, is something no one can escape. Siddhartha now saw through the illusion that his father had perpetrated. Filled

with horror and disgust by the inescapable truths of old age, sickness, and death, he

fell into despair. It was not until he witnessed the fourth sight that he found some reason to hope. Sitting by the side of a road,

he saw a wandering ascetic, homeless and without possessions,

who seemed to be content.

The "Great Going Forth" For Siddhartha, the ascetic pointed the way. To return to life within the palace would be to hide

from the truth. He resolved instead to face it. He would re-

nounce the life he had lived, take up the life of an ascetic, and

search for the truth about suffering. One night, he arose from his bed, kissed his sleeping wife and son good-bye, and silently

slipped away. As soon as he was alone in the forest, he took off

his expensive clothing and used his sword to cut off his hair,

symbolically severing the bonds that tied him to his old life.

At first, Siddhartha turned to ascetic sages who were ac- knowledged for their wisdom, becoming a disciple first of one,

then another. They taught him meditation techniques and yogic

disciplines, but although he mastered these, they left him unsat-

isfied. He then committed himself to extreme asceticism. After

a time of wandering, he found a grove of trees watered by a

river. Joined there by five other ascetics who wished to follow his example, he began to practice severe austerities in the hope

The Teachings of Buddhism 147

that they would somehow clarify his thought. For five years, Siddhartha wore rags.

Never cleaning himself, he allowed filth to cover his body. He slept on thorny bram-

bles and in cemeteries strewn with half-burned corpses. Weakened by eating as little

as a single grain of rice a day, he became a skeletal figure whose eyes had withdrawn

into their sockets and whose distorted mind was tormented by searing pain and thun-

derous sound. One day, after a long period of intense fasting, Siddhartha set out for the river.

On the way, he overheard a music teacher explaining to his student that an instrument

string wound too tight will break, whereas one that is too loose makes no sound at all.

These words brought Siddhartha to the realization that neither sensual indulgence nor

self-denial is helpful in the quest for understanding and liberation from suffering.

Because both weaken the body and the mind, the best path lies between them, between attachment and aversion. This principle of the Middle Way was to become founda- tional in Buddhism. According to tradition, it was at just this moment that a young

woman from a nearby village came to Siddhartha with a bowl of porridge. He accepted

her offer of nourishment, ate it, and bathed himself. He then returned to his ascetic

companions, but they left him when they learned he had abandoned their way of life.

Enlightenment Siddhartha's determination was now absolute. At a village in north- ern India now known as Bodh Gaya, he sat down beneath a fig tree and vowed to

remain there in meditation until he gained the understanding he sought.

Restored to health by his practice of moderation, he sat for forty-nine days,

moving into ever-deeper states of awareness. Then, during his meditation

in the course of a single night, his enlightenment came. In a series of psycho- logical breakthroughs made possible by the power and clarity of his mind,

Siddhartha first recalled all of his past lives. He then saw how karma- the law of actions and their consequences-had been at work throughout

time, conditioning the existence of all beings as they took form and then

passed away. Finally, Siddhartha realized that desire is the cause of suffer-

ing and that for suffering to end there must be an end to desire. According to Buddhist tradition, Siddhartha was not the first to

attain enlightenment. Buddhists believe that others before and after him

became, and will become, buddhas. But it is from this buddha that they

have received the Dharma, and so for them he is the Buddha, the ''Awak-

ened One." His enlightenment brought an end to the desire that causes suffering. It also brought freedom from rebirth, which results from at- tachment to the world. Freed from the disturbances caused by attach-

ment, his mind came to rest in its natural state, and he was filled with joy.

He had attained nirvana, the "extinguishing" of desire and suffering. For many days the Buddha remained close to the site of his enlighten-

ment. Then, moved by compassion for others, he set out to teach what he had learned.

"Calling the Earth to Witness." Accord ing to tradition, the demon Mara afflicted the Buddha with powerful temptations to give up his quest for enl ightenment. Ignoring them, the Buddha touched his right hand to the ground, thereby ca lli ng upon the earth to witness his unshakeable resolve. Immediately thereafter, he experienced nirvana.

148 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

Rock-cut reclining statue of the Buddha preparing to enter parinirvana, in a cave shrine at Ajanta, Maharashtra State, India. Fifth century c.E.

Beginnings of the Buddhist Community He went first to a deer park at Sarnath (near modern

Varanasi in India), where the five ascetics who

had earlier abandoned him were still practicing

harsh austerities. Seeing that he had broken through to some new understanding, they gathered around

the Buddha, who gave them his first teaching.

This was the "Sermon in the Deer Park," in which

he told them of the Middle Way and set forth the

Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path,

which describe the cause and cure of suffer- ing (pp. 151-152). Having heard him, the ascetics

became followers of the Buddha, the first Buddhist

monks and the first members of the Buddhist

Sangha (Pali, "community"). From Sarnath, the Buddha began to retrace his steps back home, attracting more

followers to the Sangha along the way. Many were relatives, including his father and his son, Rahula. A cousin, Ananda, became one of the Buddha's most devoted disciples

and later played such an important role in remembering and transmitting his teach-

ings that he has been called the "Guardian of the Dharma." The Buddha wandered

across northern India for more than four decades, teaching, ordaining monks and nuns,

accepting lay followers, and inviting doubters to test his teachings in order to see for

themselves if they had merit.

The Death of the Buddha The life of the Buddha came to an end forty-five years after his enlightenment. He was eighty. He and Ananda had been on their way to

Kusinara, not far from Varanasi, when they stopped to eat at the home of a black-

smith. Something in the meal was tainted-some accounts say pork, some say a nut or

a mushroom-causing the Buddha to become fatally ill. In a grove on the outskirts of the village, Ananda made a bed for him between two trees. According to some ac- counts, as the Buddha lay down, the trees suddenly burst into bloom and showered

him with their petals. At the same time, fragrant sandalwood powder fell from the

sky, and the air was filled with celestial music. His monks soon began to gather at the

scene, frantically seeking a final fragment of the Buddha's wisdom. When they asked

what they would do without him to teach them, he responded that the Dharma would

always be their guide. Then, closing his eyes, the Buddha went deep into meditation and died. Without attachments to the world, and unbound by karmic forces that

would have brought another incarnation, he passed into parinirvana, the complete and final entry into nirvana.

The Essentials of the Buddha's Teaching The Buddha's motive for embarking upon the spiritual life had been to find the truth

about human suffering. What was its cause? How could it be ended? His enlightenment

The Teachings of Buddhism 149

had brought answers to these questions, and these answers constitute the core of the

Dharma. We saw in Chapter 4 that in Hindu usage, the Sanskrit word dharma has a

wide range of meanings, including "law," "duty," and "righteousness." In Buddhist con-

texts, dharma (Pali, dhamma) in its broader sense refers to nature and its laws, but it is

more often and more narrowly used to describe the body of the Buddha's teaching,

passed down through the centuries. The difference between the broader and narrower meanings of dharma is not as great as one might imagine. As we will see, the teachings

of the Buddha are based on his observations of nature and its laws.

Interdependent Origination We will begin our investigation of the Buddha's teach- ing with the doctrine oflnterdependent Origination (Pali, Panicca-samuppada), also known as Dependent Origination, because so much of the Dharma is based upon it.

To most of us, the world seems to be a composite system consisting of different and

separate things. The chair you are sitting in certainly appears to exist on its own, apart

from all other things in the room. And it is likely that you see yourself as existing in-

dependently from everyone and everything else you encounter.

Looking deeply into reality, the Buddha saw things very differently. He taught

that reality is a complex ofinterrelated and interdependent phenomena in which noth- ing exists apart from anything else. Instead, all things depend on other things for their

coming-into-existence-that is, for their origination. Of course, everyone recognizes

at some level that this is the case. Someone built your chair, for example, and your

parents had something to do with you. But the Buddha's teaching, augmented by later

Buddhist thinkers, goes far beyond this in identifying a cycle of twelve causal factors

(such as ignorance, desire, and rebirth) that bring about a coming-into-existence once any one of them is set in motion.

Of course, things also remain in existence-or at least they seem to. How can this

be explained? And what are things, really? Here, again, the Buddha taught that all

things are interdependent; so much so, in fact, that they have no existence whatsoever

in and of themselves. Once again, take your chair as an example. Looking deeply, you will find that it is constituted of different elements: height, width, leather, legs, texture,

firmness, color, and so on. But you will not find "chair." Instead, your chair exists only

as a complex of "not chair" elements, and only for as long as these constituent parts

remain together. And so it is with all things. Each thing exists as a collection of other

elements, having no independent existence of its own.

The Three Marks of Existence Building on his teaching about the interrelated- ness and interdependence of things, the Buddha taught that there are Three Marks of Existence-Impermanence, Suffering, and No-Self

The Buddha's doctrine of Impermanence (Pali, anicca) holds that all things are always changing. Nothing remains the same, even for a moment. All things are always

in a state of becoming. For example, imagine a blade of grass. Although it may seem static, the truth is that it is growing and therefore becoming a different blade of grass

in every moment.

150 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

The Buddha's teaching about suffering (Pali, dukkha) is central to the Dharma. He once said, "I have taught one thing and one thing only, suffering and the cessation

of suffering." Although dukkha is usually translated as "suffering," it can also mean

"unease" and "dissatisfaction," as well as specific forms of unease and dissatisfaction

(such as anxiety, fear, doubt, and so on).

Suffering is caused by the desire to hold on to things when, in fact, nothing can be held. Uncomfortable with constant change and the impermanence of things, we want

them to remain as we want them to be. Buddhists describe this wanting in a variety of

ways-as desiring, craving, clinging, and thirsting (the literal meaning of the Pali

tanha, commonly translated as "desire"). However it is described, desire is made pos- sible by ignorance (and, in particular, ignorance of impermanence) and can take the

form of an attachment to something we want in our lives or an aversion to something we don't want. These three qualities of attachment, aversion, and ignorance (also re-

ferred to as greed, hatred, and delusion) are known as the "Three Poisons." The suffer-

ing that arises from them can take innumerable forms. Wanting is suffering. Lacking

is suffering. Fearing that something you have might one day be lost is suffering. Be-

lieving that you cannot be happy unless you have something is suffering. Being averse

to something is suffering. Wanting things to stay the same is suffering. Wanting things to be different is suffering. Stress and worry are suffering. Envy and jealousy are suf-.

fering. Anger, hatred, grief, loneliness, and frustration are suffering. Finally, the un-

healthy effects many of these mental or psychological states have on the body constitute

suffering.

The third of the Three Marks of Existence is the doctrine of No-Self (Sanskrit, anatman; Pali, anatta). Of all the things we desire, it is likely that our greatest attach- ment is to our notion of self As we saw in Chapter 4, Hinduism includes the belief

that at the core of one's self is the unchanging and eternal atman, which survives the death of the body through successive incarnations. The Buddha rejected this idea,

teaching that just as there are no other things that remain unchanged, there is no static self that remains the same, even from moment to moment. The doctrine of No-Self

does not mean that there is no "you." Clearly, you exist. You have a body, a mind,

movement, interests, and other qualities. The Buddha taught that these are rooted in

the skandhas (Sanskrit, "bundles" or "heaps"), the five basic components of every self: the body, perception, feelings, innate tendencies shaped by karma, and thought-all

of which are always in flux. Thus the Buddha taught that each of us is a shifting self

that is always changing in response to changes happening elsewhere in the great web of interrelated, interdependent, and impermanent phenomena that make up reality.

It can be difficult to accept this idea. After all, most of us are quite attached to our

individual identities and to the notion that for as long as we live (and, perhaps, even

after we die) there are some ways in which we remain the same. No-Self might seem

to imply a destruction or annihilation of something we like very much-ourselves.

But this is not the case. Instead, the Buddha urged only that his followers recognize that the self is not concrete, permanent, or independent of all other things. The great

The Teachings of Buddhism 151

THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

1. Suffering is inherent in life. 2 . The cause of suffering is desire. 3. There is a way to put an end to desire and suffering.

4. The way is the Noble Eightfold Path.

benefit he saw in this teaching is that it opens the way to living without the suffering

that arises from a false notion of self and from clinging to things that cannot be held. The Buddha found the full realization of this ideal in his enlightenment and in the

bliss of nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path We saw earlier that the first teaching the Buddha offered to the Sangha was the Sermon in the Deer Park, in

which he told the five ascetics who had been his companions about the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Like a physician dealing with some illness-in fact, his followers often spoke of him as the Bhisakko, or "the Peerless Physician"-he structured his most fundamental teaching about suffering as if it were a medical diag-

nosis and prescription for a cure. The Four Noble Truths follow the four steps ancient

Indian doctors used to diagnose and treat illness: (1) identifying a symptom, (2) dis-

covering its cause, (3) determining if there is a way to remove the cause, and (4) pre- scribing a therapy to effect a cure. As a process of identifying and treating the disease

of suffering, the Four Noble Truths empower those who follow them to understand

the root cause of suffering and to cure themselves.

Now that we have investigated some of the Buddha's other teachings, we are in a

good position to understand the Four Noble Truths. In teaching that suffering is in-

herent in life, the Buddha was pointing to the inevitability of suffering and its every- day presence in its many forms in people's lives. In identifying the cause of suffering

as desire, the Buddha was not teaching that all forms of desire are unhealthy. Satisfy-

ing our desire for nourishment, employment, and a decent place to live certainly makes

sense. But when we desire to grasp and hold on to things that cannot be held, we will

always be disappointed. The good news is that there is a way to deal with desire and to minimize, even to end, the suffering it causes.

The Buddha's prescription for a cure for suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path. In

treading the Eightfold Path, one follows in the footsteps of the Buddha in eradicating

attachment, aversion, and ignorance, putting an end to desire, and ultimately achiev-

ing enlightenment and nirvana, just as the Buddha did.

The eight aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path are sometimes divided into three divisions, each with its own goal. The first is the prajna (Sanskrit, "wisdom") division,

Compare the Buddha's teachings about the self or soul with the teachings of other religions.

152 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH

1. Right View: seeing things as they are, in accordance with the Buddha's teachings. 2. Right Intention: cultivating an unshakeable commitment to tread the path to enlightenment

in accordance with the Buddha's teachings. 3. Right Speech: cultivating the virtue of addressing others with kindness, while abstaining from

lying, divisive or abusive speech, and idle chatter. 4. Right Action: abstaining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. 5. Right Livelihood: making a living in a way that harms no one and benefits all. 6. Right Effort: striving to abandon all thought and action that is harmful to oneself or others

and to cultivate virtues that benefit oneself and others. 7. Right Mindfulness: focused awareness of the body and mind and the phenomena arising

within and affecting each. 8. Right Concentration: cultivating the four stages of concentration leading to equanimity beyond

pleasure and pain.

which includes Right View and Right Intention. Here, the aim is to ensure that one

understands and accepts the Buddha's teachings about Interdependent Origination,

Impermanence, and Suffering and is committed to striving for goals consistent with

them. The second division has the purpose of cultivating ethical conduct (Sanskrit and

Pali, sila) through Right Speech, Right Action, and Right Livelihood. The Buddha taught that unethical conduct is an obstacle to mental clarity. For this reason, destructive

speech, immoral behavior, and making a living in a way that does not benefit oneself

and others are to be avoided. The third division promotes concentration (Sanskrit and

Pali, samadhi). Through Right Effort, one seeks to eliminate all qualities of the mind

that give rise to unwholesome thought and action and to encourage those that produce

more positive effects. Right Mindfulness is the observation of thoughts, feelings, and all other phenomena that occur in the body and mind. Finally, Right Concentration

involves progress through four stages of concentration until one achieves a state of

nonattachment and equanimity.

Karma and Rebirth The Buddha taught a doctrine of rebirth that differed from the Hindu view in denying that there is an eternal and unchanging soul (atman) that

passes through many incarnations. According to his doctrine of No-Self (anatman),

one's sense of self arises from the interrelationship of the five skandhas and exists only

for as long as they function together in such a way as to give rise to that sense of self.

When they separate at death that sense of self ceases to exist, and so there is nothing

substantial that passes from one incarnation to another. And yet there is a definite connection between one life and the next; there is a type of rebirth. The Buddha's

The Teachings of Buddhism 153

teaching on this point is obscure and much debated. What is clear is that one's actions

and the karma they generate bring about the conditions for the coming-into-existence

of a new set of skandhas. This, in turn, gives rise to another sense of self Nothing con-

crete passes from one life to the next; only the karmic and character-related elements

of the previous life, which shape a new life in some ways consistent with the old. There

are a variety of analogies Buddhists have used to illustrate this idea. According to one, rebirth is much like what happens when one candle is used to light another. A light

appears where none had existed before, and yet nothing has passed over other than the

energy (which we might compare to karmic energy) generated by the first candle.

Of course, these teachings about karma and rebirth do not apply to those who

have found enlightenment. The Buddha taught that these individuals no longer set in

motion the karma that leads to rebirth and are also freed entirely from the karma produced in earlier lives. There is no rebirth for them. Only those who continue to

thirst for things and to seek to satisfy their desire through attachment to them are

reborn in samsara (Pali, "perpetual wandering"), which, just as it is in Hinduism, has

for Buddhism two closely related meanings: the continuous cycle of birth, death, and

rebirth and the this-worldly realm in which this recurs.

Nirvana The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice, nirvana is liberation from suffering in the cyclic existence of samsara. A Sanskrit word, nirvana means a "blowing out" or

"extinguishing" and can refer to the extinguishing of desire and of suffering. The

Buddha taught that all people have the potential to attain nirvana. Buddhists employ

a variety of techniques for attaining nirvana but agree that its attainment brings

perfect bliss and an end to suffering. Beyond this, any description of nirvana is uncer- tain. Being utterly unlike anything one might experience with ordinary awareness, no

comparison is possible. For this reason, the Buddha said very little about nirvana, as it

is something that must be experienced in order to be understood.

Gods in Buddhism? It is often said that Buddhism is an atheistic religion. And indeed, some Buddhists are atheists. Many others, however, believe in a wide variety

of divine beings.

The Buddha had little to say about the gods and discouraged devotion to them. He

urged his followers instead to focus their attention on the Dharma and devote them-

selves to putting its precepts into practice. The Buddha's perspective on the gods is

perhaps best described as transtheistic2 (see the Introduction, p. 12), in the sense that he acknowledged the existence of gods; but when it comes to the truly crucial issues of

the quest for enlightenment and nirvana, the gods are not helpful.

Later forms of Buddhism tend to acknowledge the existence of supernatural

beings-celestial Buddhas and bodhisattvas-who are the objects of devotion and

who are believed to bestow benefits on their followers. Whether or not these super-

natural beings are "gods" depends on how one defines the term. We will explore the ideas of celestial Buddhas and bodhisattvas in more detail below.

154 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

' VOICES: An Interview with Katherine Sei

Katherine Sei

Katherine Sei is an American Buddhist who lives in California. She is a practi- tioner ofVajrayana Buddhism and has been a student of Lama Lodru Rinpoche for nearly three decades. She is the facilitator of a Buddhist study center in Sacramento.

As a Buddhist, what is the most important aspect of human existence? What should Buddhists do or focus on in life?

The most important aspect of human existence, to me, is that we have an oppor- tunity to evolve as beings. This evolution encompasses uncovering our true nature. This true nature is comprised of a spontaneous, natural compassion and a clear wisdom as to "what is really going on here." I've found through all the years of meditation that we all tend to really limit our minds, and the expression of our true wise and benevolent nature. As I uncover and begin to understand my mind's true nature, and learn to let go of my limiting definitions of self, others, and events in my life, suffering diminishes. Life becomes more joyful , more peaceful , and I feel more interconnected with everyone. Life also becomes very, very interesting as I begin to become aware of all the interconnections of karmic causes and effects, and I can relax into the "play" of events.

Does Buddhism give you a unique outlook on life? How so or why?

I'm not sure if Buddhism gives a unique outlook as much as a useful outlook on life in this culture. The teachings of Lord Buddha are not necessarily unique to Buddhism-I think many aspects of Hinduism, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam provide a framework for becoming a more loving and wise person . What may be unique in terms of Buddha's teachings is that one can examine one's mind and one's life through meditation practices. It's more like a science than a religion, analogous to a physicist learning mathematics to explore the universe. I've found through meditation that life isn't quite as rigid as we often make it out to be. Knowing that, one can learn to let go of many of the emotional habits and knee- jerk reactions. One can find many creative solutions to life's problems, big and small, from "What is death?" or "What does it all mean?" to "How do I deal with my angry boss?" " How do I deal with the stress in my life?" and so on.

What single event in your life would you characterize as your most meaningful religious experience?

It 's hard to pick one single event in my life that I consider most meaningful. Three come to mind. First would be when I took refuge with Trungpa Rinpoche in the 1980s. At that time, I discovered that I could treat others and myself with more gentleness. The second event would be when I met Ven . Lama Lodru Rinpoche, my direct teacher for the past twenty-seven years. Lama Lodru has taught me the same meditation practices that Tibetan lamas go through in a formal three-year retreat, but spread out over fifteen years . In doing this, he dem- onstrated that anyone can learn to meditate and apply it in their day-to-day life.

The History of Buddhism 155

One doesn't have to become a monk or nun to become liberated. The third event was having the nature of my mind pointed out by Mingyur Rinpoche. Mingyur Rinpoche is a Tibetan lama who had to overcome panic attacks when he was a teenager. He showed me how applicable Buddha's teachings on meditation are to all aspects of life.

THE HISTORY OF BUDDHISM In this section we explore the early history of Buddhism in India, its expansion into

other parts of Asia and beyond, and the developments of new forms of Buddhism, each interpreting in its own way the teachings of the Buddha. Along the way, we pause

to consider in some detail each of the three main forms: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.

The Period of the Buddhist Councils According to traditional Buddhist accounts, immediately after the death of the Buddha

a council was convened at the town of Rajagriha in northeast India. It was the first of a series of such councils, which would define Buddhism by addressing key doctrinal Diffusion of Buddhism and practical issues as they arose at particular times and places in its history. across Asia.

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156 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

The First and Second Buddhist Councils The First Council, convened c. 483 B.C.E., shortly after the Buddha's death, was made up of his direct disciples, who wished to

ensure that they all accurately remembered his teaching. The First Council formalized an

oral canon, thereby establishing an authority for a community that had lost its teacher.

During the Buddha's lifetime, he and his bhikkus, or monks, had been wanderers, remaining in one place only during the annual rainy season. This changed in the cen-

turies after his death as formerly itinerant monks and nuns began to settle in permanent

monastic communities. Over time, these communities became increasingly insular

and geographically dispersed. Without a unifying authority above them, there was a

proliferation of variations in practice and doctrine that led in turn to sectarian splits.

This tendency is apparent as early as the Second Buddhist Council (c. 383 B.C.E.), which was convened to address issues relating to discipline; some monks, for example,

had begun to accept money for services they performed for their lay followers.

A few early Buddhist sources allude to another council held c. 360 B.C.E., shortly after the Second Council. On this occasion, the monks assembled to address the issue

of the authority of the Buddhist canon. A majority, known as the Mahasanghika (Sanskrit, "Great Community"), held that the canon was not absolutely authoritative

and that there were other legitimate means for the transmission of the Dharma. The

minority held that the canon did indeed faithfully preserve the Buddha's teachings.

This group, who called themselves the Sthaviras (Sanskrit, "Elders"), was a precursor

of Theravada Buddhism. In the years following, subdivisions within both groups arose

that foreshadow the events of Ashoka's Third Buddhist Council.

Ashoka and the Third Buddhist Council The renowned emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty, Ashoka (r. c. 272-231 B.C.E.), embodies the ideal of Buddhist kingship. He united the subcontinent of South Asia on a scale unseen either before or after his

time. It was not until the British colonized India in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that such a large portion of the subcontinent would again be unified under

a single ruler.

Despite his success as a conqueror, Ashoka later profoundly regretted the violence involved in his conquests. According to legend, he underwent a conversion experience

immediately following a military triumph over his rivals in 260 B.C.E. He abandoned his expansionist policies and began to channel his efforts into social reform grounded

in Buddhist ethics.

Although Ashoka had been influenced by Buddhist ideals even before his victory, his conversion was clearly the pivotal moment of his reign. His sincerity was evident

in his edicts, which promoted moral purification, self-awareness, nonviolence, and re-

spect of all religious viewpoints. The edicts were promulgated across his empire. Often

carved on stone pillars (some of which are still preserved today), these edicts are our

earliest evidence for the widespread promotion of Buddhist ideals.

Ashoka convened the Third Buddhist Council in his capital at Pataliputra c. 247 B.C.E. Those present attempted to settle disputes regarding doctrinal departures of some monks

The History of Buddhism 157

ACTIONS TAKEN DURING EACH OF THE BUDDHIST COUNCILS

First Council (c. 483 e.c.E.): preserved the teaching and created a Buddhist canon Second Council (c. 383 e.c.E.): preserved vows and banned handling money and the selling of selling religious services

Dharma teaching is not bound by canon and can be modified Third Council (c. 247 e.c.E.): defined what

King Mahapadma's Council (c. 360 e.c.E.): according to some sources, asserted that the

the "authentic" view of the Buddha is and acknowledged the later Theravada sect as representing that view (under Ashoka's reign)

from the teachings of the Buddha. The council ultimately con-

cluded that one sect (Vibhajyava), which eventually gave rise to

Theravada Buddhism, represented the authentic and orthodox

viewpoint of the Buddha. Theravada is the only modern form of Buddhism that can

trace its origin back to the years immediately following these

disputes. The study of philosophical texts, combined with cos-

mological speculations and new ways of thinking about the

Buddha, brought about the emergence by the first century c.E. of Mahayana Buddhism.

By the seventh or eighth century C.E., new symbolism and ritual techniques contrib-

uted to the development ofVajrayana Buddhism, which gained a particularly powerful foothold in Tibet. Let us now examine the distinctive features of these three primary

Buddhist paths and the sacred texts that inform them.

Theravada Buddhism Theravada (Sanskrit, "way of the elders") views itself as representing the original and

authentic teaching of the Buddha. Theravada is also known as Hinayana (Sanskrit,

"Lesser Vehicle"), although this name is sometimes considered to be derisive. There are

over 100 million Theravada Buddhists around the world today. Theravada is the pre- dominant Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Burma.

Theravada emphasizes pursuit of nirvana through the individual's own efforts.

The Buddha is revered as one who achieved nirvana and provided his teachings, the

Dharma, so that others could do the same. But the Buddha himself is beyond the

reach of the individual and no longer available to provide direct assistance. Theravada stays true to the Buddha's last words: "Work out your salvation with diligence."3

The individual pursues nirvana primarily through meditation, for which the mo- nastic lifestyle is best suited. Theravada therefore also emphasizes the central role

of the monastic community, or Sangha.

The Brahmi script is an ancestor of all modern Indian scripts. This example is from the sixth edict of Emperor Ashoka, 238 s.c.E.

158 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

With its emphasis on the monastic community, Theravada naturally incorporates

a hierarchy that separates the ordained-monks and nuns-from the laity. There are

at least ten times as many monks in Theravada as nuns, and monks have always tended

to exert the most influence over the Sangha. Both nuns and monks, however, devote

themselves through study and meditation to attaining nirvana. Those who do attain it

are known as arhats, who represent the religious ideal for Theravada. In many coun- tries where Theravada is dominant, the monastic body acts as an advisor to govern-

ments or rulers and provides teaching to the lay community, while its monks also serve

as ritual specialists during festivals, at funerals, or in rites that confer blessings and

supernatural protection. The central role of the monastic community can also be seen

in the support it receives from laypeople, who seek to accumulate karmic merit by

making offerings to the monastic community.

Theravada Texts Theravada lays claim to following the original teachings of the Buddha, contained within the early canonical group of Buddhist texts known as the Pali Canon, or Tripitaka. According to tradition, four centuries after the Buddha's death a group of 500 monks met in Sri Lanka to commit his teachings to writing for the first

time. As there were already significant differences in reports of what the Buddha had said,

these monks labored to finally fix his teaching in written form. The Sanskrit term Tripi-

taka, which means "three baskets," refers to the fact that in ancient times, manuscripts

were written on palm leaves, which were then stored in baskets. Theravada's collection is

the only complete version of the Tripitaka that has survived to the present day. The first of the three baskets, the Vinaya Pitaka (Sanskrit, "Discipline Basket"),

contains hundreds of monastic rules reportedly prescribed by the Buddha and stories

that illustrate how these rules originated. The second basket, the Sutra Pitaka (Sanskrit,

"Basket of Discourses"), consists of many teachings of the Buddha. The term sutra generally means a Buddhist text but often is used to refer specifically to the contents

of the Sutra Pitaka. Although one cannot assume that everything recorded in the sutras is the literal word of the Buddha, their overall content is remarkably consistent

in portraying the Buddha's teaching, suggesting to a significant extent the ideas, prac-

tices, and personality of the Buddha himsel£ The third basket is the Abhidharma

Pitaka; the basket of "that which is above or about the Dharma."4 These texts seek to

reorganize and systemize the teaching in the Sutra Pitaka while also elaborating upon

them, exploring the nature of consciousness, epistemology (the nature of knowledge), cosmology, and meditation.

The opening verses of the Dhammapada, a collection of aphorisms on Buddhist

morals and one of the texts in the Sutra Pitaka, afford a glimpse into the way sutras are

structured and how they poetically present ideas. They also illustrate a key feature of

Theravada thought: we are responsible for our own happiness.

What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our present thoughts build our life of tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind.

If a man speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering follows him as the wheel of the cart follows the beast that draws the cart.

What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our present thoughts build our life of tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind .

If a man speaks or acts with a pure mind, joy follows him as his own shadow.s

Mahayana Buddhism

The History of Buddhism 159

With origins in the early years of the Common Era, the period to which we can trace its earliest sutras, Mahayana Buddhism soon grew to become the largest of the Buddhist

traditions. This is suggested by its very name-the Sanskrit word mahayana means

"Great Vehicle"-as is its great variety of schools and sects, which make Mahayana a

large and accommodating "vehicle" with room for Buddhists of all kinds. Mahayana

Buddhism sees itself as a tradition that penetrates the teachings of the Buddha more

deeply than does Theravada. Its careful analysis and elaboration of the many aspects of the Dharma help to explain its expansive doctrines, which are sufficiently elastic to

allow for an easy coexistence among the many sects within the Mahayana tradition.

Sometimes called "Buddhism for the masses," Mahayana, unlike Theravada, under-

stands everyone as being capable of attaining nirvana, not only monks and nuns.

Today, the great majority of Buddhists belong to the Mahayana tradition, which is the

dominant form of Buddhism in East Asia and in parts of Southeast Asia. As we have seen, Theravada Buddhism regards Gautama the Buddha as only a

man, albeit an extraordinary man. Mahayana Buddhism understands the Buddha as

something far greater: the earthly expression of ultimate reality. In the Mahayana

view, reality exists at three levels called "Buddha Bodies." At the lowest level is the

Nirmanakaya, the "earthly body," which is ultimate reality expressed rather crudely

in material forms. These can be personal and are always limited by factors such as time and space. Gautama Buddha, the man who was known to other human beings

as he traveled and taught across northern India, was ultimate reality expressed at this

level. The second Buddha Body is the Samboghakaya, or "bliss body." This is ultimate

reality expressed at what we might think of as a "heavenly" level, at which particulars

exist but are beyond space and time. This is the level at which many bodhisattvas and "celestial buddhas" exist. At its highest level, the Dharmakaya, or "truth body,"

ultimate reality exists as it is: undifferentiated, impersonal, absolute-and com-

pletely beyond all forms and labels. Mahayana Buddhists describe ultimate reality at

this level in a variety of ways: Void, Consciousness, Nirvana, Buddha Nature, and

Buddha Mind.

Understood in this way, the universe is the great setting in which the Mahayana

ideal of compassion makes enlightenment and freedom from suffering possible for everyone. Instead of having to "go it alone" in seeking nirvana, the Mahayana Buddhist

can benefit from the compassion of others.

160 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

Indeed, one of the characteristics that distinguishes Mahayana from Theravada is

its teaching that compassion for others and working to bring about their liberation is

a higher goal than attaining one's own enlightenment. M any Mahayana Buddhists

take a "bodhisattva vow" to subject themselves to rebirth until all other beings have

been liberated from suffering. Whereas Theravada Buddhism makes the arhat its spiri-

tual hero in recognition of his detachment from the world and attainment of nirvana, Mahayana recognizes as its ideal figure the compassionate and selfless bodhisattva,

who remains devoted to others in the samsaric realm of suffering.

Bodhisattvas In the early years of Buddhism, bodhisattva (Sanskrit, "enlightenment being") was a term used to denote Gautama the Buddha in the lives he lived prior to

that in which he achieved enlightenment. It was also used to refer to future buddhas (in fact, many Buddhists today look to the bodhisattva Maitreya as the next buddha

to arise in the world). Later, M ahayana Buddhists began to describe a multitude

of bodhisattvas. Some were simply people who had taken a bodhisattva vow to help

Gilded bronze Sitting Maitreya icon. Mait reya ("Loving-kindness") is the future Buddha. Like Rodin's Thinker, he is seated on his throne in deep contemplation with his hand touching his chin. Three Kingdoms period, seventh century. National Museum, Seoul, Korea.

"Manjushri, Bodhisattva of Wisdom" appearing with the flaming sword of discrimination and a copy of the Prajnaparamita Sutra in the blooming lotus of en lightenment. Kopan monastery, Kathmandu, Nepal.

The History of Buddhism 161

others. This was done by practicing the "Six Perfections" (generosity, morality, patience,

energy, meditation, and wisdom), thereby generating merit that could be transferred

to those not as advanced on the path to enlightenment. Other bodhisattvas were fig-

ures who had already attained insight and power nearly equivalent to that of a buddha.

Many legends describe them intervening in the lives of both ordinary people and as-

piring saints with their pithy wisdom, psychic powers, and skillful magic. Some of these legendary bodhisattvas no longer required human bodies, dwelling instead in heav-

enly realms and appearing to those who prayed to them. One of the earliest and most popular bodhisattvas is Manjushri, Patron of Buddhist

Scholars and Lord of Wisdom. He is often represented with his flaming sword of

discriminating insight in one hand and the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra in the other.

Without a doubt, the most widely venerated of all the bodhisattvas is the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Avalokiteshvara. A male deity in South Asia, in East Asia this bodhi-

sattva is known as Guan yin, the Goddess of Mercy. The bodhisattva Jizo (Ksitigarbha),

mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, is also popular. As guardian of the dead in

the underworld, he provides a safe journey to their next incarnation.

Mahayana Texts Mahayana schools revere a wide array of texts that build upon the Pali Canon, or Tripitaka. These vary widely in the subjects they address. Some in-

vestigate the profound states of consciousness reached during meditation. Others elab- orate on the implications of doctrines such as Interdependent Origination. Still others

analyze the qualities of bodhisattvas or explain the benefits of calling upon various

buddhas. All are thought to be thoroughly grounded in the teachings of the Buddha,

whose implications they identify and explain.

One of the earliest Mahayana texts is the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, which prob-

ably dates from the first century B.C.E. (with longer versions appearing in the centuries that followed). Between 300 and 700 C .E ., important condensed versions arose, such

'The Laughing Buddha." This form of Maitreya is popular in China, where his fatness symbolizes prosperity and joy. It is customary for Buddhists to rub his belly for good luck. Here, people try to improve their luck by touching an image of Maitreya during the New Year fair at the Huayan Temple on the Laoshan Mountain in Qingdao, China.

162 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

Frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra of Dunhuang, 868 c.E. This manuscript is the oldest known printed book in the world; it appeared 587 years before the Gutenberg Bible.

Buddhist bodhisattvas can be understood as intermediary figures who serve others. What kinds of intermediary figures exist in other religions and what are their functions?

as the Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. Both

emphasize the cultivation of bodhichitta (Sanskrit, "awakened thought") , the aspiration to achieve

enlightenment in order to benefit others. They

also emphasize the Six Perfections, which were to

become very important in relation to the ideal of compassion in the bodhisattva path.

Among the most widely venerated Buddhist

works in East Asia is the Lotus Sutra, composed

in Sanskrit in the second century c.E. While ex-

ploring the path of the bodhisattva, it places par-

ticular emphasis on skillful means, the thoughtful application of knowledge and insight in making

decisions related to ethics and spiritual progress.

Another interesting feature of the Lotus Sutra is its teaching that the death of the

Buddha did not bring about his absolute dissolution. Instead, he is an eternal entity

who remains in the cycle of samsara in order to benefit those who have not yet achieved

liberation. Another important Mahayana text, the Lankavatara Sutra (fourth century C.E.), provides a detailed study of the nature of consciousness and explores how the

mind has both the propensity to generate illusory, dualistic misperceptions and the

potential to clearly apprehend the unity of existence. Another theological innovation

appears in the Pure Land Sutras (second century c.E.), which describe Amitabha

Buddha, "The Buddha of Boundless Light," who brings those who call upon him to rebirth in his Buddha Realm, "the Pure Land." The Pure Land is a kind of heaven

where the faithful enjoy happiness and affluence. The Pure Land Sutras became foun-

dational to Pure Land Buddhism (also known as Jodo Buddhism).

Two Mahayana Schools: Pure Land and Zen In fact, Pure Land Buddhism, popular throughout East Asia, is arguably the most important of all the schools within the Mahayana tradition. Based on belief in the infinite compassion of the

Amitabha Buddha-known in China as Arnita and in Japan as Amida-this tradition is

best known for its practice of"reciting the Buddha's name" (Chinese, nianfo; Japanese,

nembutsu) as a way of guaranteeing entry into his Pure Land at death. For those

who join Amitabha in his Pure Land, there will be no more rebirth in the samsaric

world. Instead, their reward for their devotion to him is happiness in his heavenly paradise. There is also the possibility of attaining full and complete enlightenment in

Amitabha's Pure Land. Pure Land Buddhism's total reliance on the grace of Amitabha

Buddha is in stark contrast to Theravada Buddhism's insistence on self-reliance and

individual effort.

One of the best-known Mahayana Buddhist schools in the West is Zen Buddhism (known in China as Chan). Although Zen traces its teachings back to the Buddha

The History of Buddhism 163

himself, it traditionally holds that it became a distinct school when the South Indian

sage Bodhidharma (early fifth century C.E.) brought it to China. From China, it spread throughout the rest of East Asia.

Zen emphasizes practice over doctrine, considering doctrine to be a distraction

from the sudden, spontaneous experience of enlightenment called satori. Even devo-

tion to the Buddha can be an obstacle to satori. This helps to explain the well-known Zen saying: "If you meet the Buddha on the road, kill him." Any form of attachment, even to the Buddha, is an obstacle. The Zen sayings called koans present the mind with

paradoxes. Two well-known examples of koans are: "What is the sound of one hand

clapping?" and "Show me your Original Face before your mother and father were

born." Seeking to resolve these paradoxes through deliberate, logical thought, the impo-

tence of rational cognition is exposed-and ultimately abandoned. What remains is direct intuition of reality, which is enlightenment.

Zen practitioners often use artistic mediums such as poetry, calligraphy, and

garden design to enable the insights gained in meditation to find articulation outside

the constraints of language. This creative aspect of Zen, its deeply ingrained sense of

humor, and its emphasis on direct apprehension over doctrine helped to popularize

this form of Buddhism in American pop culture and subculture. This is particularly evident in its influence on the 1950s "Beat" poets Gary Snyder and Allen Ginsberg.

Zen asserts the total efficacy of the mind rather than unswerving devotion to a

savior figure as the only path to enlightenment and liberation. In other words, it rejects

the Pure Land reliance on the Buddha's compassion for salvation in favor of gaining

personal insight into the true nature of all things. Zen is the most radically self-reliant

tradition among all Buddhist traditions.

Vajrayana Buddhism Although Vajrayana Buddhism began in India in the sixth or seventh century c.E.,

it has little presence there now. Today, it is the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet,

Nepal, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Although it is generally understood as deriving from

Mahayana Buddhism, Vajrayana Buddhists say their tradition can be traced back directly to the Buddha, who began expounding its teachings sixteen years after his

enlightenment. Whatever position one might take on this issue, one thing is clear:

Vajrayana is a unique form of Buddhism that combines elements of Mahayana-and, in

particular, the bodhisattva ideal-with secret teachings found in the Tantras, ancient

Indian texts that teach esoteric knowledge about special methods for attaining en- lightenment and liberation.

The Tantric texts reveal Tantra as a system of thought and practice based on the

idea that the material world is a manifestation of divine energy. Practitioners of Tantra

seek to gain control of this energy and to channel it in ways that will allow them to

break through the confines of the ego, thereby finding enlightenment and liberation.

Some of the most prominent features of Tantra are its emphasis on secret knowledge,

164 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

What general tendencies do you see in the Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana forms of Buddhism? Do you see similar tendencies in divisions within other religions?

ritual use of mantras and mandalas, worship of deities, visualization of deities and

identification with them, and the deliberate breaking of taboos. Taken together, these

and other features of Tantra are said to give practitioners powerful and even shocking

means for shattering the illusion of self. One scholar has defined Tantra as "a tech-

nique for magically storming the gates of Buddhahood."6

As a Buddhist tradition that combines Tantra with Mahayana Buddhism and sha- manism, Vajrayana was originally conceived as a spiritual method of such intense power

that it could catapult an ordinary person to the level of an advanced bodhisattva-

a level of awareness that would normally take many eons to attain-in a single lifetime.

Adherents of this tradition refer to it as the "Diamond Vehicle" because of the clarity

of its wisdom and its ability to cut through all misperceptions of reality. It is also known as the "Thunderbolt Vehicle" because of its power and as Tantric Buddhism.

Among Vajrayana's most visible features are its lamas, the spiritual teachers (such as the Dalai Lama) in Tibetan Buddhism; its devotion to vast arrays of buddhas and

bodhisattvas and to fierce gods and goddesses; its complex rituals; and its special medi-

tation techniques, whose purpose is to propel one to the status of bodhisattva and,

ultimately, to full enlightenment and buddhahood.

The most fundamental practice in Vajrayana Buddhism is "deity yoga." This ex- ercise, which involves visualizing oneself as a deity, ultimately leads to the experi-

ence of becoming one with the deity and attaining its heightened perspective of

reality. In "guru yoga," the practitioner seeks to unite his mind with that of his guru,

or teacher, thereby gaining and experiencing his wisdom. Other forms of Vajrayana

practice take advantage of states in which the mind is more attuned to the true

nature of things and well positioned to gain enlightenment. These can occur in meditation, while dreaming, during sex, and at death. "Death yoga," for example, is

based on the belief that there are moments during the death process in which the

mind's vision is especially clear. If the dying person makes skillful use of such a moment to meditate on the "emptiness" (shunyata) of all things-that is, the ab-

sence of any enduring identity or quality in them, as the Buddha taught-then en- lightenment can be achieved.

Vajrayana Texts Tibetan Buddhism preserves two large canonical collections of sacred texts, including traditional sutras (such as those found in the Pali Canon and

Mahayana sutras), as well as Buddhist Tantras. In addition, Tibetan Buddhism has also maintained a tradition (dating back to the eleventh century C.E.) of "hidden texts." Often called "hidden treasures," these texts are attributed to Padmasambhava, the tan-

tric master who is credited with bringing Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet in the eighth

century. According to Tibetan tradition, these texts were hidden away by Padmasambhava

with the intention that each would be found at the proper time. The "treasure finders"

who discover them do so only when Padmasambhava's "time-lock" spells unravel-

always at a time when the world is ready for a new revelation.

The History of Buddhism 165

Buddhism in India During the centuries after Ashoka, Buddhism thrived in India and expanded into Central,

East, and Southeast Asia. We will soon turn to the story of Buddhism's expansion, but it is

important first to say something about its early history in its Indian homeland.

The Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana traditions all began their historical de- velopment in India. Of these three, Theravada, which traces its origins back to the

Sthavira sect in the time of the Buddhist Councils, had the least impact in India. As

we will see, its future lay instead in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana and

Vajrayana maintained a longer cultural presence in India.

The Mahayana tradition, which originated in the first centuries of the common era, was fortunate in receiving financial and political support from the Gupta Dynasty

(320-550 C.E.) of northern India. As we saw in Chapter 4 (pp. 117-118), the Guptas succeeded in bringing about a partial restoration of the great empire of Ashoka. Many

Indian monasteries adopted Mahayana ideas and practices during the Gupta period.

This is made clear by records of donations made to monasteries, some of which describe the support of monastic leaders for "Great Vehicle" teachings and the praise they of-

fered their monks for becoming Mahayana adepts. The vibrancy of Mahayana in India

is also attested to by the fact that from the fifth century onward East Asian monks

regularly traveled to India to study and bring home copies of Mahayana texts such as the

Lotus Sutra. The accounts of these East Asian pilgrim monks confirm that Mahayana

ideas and practices were widespread among Indian Buddhists. By the seventh century, many oflndia's monasteries had formally allied themselves with the growing Mahayana

tradition, with the greatest concentration of these being in northern India.

By that time, some influential teachers in northeast India were promoting Vajrayana

Buddhism. A number of Buddhist universities were founded in this period. From

these, Vajrayana was transmitted to nearby Tibet and Nepal, and subsequently to

Mongolia and Bhutan, as well as to parts of East and Southeast Asia.

The Decline of Buddhism in India Even as Mahayana and Vajrayana were flour- ishing in India, the forces that were to bring about their decline had already been set in

motion. The fall of the Gupta Empire in the mid-sixth century brought political frag-

mentation and an end to much of the royal support and protection given to Buddhists

and Buddhist institutions in earlier years. At the same time, Indian Buddhism had to

contend with a resurgence of Hinduism. The Hindu Brahminical establishment began

making concerted efforts to regain and enforce its supremacy in Indian society and culture. In southern India, Buddhism was challenged by the flourishing bhakti move-

ment (Chapter 4). By the tenth century, Hinduism had won back both royal and

popular support across India, and Buddhist monasteries had fallen into a decline from

which they would never recover.

The final stage in the decline oflndian Buddhism was initiated by Muslim Turks,

whose raids into northern India in the eleventh and twelfth centuries disrupted all of

166 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

Lokeshwa ra peers out in all directions from the temple towers at the Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia. These colossal faces were identified both as Shiva and as Avalokiteshvara by their worshippers.

society but were particularly damaging to Buddhist monasteries and universities. The Turkish destruction of the Buddhist universities at Nalanda and Vikramasila around

1200 delivered the final blow. When the Tibetan Buddhist monk Dharmasvamin

wrote of his travels in India the mid-thirteenth century, he despaired that almost no one

would openly profess to being a Buddhist. Nevertheless, small pockets of Buddhism did

endure in India, particularly in its southern regions, until the seventeenth century.

Buddhism Beyond India Even as the light of Buddhism dimmed in India, it was thriving and spreading along three major routes that took it far from its homeland: a southern transmission into

Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, a northern transmission into Central Asia and East Asia,

and a western transmission in the colonial period that brought Buddhism into contact

with Europe and North America.

The Southern Transmission Sri Lankan legend recounts that King Devanampiyatissa (250-210 B.C.E.) was converted to Buddhism by Ashoka's own son, Mahinda. The newly converted king had a huge monastery complex built in his capital at Anuradhapura.

Ashoka's daughter, Sanghamitta, also came to the island to plant a sapling from the Buddha's bodhi tree and to establish the first order of Sri Lankan nuns.

From the beginning, monastic institutions were strong in Sri Lanka. Monasteries

competed with each other for royal patronage, sometimes causing disputes and schisms

within the Sangha. Despite such periodic disruptions, Sri Lanka

has been renowned for more than a millennium as a bastion of

Theravada Buddhism. In Burma, the pivotal moment for Buddhism occurred in

1057 when Anwar, the Barnar king of Pagan, invaded the Mon

kingdom of the south to establish the first Burmese empire

(1057-1287). Along with other spoils of his conquest, he carried

off Buddhist relics (believed to be fragments of the Buddha's remains), Pali texts, and a retinue of monks to whom he granted

control of the Sangha. As a result, Theravada became the state

religion of this new empire. These events spurred the spread of

Theravada Buddhism throughout Southeast Asia. In Thailand,

Laos, and Cambodia between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries,

an earlier mingling of various Buddhist sects, Hinduism, and indigenous traditions gave way to state-sponsored Theravada.

It is important to note that Mahayana also had a significant

place in the history of these regions. In Cambodia, kings fre-

quently identified themselves as bodhisattvas, and the worship of Lokeshvara (another name for Avalokiteshvara) was of prime

importance during the latter part of the Angkor period (twelfth- fifteenth centuries C.E.). Mahayana also reigned supreme in

The History of Buddhism 167

Indonesia and on the Malay Peninsula. By the seventh century, sites such as Srivijaya in Sumatra were important centers of Buddhist training and

attracted monks from as far away as China. The renowned Indian

monk Atisha (982-1054) came to study in Srivijaya under the

great master Dharmakirti before journeying in 1042 to Tibet,

where he founded the Kadampa sect of Vajrayana, from which

the Gelugpa school of the Dalai Lamas eventually arose. In Java, Mahayana Buddhism was promoted by the native

Sailendra Dynasty, which ruled much of Indonesia, including

Sumatra and Bali, in the eighth and ninth centuries. One of

the great monuments built by the Sailendras is the Borobudur

Temple (c. 800). This gigantic complex includes 540 statues of the Buddha, some of them hidden within perforated screens of

stone. There are also 2,672 relief sculpture panels depicting the Buddha.

Buddhism thrived alongside Hinduism in Indonesia until both were eclipsed

by Islam, originally introduced by Muslim traders, in the thirteenth through fif-

teenth centuries.

The Northern Transmission Buddhist communities were also founded in Central Asia during the time of Ashoka's reign (c. 272-231 B.C.E.). Ashoka sent Buddhist mis-

sionaries to Afghanistan. Legend says that he sent his son, Kustana, to the region

northwest of Tibet, where he founded the Buddhist kingdom of Khotan in 240 B.C.E.

Later, the Central Asian ruler Kanishka I (r. c. 110-139 C.E.), after inheriting the por-

tions of Bactria and northwest India conquered by his Kushan predecessors, is said to have embraced and vigorously supported Buddhist tradition in the second century

C.E. Some of the earliest Buddhist images date from the period of his reign. Indeed,

the oldest extant image of the Buddha appears on a coin of Kanishka.

Buddhism Comes to East Asia Buddhism may have first appeared in China as early as the first century c.E., brought by monks and missionaries from Central Asia who accompanied merchants along the Silk Road to China. When Buddhism arrived

in the refined world of China's Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.), it was received as

an exotic import.

China The first dated proof of Buddhism's entry into China is found in the Han chron- icles, which assign this event to 65 C.E. In that year, they say, the Han emperor Ming

dreamed of an encounter with a golden-robed flying figure his diviners later identified as

the Buddha. The chronicles also describe imperial relatives and aristocrats making offer-

ings to the Buddha. Three years later, the emperor built the famous White Horse Temple

in his capital city of Luoyang. According to a well-known tale, he did so to honor two missionary monks from Central Asia who brought the first Buddhist texts to make their

way into China on the back of a white horse. Translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese

The earliest known image of the Buddha appears on the reverse of a coin minted by the second-century Kushan king, Kanishka I. Previously, the Buddha was not ever portrayed in physical form but was depicted more as an absence than a presence, symbolized with images such as footprints or an empty chair.

168 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

Borobudur Temple, Java, Indonesia, c. 800 c.E. Here, one of the hidden statues of the Buddha is revea led. In order to see others, pi lgrims wou ld have to peer through holes in bel l-shaped stupas, such as those visible in the background.

began as soon as they appeared in China. This was especially true of texts relating to meditation and breath control techniques.

These were of great interest to Daoists (Chapter 8), who at first

regarded Buddhists as like-minded seekers of physical health and

immortality. Daoist interest in the new religion diminished only

when Buddhism's teachings were better understood and after its differences with Daoism had become apparent.

To a great degree, Buddhism established itself in China

through adaptation and accommodation to the Chinese cul-

tural landscape. The Central Asian missionary translator An

Shigao is a good example of this adjustment. He was one of the

first to translate Mahayana works into Chinese in the latter half

of the second century C.E. Not unexpectedly, the process of translation often produced a fair amount of deviation from the

original sources. Early on, for example, Daoist equivalents stood

in for Buddhist philosophical terms; only later were new Chinese

words coined to better convey abstract Buddhist concepts.

After the fall of the Han Dynasty (c. 220 C.E.), the Chinese empire split into a north-south division that lasted another

three and a half centuries. The north was ruled by successive

groups of non-Chinese tribes, while the south was colonized by

the fleeing native Chinese elites who also founded their successive dynasties there. The

Chinese Buddhist community experienced a similar split. Many Buddhist clerics and

their followers stayed in the north, while others followed the Chinese authorities and fled to the south, taking the Dharma into new territory, where it quickly found ac-

ceptance among locals. Confucianism (Chapter 8), which had always supported the

aims of the state, had lost some of its influence in the wake of China's political upheav-

als, and Buddhism was primed to take its place. Moreover, Buddhism appealed to the

Chinese in both the north and the south because it reflected the contemplative and mystic introversion of native Daoism. In northern China, Buddhist intellectualism

had given way to an emphasis on practice. "Barbarian" kings who ruled in the vacuum

created by the fleeing native Chinese rulers patronized Buddhist ascetics and magicians

who had roots in Central Asian traditions. In the south, there was an intense expression

of faith and piety in the plea for Buddha's compassion, as well as an incipient move-

ment toward meditation and enlightenment. The golden age of Buddhism in China lasted from the fifth to the eighth centuries C.E.

As we have seen, many Mahayana texts were translated during this period into Chinese

by eminent scholars, both native and foreign. Pilgrim monks from China also

took long and often dangerous journeys to India in search of Buddhist wisdom from

its point of origin. New sutras were authored by Chinese patriarchs to proclaim equal

authority with the Indian and Central Asian texts. Of the Mahayana schools of today, many took on their definitive forms in China. In particular, the M ahayana convention

The History of Buddhism 169

of devotion to a particular text can be clearly seen as informing the primary character

of these schools.

The two major schools that would eventually arise to signal the final stage in the

Chinese transformation of Buddhism into a native faith were Pure Land and Chan

Qapanese, Zen, Korean, Sean). Pure Land appeared at the start of the fifth century

C.E. According to its own tradition, Chan was introduced to China by the legendary Bodhidharma in the fifth century C.E. It was in the eighth century, however, that it began

to make its mark on the Chinese religious scene thanks to a succession of Chinese

patriarchs (masters of a particular sect of Buddhism), most notably the Sixth Patriarch,

named Huineng (c. 638-713 C.E.). An illiterate firewood vendor who allegedly attained enlightenment after merely hearing a neighbor's chanting of the Diamond Sutra,

Huineng gained full patriarchal status after correctly discerning the ultimate message of the Buddha's original teaching.

Korea and Japan Buddhism arrived in Korea in the fourth century c.E. and closely emulated the text-based Chinese systems by developing the Five Doctrinal Schools.

The new religion from China soon blended with native Korean shamanism, with the

result that it took on a very distinctive flavor. Many Buddhist temples, for example,

also became centers for the veneration of Korean mountain spirits and local deities. Moreover, Korean Buddhists eventually adopted a holistic approach to their belief

by ignoring many of the sectarian differences that plagued the Indian and Chinese

Buddhist establishments. Sean (Chan, Zen) has long been the dominant form of

Buddhism in Korea.

In Japan, Buddhism was first introduced in 552 c.E., when the Korean king of Paekche presented Emperor Kinmei ofJapan (r. 531-571) with a gift of sutras and an icon of the Buddha. The leader of a clan with the least vested interest in native Shinto

(Chapter 9), Kinmei embraced Buddhism and promoted its adoption by the imper-

ial family. Its success was evidenced by the accomplishment of Prince Shotoku

(574-622), a prominent member of this clan. According to tradition, Prince Shotoku produced for the newly institutionalized Japanese state a constitution that stressed

the ideals of the Buddhist Three Jewels as well as the Confucian virtue of harmony. By the Nara period (710-784), six schools of Buddhism had been imported directly to Japan from China. In the Heian period (794-1185), Tantric Buddhism and the Tendai sect were added, and by the Kamakura period (1185-1333), Pure Land, Zen, and the Nichiren sect came to essentially define the sectarian complexity of Buddhism in Japan.

Among these, Pure Land would later have the most enduring and greatest impact

on Japanese culture and values. Today, its presence is ubiquitous in almost every

Japanese home. Zen Buddhism is embraced by the Japanese cultural and military elite and

has influenced many Japanese art forms.

Vietnam Mahayana Buddhism also made major inroads in Vietnam. Because of Vietnam's cultural and geographical proximity to China (it was twice annexed

170 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

by China and sent tribute to China for much of its premodern history), Vietnamese

Buddhism shares a great deal with its Chinese counterpart. Because Vietnam served

as the point of convergence between the northern and southern routes of Buddhist

expansion out oflndia (north from China and south from Sri Lanka and Indochina),

Vietnamese Buddhism displays Theravada influence as well.

Tibet Although Buddhism took root in Tibet later than in China, its transmission came directly from India. Since its arrival in Tibet (around 650 C.E.), the region has remained a stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism. Initially, the new religion met with

resistance, for the shamans and court wizards of the indigenous Tibetan Bon reli- gion had strong influence over the nobility. But legend has it that when King Songtsen

Gampo (c. 617-649) arranged alliances with the king of Nepal and the emperor of China through marriages to their daughters, he found that his new wives were Buddhists. Their

presence began to soften Tibetan attitudes to Buddhism, and so it was not long before

the king built Tibet's first Buddhist temple and made arrangements for the translation

of sutras into Tibetan. As monks and teachers poured into Tibet, Buddhism flourished.

Trisong Detsen (c. 742-798), Tibet's first Buddhist king, consecrated the Samye monas- tery in 775 C .E . and also ordained members of the Tibetan aristocracy.

In the early ninth century, Buddhism was again under siege in Tibet and forced

underground during the reign of King Lang Darma (r. 838-842 C.E.). When the king was assassinated and his dynasty collapsed, Buddhism was blamed for instilling weak-

ness in the military. The scholarly monk Atisa, who arrived in Tibet in 1042 c.E., provided Tibet with an effective synthesis of the Theravada, Mahayana, and Tantric

forms of Buddhism and united the Tibetan Sangha. Atisa instituted the practice of formal initiation into lineages of tantric teachers, which still characterizes Tibetan

Vajrayana today. During the thirteenth century, Tibetan Buddhist masters entered into a "patron-

priest" relationship with the Khans (descendants of Genghis Khan) who ruled an

empire that extended from China to eastern Europe. In 1578 C.E. the head of the Gelugpa monastery, Sonam Gyatsho (1543-1588), converted Altan Khan, the ruler of the Mongols. The Great Khan bestowed upon Sonam Gyatsho the title Dalai Lama

(Mongolian, "Ocean [of Wisdom] Teacher"). Because this title was later assigned to

two of his predecessors, tradition calls him the third Dalai Lama. It was the fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682) who took full advantage of Mongol patronage. Backed by Mongol troops, he took over all of Tibet and sent other sects with conflicting political aspira- tions fleeing to other parts of the Himalayas. By the seventeenth century, with the

Dalai Lama as the primary ruler of Tibet, great efforts were made to identify and

reinstate him in this role each time he died and took rebirth.

Across all of these regions and countries, Buddhism adapted to local cultures and

integrated indigenous beliefs. These patterns of transformation have also extended to

Buddhism's encounter with Europe and America in the modern and postmodern contexts.

The History of Buddhism 171

The Western Transmission It has been during only the last two centuries that Buddhist traditions have come to the attention of the West. Many of those who were among the first to understand Buddhist

teachings and practices and share them with Western audiences were also among the

first Western converts to Buddhism. These early Western Buddhists both anticipated

and inspired the growing popularity of the religion in Europe and America today. Some say that the story of the Western transmission begins in the early nineteenth

century, when T. W Rhys-Davids (1843-1922), a British colonial administrator, first "dis- covered" Buddhist teaching while stationed in Sri Lanka. His translations of Buddhist

texts sparked the interest of an English-speaking audience, many of whom saw the Buddha as embodying the modern values of the era as a radically independent, rugged individual

who relied only on his own introspection and insight. These early Western readers of

Buddhist texts preferred to characterize Buddhism primarily as a philosophy that radically

contrasted with the perceived antirational dogmas of Western religion.

In recent years, Western adherents have increasingly come to value a deeper com- mitment to particular lineages of Buddhist teachers and a more well-rounded under-

standing of the subtle complexities of specific systems of Buddhist practice.

Although Chinese and Japanese immigrants had established Buddhist institutions

on American soil many years earlier, the first notable conversion of an American to

Buddhism did not occur until 1893. In that year, Charles T. Strauss formally con-

verted, following a series of lectures on Buddhism delivered at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago. But it was the American subcultures of the 1950s and 1960s,

and particularly those of the Beats and hippies, that helped catalyze a deep and abiding

As the young Thich Nhat Hanh, a Vietnamese monk, looks on, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., calls for a halt to the bombing of Vietnam (May 31, 1966).

In 1963, the Vietnamese Buddhist monk Thich Quang Due, while seated in meditation, burned himself to death in Saigon's Market Square to protest his govern- ment's religious policies.

172 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

World Buddhist population.

0 km 2000 4000

0 miles 2000

NORTH AMERICA

4000

interest in Buddhism among Americans. The perception of Buddhist leaders as political dissidents and peace activists helped to inspire new generations of American Buddhists.

Martin Luther King Jr.'s nonviolent approach to civil rights activism was informed in

part by Buddhist thought and practice. King's admiration for the Vietnamese Buddhist

monk and peace activist Thich Nhat Hanh (b. 1926), whose commitment to commu-

nity service helped to heal the emotional wounds of many American veterans of the Vietnam War, led King to nominate Hanh for a Nobel Peace Prize in 1967. The ever-

growing popularity of the fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), who was

awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, also exemplifies the identification of Buddhism

with peaceful political dissidence in America.

Buddhists in the World Today Today, teachings about the Dharma are delivered as podcasts. Apps that help Buddhists

time their meditations or look up specific sutras are available for mobile devices. In

Japan, vending machines sell pocket-sized plastic replicas of some of the most revered

Buddhist icons. Chinese animated hagiographies of saints and bodhisattvas can be

easily downloaded. In America, Trey Parker and M att Stone, creators of the television

show South Park, offer online versions of old Zen lectures by Alan Watts (a twentieth- century philosopher and proponent of Buddhism), accompanied by their own "cartoon

commentaries."7 In the world of American comic books, an increasing number of su-

perheroes are turning Buddhist (such as "Xorn" of the X-Men; even Batman has been

revealed to have received Buddhist training in Tibet). Even as far back as the 1930s and

SOUTH AMERICA

World Buddhist population (%)

1-15 15-55 55-70 70-100

AUSTRALIA

1940s there were mystic American heroes trained in Buddhist

practice, such as the Shadow and the Green Lama, who appeared

in pulp magazines, radio serials, and comic books.

Today, no scribes are needed to copy sutras, as the vast ma-

jority of the Buddhist canon is available online. It is possible to

visit virtual temples and meditation halls without stepping out- side your front door. New technologies and media challenge

Buddhists to adapt, expand, and explore new environments.

But Buddhism has encountered a multitude of cultures in its

spread throughout Asia (and beyond) over the past 2,500 years

and has always found skillful ways of applying new tech-

nologies. Buddhists continue to develop innovative ways to in- tegrate modern realities into an ancient Buddhist worldview, as

they convey traditional teachings through contemporary media

that preserve the sacred sutras, stories, and songs that comprise

Buddhist traditions.

BUDDHISM AS A WAY OF LIFE Buddhists put the teachings of the Buddha into practice in

many ways. Seeking to observe the ethical principles he taught,

they aspire to proper conduct in daily life. Seeking to observe

Buddhism as a Way of Life 173

the workings of the mind and to see reality more dearly, many make use of meditative A modern Cambodian disciplines. Some become members of monastic orders. All Buddhists participate in monk at work on his

festivals that commemorate important events and engage in rituals that mark import- computer.

ant transitions in life, from birth to death. In this part of our investigation, we will look at several Buddhist practices in order to gain an understanding of the meaning

they have for followers of the Buddha.

Who Is a Buddhist? You will recall that the first followers of the Buddha were the five ascetics who had once practiced severe austerities with him. Convinced by his example and by his

Sermon in the Deer Park that he had found what they, too, had been looking for, they

became the first members of the Sangha. Their formal conversion was solemnized by

their recitation of the "Three Refuges," also known as the "Three Jewels":

I take refuge in the Buddha.

I take refuge in the Dharma.

I take refuge in the Sangha.

Since then, all followers of the Buddha have affirmed their Buddhist identity by recit-

ing this formula, Buddhism's most fundamental ritual practice and the closest thing the Buddhist tradition has to a creed. The Three Refuges are recited throughout one's

·~ •

174 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

life, and often daily. To take refuge in the Buddha

~~,t t'-: • -t;. . ' . t' -~ ......

' - ' ~,:~~ -. . ~~ .:" ; \

4 ~

I

is to acknowledge the Buddha as the supreme

example of the potential of human life. To take

refuge in the Dharma is to recognize it as the path

to enlightenment and an end to suffering. To take

refuge in the Sangha is to recognize one's reliance on the Buddhist community-and, in particu-

lar, the order of monks-as the custodian of

the Dharma, responsible for its preservation and

transmission.

.. - / .

. . , i).

r l i· : , r ·i

J ·• l .,., f?' --

Perna Chodron is an American-born Buddhist nun whose books, such as When Things Fall Apart: Heart Advice for Difficult Times, address skillful ways to cope with everyday suffering and how to keep one's heart open in the face of adversity.

I

' --"':- . ··~!) ~ '(

f

' /'·

-- The Buddha's Teachings on Ethics and "Skillful Means" As we have seen, the path to nirvana requires

ethical conduct. This may be as simple as serving

the Buddhist community and supporting its in-

stitutions. Some Buddhists formally commit them- selves to observing the Five Precepts. These are (1) not killing or causing harm, (2) not stealing, (3) not committing inappropriate sexual acts, (4) not lying, and (5) not using

intoxicants.

Beyond these formal precepts, the Buddha also taught a practical approach to

ethical conduct in which the first and most important consideration is one's intention.

Conduct intended to benefit oneself or others, or at least not to do harm, is ethical conduct. To put this another way, ethical conduct is conduct that does not arise from

the Three Poisons of greed, hatred, and delusion. For the Buddha, the distinction be-

tween "ethical" and "unethical" was not something that could be discerned with refer-

ence to traditional standards of"right" and "wrong." Such standards, which often hold

that an action is always right or wrong, do not necessarily result in ethical behavior when applied in particular circumstances. Thus, one must bring creativity and insight to every situation in order to skillfully consider one's intention in determining how to

behave. In later forms of Buddhism, upaya (Sanskrit, "skillful means") was developed into a formal practice that encourages the individual to thoughtfully apply knowledge

and insight in making decisions related to ethics and spiritual progress.

Meditation and the Cultivation of Mind The Buddha encouraged his followers to practice meditation, which enables practitio-

ners to identify, understand, and eliminate patterns of thought that perpetuate desire

and suffering. In fact, it is sometimes said that the full implications of the Buddha's teaching cannot be understood without devoting oneself to meditative practice. Of course, most of the Buddha's followers were monks and nuns who had given up ordinary

life in order to devote themselves entirely to monastic practices. For them, there was

no obstacle to meditation. Others, who continued to meet their obligations in ordinary

society, had to be content with offering support to monastic communities in the hope of

Buddhism as a Way of Life 175

gaining merit and a more favorable rebirth. This remains the case today. Most Buddhists

do not meditate regularly. Instead, they seek to make spiritual progress by supporting Buddhist causes, including monastic orders, and by doing their best to put Buddhist

principles into practice in their daily lives. They are inspired by the great achievements

of monastics who have developed a remarkable range of meditative techniques, as well

as an impressive body of literature on meditation, over the past 2,500 years.

Meditation: Shamatha and Vipassana From the beginning, Buddhists have made extensive use of two basic types of meditation: shamatha (Sanskrit, "calm abid-

ing" or "stabilizing meditation") and vipassana (Sanskrit, vipashyana, "insight"). These

are still widely practiced today and are often employed by the same practitioner. Both

are practiced in a variety of forms by the many Buddhist sects. Shamatha cultivates the ability to focus awareness upon a single object of concen-

tration. This focal point is very often the breath, but any object or sensation is appro-

priate as it is concentration upon something that matters, not the nature of the thing

itself. Focused awareness stabilizes the mind, making it less easily disturbed by the

disruptive influences of thoughts and feelings.

By comparison, the object of vipassana meditation, often called "mindfulness meditation" or "insight meditation," is awareness itsel£ Typically, the practitioner begins

with a focus on the breath, which brings focused concentration and a stable mind.

These make it possible to move beyond the thoughts, feelings, daydreams, and other

concerns that normally occupy the attention of the mind and to calmly observe, as if

from a distance, the unfolding of all mental and physical phenomena-neither obsess-

ing, reacting, nor judging, but simply allowing them to be. In doing so, the practitioner gains insight into the workings of compulsive and restless thought and the ability to

move past the suffering they cause.

Walking Meditation The Buddha taught that there are four postures in which one should practice meditation: sitting, standing, walking, and lying down. Any activity,

he asserted, is an opportunity for meditation. Many Buddhist traditions encourage walking meditation as a means for making the serenity and insight found in the medi-

tation hall possible out in the everyday world as well. The foundation of this practice

is simply being mindful of and content with what one is doing:

When walking, just walk.

When sitting, just sit.

Above all, don't wobble.

-Yunmen (d. 949 c.E.; Tang Dynasty founder of the Yunmen school of Chan

Buddhism)8

According to the Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh, who has written extensively

on meditation, walking meditation involves relinquishing the impulse to "get somewhere"

176 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

A large contemporary image of the Walking Buddha in Thailand. Thai images often stylistically craft his right arm to represent the graceful swaying trunk of an elephant.

and to practice instead the mindful enjoyment of each breath and each

step. To emphasize the spontaneity and naturalness of walking meditation,

he often alludes to the Chinese Zen master Linji (d. 866), who taught that

whereas most people think it is a miracle to walk across burning hot coals,

to walk on water, or to walk through the air, the real miracle is simply to

be walking upon the earth. Some forms of Buddhism, such as Zen, are quite formal in their

approach to walking meditation. In most Zendos, or "meditation halls," meditators execute prescribed movements very slowly and deliberately in

order to be completely aware of each subtle shift in posture, breathing, and

sensation.

Visualization, Deity Yoga, and Inner Mandalas Another important form of meditation entails the practice of visualization. Practices involving the mental contemplation of the body of the Buddha developed early in the

history of Buddhism. The visualization ofbuddhas and bodhisattvas came

to occupy a central place in the meditation practices of such Mahayana

sects as Pure Land Buddhism. But undoubtedly it is in Vajrayana Buddhism

that a true virtuosity in employing visualization techniques developed.

By means of a combination of visualization and mantra recitation, "deity yoga" (as it in known in the West) or "actualization" (as it is called in

Tibet) creates conditions in which the very substance of the practitioner's

mind comes to embody the deity that is invoked.

Other visualization techniques employ the contemplation of mandalas. Mandalas are circular cosmological diagrams that often map out how a Buddhist deity or group

of deities manifests both in and as the universe. These deities embody the function and interaction of archetypal forces within the sphere of being. As with deities,

mandalas are also venerated externally as tankas ("tapestries"), sand paintings, and

three-dimensional models, such as the Borobudur Stupa in Java.

Mantra, Liturgical Ritual, and Chanting Perhaps the most widespread of Buddhist rituals is chanting, which is practiced by

almost every Buddhist group. The Three Refuges, in which Buddhists declare their

reliance on the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, are often chanted. Most Buddhist services include liturgical chanting that reflects the philosophical orientation of that

particular tradition. The content of the chant and its function can vary greatly. Some

forms of chanting consist of entire sutras, whereas others focus on key passages in

particular philosophical texts. Still other varieties of chant make use of ritual formulas

or simple mantras (sacred sounds or syllables).

Conversion and Ordination As noted earlier, most Buddhists consider a simple heartfelt recitation of the Three Refuges to be sufficient in declaring oneself a "Buddhist." A striking example of this

Buddhism as a Way of Life 177

occurred in 1956 at Pune, India, when thousands of protesting dalits, the oppressed "untouchables" of Hinduism's lowest caste, recited the Three Refuges and converted

to Buddhism en masse under the leadership of the dalit activist Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956).

In most cases, Buddhists seeking to make their conversion public or to be ordained

as priests, monks, or nuns participate in formal rites conducted in the presence of the Sangha and a revered senior monk, lama, or spiritual teacher.

Typically, there are two different levels of ordination as a monk or nun. The first

is that of the novice, which can be conferred on children as young as seven or eight in

Theravada. The novice agrees to abide by ten precepts and essentially functions as a

student under the direct guidance of a Preceptor. The second, higher ordination of an

adult monk requires candidates to be at least twenty years of age. In both cases (but to varying degrees) the recipient of the ordination makes a commitment to embody,

maintain, and transmit the Buddhist Dharma.

At the beginning of this chapter we had a glimpse into the form and structure of

an ordination ceremony in which the nun Jisen became a priest. The authority conferred

in this kind of ceremony is primarily transmitted through the formal acknowledgment

that the initiate is part of a lineage of teachers that can be traced directly back to the Buddha. Sometimes a scroll or document tracing this spiritual genealogy is presented to

the newly ordained. We can imagine how moving it must be to see one's name at the

bottom of a list headed by the Buddha, indicating that one has been formally admitted

into the Buddha's own "Dharma family."

Women in Buddhism For much of its history, Buddhism's institutions were formed and controlled primarily

by men. In mainstream monasteries nuns did not have much of a place in the preser-

vation and transmission of the Dharma. But Buddhist women did take on more cen-

tral roles outside of monasteries, both as lay Buddhists and as wandering ascetics, and

their significance is acknowledged in many sources. Powerful political figures such

as the Empress Wu Zetian of Tang Dynasty China (late seventh century C.E.) and Camadevi (seventh century C.E.), the legendary queen of H aripunjana in northern Thailand, have left an indelible mark in the history of Buddhism as patrons whose

support and example helped to spread Buddhist traditions.

But beyond the historical influence of Buddhist women as powerful secular

leaders, several important female spiritual leaders emerged even at the very begin-

nings of Buddhism. In the early formation of the Pali Canon, one collection called the Khuddaka Nikaya canonized a group of early saints in two collections of poems:

the Theragatha ("Poems of Male Elders") and the Therigatha ("Poems of Female

Elders"). Thus, even in Buddhism's very early years, the tradition acknowledged and

preserved the compositions of its women saints. Later, other women saints, particularly

in Vajrayana Buddhism, stood out as great virtuosos and innovators of the highest

esoteric practices.

178 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

In 2003 there were approximately 125,000 Buddhist nuns worldwide. However, centuries ago lineages of Buddhists nuns in many regions either disappeared (such as

in the eleventh century in Sri Lanka) or never existed in the first place (as in Thailand).

Only in China, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam have nuns traditionally been given full

ordination and regarded with the same respect as their male counterparts. In other

countries, only novitiate ordination (that is a beginning or trial ordination) has been conferred on women. Elsewhere, women have not been eligible for ordination at all.

In Tibet, for example, nuns were originally allowed to take only the vows prescribed

for laypeople.

Resistance to women taking an active role in Buddhist monastic institutions goes all

the way back to the time when Mahaprajapati, the Buddha's stepmother, petitioned for

women to be allowed ordination. Though the Buddha eventually relented, he noted that allowing nuns into the order would only hasten the demise of the Buddhist teaching. Even

those regions that allowed nuns placed additional constraints on female monastics.

Where there have been some nunneries attached to Theravada monasteries, the

nuns have often been relegated to serving the domestic needs of monks, primarily by

cooking and cleaning for them. Some women, like the maechi (female renunciants) of

Thailand, have preferred a solitary ascetic life to the limitations of ordination in the male-dominated monastic institutions.

Recently, in most of the Theravada world, full ordination of women has begun to

be revived. Women renouncers have been proactive in these regions, adopting ascetic

disciplines and formal vows on their own or forming small groups of female practitio-

ners. And there has been an explosion in the number of notable women Buddhist

leaders in the West, who have profoundly influenced and empowered Buddhist women around the world. Because of their efforts, new opportunities for women to receive

ordination have begun to open up in many countries as women are transforming the

Buddhist institutional landscape.

One such example is that of Ayya Khema (1923-1997), who organized the First Council of Buddhist Nuns. Born to a Jewish family in Berlin, Ayya Khema was evacu-

ated from Germany along with hundreds of other children in 1938. Her parents even- tually escaped to China, where she was reunited with them in Shanghai. When the

Japanese invaded Shanghai, the family was placed in a prisoner-of-war camp. Ayya

Khema's father died in the camp before the Americans liberated it. After these life-

altering experiences, Ayya Khema traveled extensively and spent time studying medi-

tation in the Himalayas. The experiences that grew out of her meditation practice led to her taking ordination as a Buddhist nun in Sri Lanka in 1983. She founded an inter- national training center for Buddhist nuns in 1983 in Sri Lanka, and in Germany she helped organize thirty-seven different meditation groups. But Ayya Khema is most

widely remembered for organizing the first international council for nuns in Buddhist

history. This conference led to the founding of a worldwide Buddhist women's organ-

ization called Sakyadhita ("Daughters of the Buddha"). In May 1987 Ayya Khema became the first Buddhist nun to ever address the United N ations.

Buddhism as a Way of Life 179

Sacred Places and Objects of Veneration Like adherents of other religions, Buddhists recognize special places and objects as

having a sacred character that makes them worthy of reverence and veneration. The

most important of these are places where particularly important events in the life of

the Buddha occurred and that contain the relics of the Buddha. The principal sacred sites in Buddhism are Lumbini (in modern Nepal), the site of

the Buddha's birth; Bodh Gaya, the place where he attained enlightenment; Sarnath,

where he preached his first sermon, the "Sermon in the Deer Park"; and Kusinara, the

place of the Buddha's death and passing into parinirvana. These sacred places are vis-

ited by thousands of pilgrims each year. According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutra, the Buddha's followers collected the

relics that remained after his cremation. Apparently, they intended to keep all of the

relics in a single place, but conflict arose when local kings made claims to them. In the

end, they were divided into eight portions so that they could be distributed equally

among the claimants. According to another account, in the time of Ashoka the relics were divided again, this time into 84,000 portions that were taken to all parts of the

Indian subcontinent. Although we cannot be certain of the accuracy of every detail in

these stories, there is good evidence that soon after his death the relics of the Buddha

were divided and placed in reliquary mounds called stupas. In time, the custom arose of placing the relics of Buddhist saints in stupas as well. Today, most stupas are large

and impressive hemispherical structures that resemble the original mounds built on the sites where they stand. As symbols of the achievements of others in grasping truth

and bringing an end to suffering, the relics they preserve have a powerful and inspiring

effect on those who venerate them.

Because the Buddha said that his teaching would serve as his Dharma-body after

his passing, many Buddhists venerate the sacred texts in which the Dharma is pre-

served. For example, some Mahayana groups place manuscripts of sutras in images of the Buddha or in the structures of shrines, making them a part of ritual worship. The

thirteenth-century Japanese teacher Nichiren advocated worship of the title of the

Lotus Sutra in the form of a calligraphic mandala.

Early Buddhist arts and artifacts tended to represent the Buddha more as an ab-

sence than a presence. For example, the Buddha was often indicated by an empty

chair, a pair of footprints, or the bodhi tree he sat under when he obtained enlighten- ment. In time, though, Buddhists began to make extensive use of images to recall

more vividly the physical form of the Buddha and to visualize appearances of other

buddhas and bodhisattvas. Many of these images make use of subtle iconographic

cues-such as hand gestures and postures-to symbolize events and functions associ-

ated with the Buddha and other enlightened beings.

From the beginning, Buddhists also venerated images that represent important events in the life of the Buddha and aspects of his teaching. To this day, in fact, fig trees

continue to be objects of reverence, as it was beneath the shade of a fig tree that the

Buddha achieved enlightenment. Another commonly venerated symbol is the wheel.

180 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

The Great Stupa of Sanchi, India. Early Andhra

Dynasty, first century B.C.E.

Cherry trees in front of Goju-No-To Pagoda. Built in 1407 on the island of Miyajima, this

Japanese adaptation of the Indian stupa has a central shaft with stylized umbrellas that extends down through all five stories to a reliquary casket below.

With its eight spokes, the "Dharma Wheel" is an ancient Buddhist symbol that

represents the Noble Eightfold Path. The prayer wheel, commonly used in Vajrayana

ritual, is a device filled with printed scrolls believed to emit thousands of prayers and

mantra recitations when they are rotated.

Holidays and Festivals The Buddhist year is filled with holidays, festivals, and other special observances. In

most countries, their dates are determined by the lunar calendar and therefore fall

on different days each year. The most important occasions are commemorations of key events in the life of the Buddha, but there are also celebrations of the birthdays

of bodhisattvas, remembrances of historical events, and seasonal observances that have

taken on a religious significance.

Vesak By far, the most important Buddhist celebration is Vesak. Although it origin- ally commemorated the day on which the Buddha was born, Vesak has also become a celebration of the Buddha's death and parinirvana. It occurs on the day of the first full moon in the month of Vesakha, usually in May. On Vesak, Theravada Buddhists decorate local shrines and light lamps to symbolize the Buddha's enlightenment and the

spreading of his insight throughout the world. People send out greeting cards that

depict key events in the life of the Buddha. Some lay Buddhists stay up all night in

Buddhism as a Way of Life 181

meditation as the Buddha had done on the night of his

enlightenment.

In Tibet this festival is called Saga Dawa. Tibetan Buddhists

light lamps and, like Buddhists in other countries, express their

devotion by circumambulating shrines and stupas. They also

show reverence and seek to acquire merit through repeated

prostrations-lying face down in supplication before a sacred site or object. Many Tibetan Buddhists observe Saga Dawa by

taking turns bathing an image of the infant Buddha. In Japan,

Vesak is known as Hana Matsuri ("The Flower Festival"). Cele-

brated on April 8, when it coincides with the blooming of the

cherry blossoms, Hana Mutsuri also involves the practice of bathing images of the infant Buddha. In some regions, this

bathing ritual occurs at other times of the year, usually as a rite

of purification.

Asala In Theravada Buddhism, Asala is a holiday that originally marked the beginning of the three-month rainy season. During this time, monks would cease their wandering and remain in a

monastery for an extended period of meditation and introspec-

tion. Today, many lay Buddhists in Burma and Thailand take

temporary ordinations and live as monks for this three-month period. Asala also commemorates the "First Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma,"

when the Buddha gave his first teaching. Many sermons are given to laypeople at this time.

Other Festivals The conclusion of the three-month retreat season coincides with other festival observances. During the Kathina ceremony, observed by Theravada

Buddhists, the laity offer new robes to monks and make special requests for spiritual guidance and intervention. The Tibetan form of this holiday is called Lhabap and is

characterized by feasting and visits to temples.

There are many important culturally specific festivals that lack corollaries in other

regions. To mention just one interesting example, during the "Festival of the Hungry

Ghosts" in China and Japan's "Feast of the Dead," the spirits of ancestors are placated

with food offerings, and monks are called upon to recite sutras in order to aid the de- parted in securing a favorable rebirth.

Funerary Rites When the death of a Buddhist approaches, family and friends will often come and sit in the dying person's room to offer comfort and assurances that death is a natural

part of the life cycle. They may speak of the good deeds that he or she has done and

note that these are likely to bring a favorable rebirth. In some cases monks may be

Father and child bathe an image of the Buddha as a baby in a Ta ipei temple during the April 2001 ce lebration of the Buddha's birth in Taiwan.

182 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

invited to chant comforting sutras. A small statue of the Buddha is often placed near the

head of the dying person.

Buddhists practice both cremation and burial.

Funeral services may be held either before these

events or, in the form of a memorial service, after them. Whatever form a funeral takes, it is always

a solemn and dignified affair. Funerals are not

appropriate occasions, as other important events

might be, for displays of emotion or wealth. A

photograph or other image of the deceased is

usually set upon an altar at the front of the room in which the service is held, as are flowers pro-

vided by family and friends. When entering the

room, mourners approach the altar, bow with

Prime Minister Abhisit offers Kathina robes to monks at a 2010 Kathina

ceremony in Bangkok, Thailand .

their hands pressed together in a prayerful manner, spend a moment in quiet reflection,

and then take their seats. It is customary for monks, family, and friends to speak, offer- ing eulogies to honor the deceased. In most cases there is also chanting, led either by monks or family members.

VISUAL GUIDE Buddhism

The Buddha achieved enlightenment

while seated beneath a fig tree that

came to be known as the Bodhi Tree

("Enlightenment Tree"). The fig tree

was already considered a sacred

tree long before the Buddha lived,

but during his lifetime it came to

symbolize his enlightenment. Here,

monks gather at Bodh Gaya in India, the site of the Buddha's

enlightenment, to venerate a descendant of the original Bodhi

Tree under which he sat.

Before the Buddha himself was

first depicted in works of art,

Buddhists venerated his footprints,

which symbolized his path into

nirvana. Although Buddha statues

that actually depict his form later

become common, the convention of (continued)

CONCLUSION We began this chapter by reflecting on the life

of the Buddha, which offers his followers an ex-

ample worthy of emulation. The life of the Buddha

was a journey from the sorrow inherent in cling- ing to impermanent things to the ineffable joy

and freedom that spring from understanding and

accepting reality as it is. The Buddha's teaching

is intended to dislodge the mind from clinging

to the illusion of permanence and to empower

each individual to find the joy and freedom this realization brings.

Through its history, Buddhism has adapted

itself to diverse cultural contexts. Much of its

versatility was fostered by the teaching of the

Buddha, who insisted that wherever the Dharma is transplanted, local custom, convention, and re-

ligious observance should always be maintained.

This allowed Buddhism to syncretize easily with

regional beliefs and customs, as its predisposition

was not to displace but to augment. New ways of

understanding and practicing the Buddha's teach-

ings proliferated as the Dharma took root in

new settings. These sometimes created divisions

within the Sangha, but Buddhists have always

tended to see diversification as a natural and

wholesome development in which the versatility

of the Dharma was demonstrated even as its

essential features were maintained. Many Bud-

dhists believe that there are ultimately as many

"Buddhisms" as there are beings in the universe.

Each Buddhist must rely on his own understand-

ing of the Dharma and make his own way. As the

Buddha once said to his disciple, Ananda: "Be a

lamp unto yourself."

In the modern context, Buddhism has in-

spired productive and progressive forms of social

dissidence and political liberation, as in the

mass conversion of dalits to Buddhism in 1956. But, as with other religions, Buddhist institutions

have also at times functioned as mechanisms of

social control and state-sponsored violence, as may

be seen in the fact that there have often been

"fighting monks" in Tibetan and East Asian

monastic traditions that developed various mar-

tial arts traditions, often to enforce both sectarian

and political agendas.9 Nevertheless, many modern

Buddhist leaders have come to exemplify the power

of nonviolent modes of resistance and reform,

such as the Burmese Buddhist dissident Aung San

Suu Kyi (b. 1945), whose commitment to peace-

ful resistance resulted in her receiving the Nobel

Peace Prize in 1991, among other awards and

accolades.

A new development in the modern context-

and one that has emphasized the teaching of Inter-

dependent Origination-views ecology as a primary

model for understanding and embracing the inter-

connectedness of all things. This trend, which sees

the individual and the environment in perpetual

relationship, embraces a timely and essential evolu-

tion of the Dharma.

VI s u AL Gu I DE (continued) Buddhism

Conclusion 183

venerating his footprints continues today. The Buddha's

footprints, which remind Buddhists of the immediacy of

Buddha and the law of Impermanence, are inscribed with

the sacred marks said to have been present on the body of

the infant Siddhartha.

Buddhists of all sects demon-

strate their reverence for

the Buddha by bowing and

prostrating themselves.

In the Tibetan Nongdro

(sngon'gro) or preliminary

practices of Vajrayana,

some Buddhists will perform

100,000 prostrations as

an act of purification. Others

show reverence while walking

to a sacred site by bowing

or prostrating themselves

every step of the way.

As in Hinduism and Jainism, the

lotus in Buddhism is a symbol of

both purity and enlightenment.

The lotus has its roots in the

mud of the world but rises up

as its pure blossom expands

in the light of the sun.

While mandalas are used in

Hinduism, where they also func-

tion as cosmological diagrams

used for meditation, some

Buddhists utilize them in other

ways. In Vajrayana Buddhism,

monks spend weeks constructing sand mandalas such as the

Avalokiteshvara Mandala shown here. The sacred image will

then be swept toward the center and destroyed as a reminder

that art, like all other things, is impermanent.

184 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

SEEKING ANSWERS

What Is Ultimate Reality?

Buddhists often use the word dharma in its broader sense (that is, as nature and its laws) to refer to ultimate reality, or reality as it is (rather than as it usually perceived, or misperceived).

According to the doctrine of Interdependent Origination, reality is a web of interrelated

and interdependent phenomena in which nothing comes into existence independently of other things. Instead, the origination, or coming-into-existence, of things depends on all other

things, as does their continued existence. All things are constituted of elements of other things. Nothing exists in and of itself. Further, according to the Buddha's doctrine of Imper-

manence, all things are in a constant state of flux and without any underlying or enduring

essence or identity.

How Should We Live in This World?

Believing that there is stability and permanence in the world , we seek to possess what we

want and to avoid what we do not want. Our inability to do so results in suffering that arises

from our ignorance of the true nature of reality. Accordingly, the Buddha's guide to life, the Noble Eightfold Path, begins with the acceptance of a correct view of reality. The importance

of striving for goals consistent with this understanding and living according to corresponding ethical principles follows. Finally, the Eightfold Path enjoins Buddhists to cultivate aware-

ness and concentration that lead to enlightenment and an end to suffering.

What Is Our Ultimate Purpose?

For Buddhists, one's ultimate purpose is to break free of samsara and to achieve the end of suffering that is found in nirvana. But Buddhists also recognize that suffering is a condition that afflicts all sentient beings. Moved by compassion for others, they seek to live in a way

that allows and encourages them to follow the path that will lead to their own enlightenment

and liberation from suffering.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

For Review 1. Describe some of the distinctive ways in

which Buddhism differs from other

religions.

2. What are the implications of the Buddha's doctrine of Interdependent Origination?

3. What are the Three Marks of Existence?

How do they relate to the doctrine of

Interdependent Origination?

4 . Describe some of the different ways in which adherents of various Buddhist groups put

the teachings of the Buddha into practice.

5. What did the Buddha mean by "suffering" (dukkha)? How does following the Noble Eightfold Path bring an end to suffering?

For Further Reflection ,. It is sometimes said that Buddhism is a

philosophy rather than a religion. Do you agree? Why or why not?

2. What are the most significant ways in which the teachings of the Buddha deviated from those of Hinduism?

GLOSSARY

anatman (un-aat-mun; Sanskrit) The doctrine that there is no independent, eternal self or soul under- lying personal existence.

arhat (ar'hut) In Theravada Buddhism, one who has attained enlightenment.

bodhichitta (bow-dhi-chit-ta; Sanskrit, "the awaken- ing mind or heart") In Mahayana Buddhism, the wise and compassionate intention to attain Buddhahood for the sake of all other sentient beings.

bodhisattva (bow-dhi-sut-tva; Sanskrit, "enlighten- ment being") One who is on the verge of enlight- enment. In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva is one who has taken a "bodhisattva vow" to remain in samsara in order to work for the enlightenment of all sentient beings.

Buddha (bood-dha; Sanskrit, "the Awakened One") A fully enlightened being.

Chan or Zen (chah-aahn/Zehn) Respectively, the Chinese and Japanese names for the "meditation" school of Buddhism that values meditative expe- rience far and above doctrine.

Dharma (dhur-mah; Sanskrit, "that which up- holds") In the Buddhist context, Dharma refers both to Buddhist teaching and Buddhism as a religion.

dukkha (doo-kah; Pali, "suffering") Usually trans- lated as "suffering," it can also be understood as

Glossary 185

3. In what specific ways do the teachings of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism elaborate on those of Theravada?

4. Why is the principle of the Middle Way essential to Buddhism?

5. To what extent are the Buddha's teachings about the nature of reality in agreement with those of modern science?

6. Would you find it difficult to accept the Buddha's doctrine of No-Self? Why or why not?

the anxiety, unease, and dissatisfaction caused by desire.

Four Noble Truths The four truths that form the basis of the Dharma: Suffering is inherent in human life, suffering is caused by desire, there can be an end to desire, the way to end desire is the Noble Eightfold Path.

Impermanence According to the Buddha's doctrine of Impermanence, all phenomena are in a con- stant state of change.

Interdependent Origination (Sanskrit: pratitya- samutpada, "arising on the ground of a preceding cause") The doctrine that reality is a complex of interrelated and interdependent phenomena in which nothing exists independently; instead, the origination of all things depends on other things.

karma (kur-mah; Sanskrit, "action") Action; also, the consequences of actions.

lama (laah-mah; Tibetan) In Tibet, a teacher of the Dharma.

Mahayana (muh-haah-yaah-na; Sanskrit, "great ve- hicle") Also known as the "Great Vehicle," Mahayana is the form of Buddhism most promi- nent in China, Japan, Mongolia, Tibet, and Korea.

mandala (muhn-daah-la; Sanskrit "circle") Typically, a circular diagram representing the entire universe. Often used as an aid in meditation.

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186 Chapter 5 BUDDHISM

GLOSSARY (continued)

mantra (mun-trah; Sanskrit) A sacred sound or syl- lable used as a focus for meditation, as an invoca- tion of a deity, or as a protective spell.

Middle Way The Buddha's principle of the path be- tween extremes of asceticism and self-indulgence that leads to enlightenment.

nirvana (nihr-vaah-nah; Sanskrit, an "extinguishing" or "blowing out") The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice, nirvana is the extinguishing of desire and the suffering it causes.

Noble Eightfold Path The Buddha's prescription for a way oflife that leads to enlightenment. Based on the principle of the Middle Way, it is also de- fined by eight virtues.

No-Self The doctrine that there is no independent, eternal self or soul underlying personal existence. See also anatman.

Pali Canon Also known as the Tripitaka (Sanskrit, "Three Baskets"), the Pali Canon is the first canon of Buddhist texts. It consists of three "baskets" or collections of sutras.

parinirvana (pah-ree nihr-vaah-nah; Sanskrit, "supreme release") The full entry into nirvana that occurs at the death of one who has achieved nirvana in his or her lifetime.

samsara (sum-saah-ra; Sanskrit, "continuous flow") The continuing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; also, the this-worldly realm in which the cycle recurs.

Sangha (suhn-ghaah; Sanskrit, "community") The worldwide community of Buddhists. Alternatively,

the order of Buddhist monks or the membership of a particular Buddhist congregation.

skandhas (skuhn-dhaah; Sanskrit, "heaps" or "bundles") The five components (body, perceptions, feelings, innate tendencies, and thought) that give rise to a sense of self.

stupa (stooh-puh; Sanskrit, "heap") A reliquary mound in which the relics of the Buddha or a Buddhist saint are buried and venerated.

sutra (sooh-trah; Sanskrit, "a thread") Verses of text or scripture.

Theravada (thair-ah-vaah-duh; Pali, "the Way of the Elders") The form of Buddhism that is most prominent in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.

Three Marks of Existence The Buddha's teachings on impermanence, suffering, and the nonexistence of an eternal unchanging self or soul.

Tripitaka (see Pali Canon)

upaya (ooh-paah-ya; Sanskrit, "expedient means") "Skillful Means" was developed into a form of Buddhist practice that encourages imaginatively applying wisdom to whatever circumstances one is in to assist in easing suffering or cultivating insight.

Vajrayana (vaah-jiraah-yaah-nah; Sanskrit, "Diamond Vehicle" or "Thunderbolt Vehicle") Often described as a form of Mahayana, Vajrayana is the most prominent form of Buddhism in Tibet and Nepal. It incorporates both Mahayana and tantric ideas and practices.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Byrom, Thomas. Ihe Dhammapada: Ihe Sayings of the Buddha. New York: Vintage Books, 1976. A very accessible and readable version of a key early

Buddhist text.

Faure, Bernard. Buddhism. New York: Konecky and Konecky, 1977. A richly illustrated and descrip-

tive introduction to Buddhism.

Lopez, Donald. Buddhist Scriptures. London: Penguin Books, 2004. A survey of Buddhist scriptures.

Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. Birmingham, UK: Windhorse Publications,

1994. An excellent and accessible history of

Buddhism.

(continued)

Snelling, John. The Buddhist Handbook: The Complete Guide to Buddhist Schools, Teaching, Practice and History. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 1998. A guide to Buddhism that includes a detailed

directory of contemporary institutions.

Suzuki, Shunryu. Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. New York: Weatherhill, 1997. An excellent introduc-

tion to meditation practice.

ONLINE RESOURCES

The Wikipedia Buddhism Portal en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Buddhism

The collection of articles in the Wikipedia Buddhism

series are generally quite reliable and extensive

in scope.

Access to Insight: Readings in Theravada

Buddhism

accesstoinsight.org/canon

Includes very helpful summaries and substantial translated portions of the Pali Tripitaka.

Online Resources 187

Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2008. A history of Mahayana that places emphasis on the veneration of certain Buddhist texts.

The Berzin Archives berzinarchives.com/web/en/index.html

An excellent collection of translations, teaching,

and scholarship on the Vajrayana tradition.