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241 2013

10.1016/B978-0-12-385057-7.00011-7

Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response

and Safety

OBJECTIVES

The study of this chapter will enable you to:

1. Discuss the role of contingency planning in emergency response, crisis management and business recovery and resumption.

2. Identify the basics of fire science.

3. Consider basic fire-fighting devices and techniques.

4. Discuss why safety is an aspect of many security programs.

Introduction No facility protection program is complete without clear, well-defined policies and programs confronting the possible threat of fire or any other natural or human-made disaster. While plan- ning for such contingencies is the responsibility of top management, in most situations the task of carrying out emergency response falls specifically on security. This is primarily due to the essence of the security mission—that is, to observe and report. In the best of all possible worlds the responsibility is a shared responsibility between security, fire, and safety departments. Regardless of the functional placement of responsibility, security, fire, and safety personnel must work together when they are confronted with preparing for and responding to disasters.

According to a 2006 IOMA Safety & Security Reports briefing, 39% of U.S. companies lack a basic crisis plan and 56% have not conducted crisis drills or simulation in the last year. Under an amendment to a 9/11 bill passed by the House, the Department of Homeland Security and the American National Standards Institute established a set of “best practices” for disaster pre- paredness. This includes a certification process to verify compliance.1

According to Dennis F. Sigwart, current and future security professionals should be aware of the absolute necessity of disaster planning and preparedness as a viable component of the many facets (fire, earthquake, explosions, flooding, and so forth) of which they will have to perform as a practitioner. Those assigned disaster preparedness tasks must continually play the “what happens if ” game.2

Fischer, R., Halibozek, E., & Walters, D. (2012). Introduction to security. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank') href='http://ebookcentral.proquest.com' target='_blank' style='cursor: pointer;'>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a> Created from apus on 2020-08-03 11:26:29.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385057-7.00011-7

242 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

Fire, safety, and emergency (contingency) planning is designed to anticipate what might hap- pen to endanger people, physical assets, and information (thus causing damage and interruption to normal business) and to take the necessary preventive measures and make provision—through the use of appropriate hardware and/or personnel response—for prompt and effective action when an emergency does occur. While the emphasis in this chapter (as in most actual practice) is on physi- cal safeguards, it is important to emphasize the human aspect of fire, safety and emergency protec- tion. Disastrous losses often occur not from the failure or absence of physical safeguards, but from human error—the failure to close a fire door, to maintain existing protection systems in good work- ing condition, to inspect or to report hazards, and, at the management level, to ensure through con- tinuous employee education and training that the organization remains prepared at any time for any emergency. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), and Life Safety Codes dictate certain safety requirements for all businesses. In addition, the NFPA, Factory Mutual, and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) have established standards for fire and safety that have been adopted by many state and local governments. These standards have been important in helping various insurance companies establish their rating systems.

Contingency Planning The Association of Contingency Planners (ACP), which is an association dedicated to the evo- lution of business continuity, describes contingency planning in the following way: “Business continuity planning integrates knowledge from related disciplines such as information tech- nology, emergency response, and crisis communications to create a strategy that ensures a business will remain resilient in the face of adversity.”3

The purpose of contingency planning is simple. Essentially, contingency planners work to prepare their business, organization or institution to be better able to mitigate any disruption to normal business activities. As an example, if a natural occurrence (e.g., hurricane, fire, or earthquake) disrupts normal business activities, having plans in place for responding to and recovering from such an occurrence will allow for a faster resumption of business, thus reduc- ing the amount of time the business is disrupted.

For our purposes, we will discuss contingency planning in the construct of four major compo- nents: emergency response, crisis management, business recovery, and business resumption. The fundamental elements of each component and the need for an effective integrated contingency planning process will be addressed. Furthermore, categories and types of crises, along with basic preparation and awareness needs, will be discussed. The reader will note that emergency response, crisis management, business recovery, and business resumption processes have much in common (for example, communications requirements); however, each is handled as a standalone process.

Security and the Contingency Planning Process

The traditional role of security in the contingency planning process has been to develop emer- gency evacuation plans for the business and to respond to emergency or crisis situations. Acting as the eyes and ears for an organization, business, or facility and maintaining a 24-hour day,

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 243

7-day a week presence, the security organization is best positioned to respond to an emergency and manage a crisis. As crises escalate, they are best managed by a multi-disciplined team.

Because of the ever-ready posture of many security organizations and the increased emphasis on emergency preparedness and contingency planning following the tragic events of September 11, 2001, in New York City and Washington D.C., many security departments have expanded their contingency planning capabilities to include the following components: emer- gency response, crisis management, business recovery, and business resumption.

Depending upon the scope of the effort, a contingency planning program can take into consideration many activities, events, conditions and processes. Depending upon the size and complexity of a business the process of contingency planning can be quite extensive. Planning for a contingency generally means assessing and understanding all aspects of the business, particularly the business critical processes and supporting information systems. To do this effectively requires the participation of many people from different disciplines, including man- agement, employees, suppliers, and sometimes even customers. It may also include represen- tatives from external organizations such as representatives of an insurance underwriter or the local fire departments.

Having so many people involved and from the many different functional disciplines calls for establishing common parameters. To be effective, everyone involved must have a com- mon understanding of the elements and objectives of the contingency planning program and all must have a common understanding of the process. The first consideration in establishing common parameters is to develop a set of common definitions of terms. When discussing any aspect of contingency planning it is essential that all parties have a common understanding of what is being discussed. Just what does someone mean when he or she refers to the crisis man- agement, business recovery or any other elements of the contingency planning process?

Below are a set of contingency planning terms defined in such a way as to be useful for any organization in establishing a common baseline, points of reference and common jargon for the contingency planning process. Definition of terms must be part of the organization’s for- mal or institutionalized contingency planning process to ensure continuity of planning and success in achieving common preparedness objectives.

l Business continuity: Minimizing business interruption or disruption caused by different contingencies—that is, keeping the business going. Business continuity plans encompass actions related to how an organization prepares for, manages, recovers, and ultimately resumes business after a disruption.

l Business recovery: Refers to the short-term (less than 60 days) restoration activities that return the business to a minimum acceptable level of operation or production following a work disruption. Commonly used interchangeably with the term disaster recovery.

l Business resumption: The long-term (more than 60 days) process of restoration activities after an emergency or disaster that return the organization to its pre-event condition. (Keep in mind that restoration to the exact pre-event condition may not be necessary or even desirable. However, making this determination may not be possible without proper planning or going through the actual resumption process.)

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244 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

l Contingency: An event that is possible but uncertain in terms of its occurrence, or that is likely to happen as an adjunct to other events. Contingencies interrupt normal business activities. In some cases the disruption is minor, while in other situations the disruption can be catastrophic.

l Contingency planning: The process of planning for response, recovery and resumption activities for the infrastructure, critical processes and other elements of an organization based upon encountering different contingencies.

l Crisis management: The process of managing events of a crisis to a condition of stability. This task is best accomplished by an integrated process team (IPT) made up of members from different disciplines throughout the organization. When formed, the team becomes the organization’s crisis management team (CMT) and serves as the site, business or organization’s deliberative body for emergency response and crisis management planning and implementation.

l Critical processes: Activities performed by functions, departments or elements within a business or organization that, if significantly disrupted due to an incident, emergency or disaster, would have an adverse impact on organizational operations, revenue generation ability, production and/or distribution schedules, contractual commitments or legal obligations.

l Emergency response: The act of reporting and responding to any emergency or major disruption of the business organization’s operations.

Contingency Planning Program

The purpose for contingency planning is to better enable a business or organization to miti- gate disruption to the enterprise. Should disruptions occur, and they do all too often, the enter- prise must be able to resume normal business activities as quickly as possible. The inability to restore normal operations will have an adverse economic impact on the enterprise. The extent of the impact will correspond to the extent of the disruption or damage. If the damage is severe and the mitigation of such damage has not been properly planned for, the effect could be cata- strophic, even to the extent of failure of the business.

Essentially, contingencies fall into three categories:

1. Those that impact the business infrastructure (fire, severe weather, earthquakes: see the definition of hazards further in this section) causing physical damage.

2. Those that impact people, such as accidents, seasonal illnesses (influenza), epidemics or pandemics causing harm to employees, rendering them unavailable to work.

3. Those that impact the reputation of the business (such as a product defect leading to a recall), causing resources to be diverted from normal operations to recovery and/or restoration. Each contingency has the potential to disrupt normal business operations to some degree. A minor building fire may disrupt operations in a limited way for only a couple of days, whereas a major fire may destroy an entire factory, completely stopping operations for an extended period.

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 245

Contingency planning is a continuous process. It is not something that can be done once and put away only to be retrieved when needed. It is a continuous process requiring periodic updates and revisions as appropriate to, and consistent with, changing business conditions. It also involves implementing and maintaining awareness and training elements. Those per- sonnel with contingency planning responsibilities require periodic familiarization with plans and processes and training on new techniques and methods. The process of contingency plan- ning should be designed to achieve the following:

l Secure and protect people. In the event of a crisis, people must be protected (employees, visitors, customers and suppliers).

l Secure the continuity of the core elements of the business (the infrastructure and critical processes) and minimize disruptions to the business.

l Secure and protect all information systems that include or affect supplier connections and customer relationships.

Throughout the remaining sections of this chapter, elements of the contingency planning process and program (Figure 11-1) are presented and explained.

Contingency Plans

Contingency plans formally establish the processes and procedures to protect employees, core business elements, critical processes, information systems and the environment in the event of an emergency, business disruption or disaster. These plans should be developed and designed to consider specific categories and types of emergencies and disasters and address the miti- gation, preparedness, and response actions to be taken by employees, management and the organizations charged with specific response and recovery tasks. These plans should contain basic guidance, direction, responsibilities, and administrative information and must include the following elements:

l Assumptions: Basic assumptions need to be developed in order to establish contingency planning ground rules. As a baseline for planning, it is best to use several possible “worst- case” scenarios relative to time of event, type of event, available resources, building/facility occupancy, evacuation of personnel, personnel stranded on site, and environmental factors such as weather conditions and temperature. Furthermore, consideration should be given to establishing response parameters for emergency events. Define (for your enterprise) what constitutes a minor emergency, a major emergency and a disaster.

l Risk assessment and vulnerability analysis: Identify known and apparent vulnerabilities and risks associated with the type of business and geographic location of the enterprise. An assessment of risk and vulnerabilities should be made prior to developing or upgrading contingency plans. All planning will be accomplished in accordance with a thorough understanding of actual and potential risks and vulnerabilities. For example, in a petroleum refining facility, contingency plans for petroleum spillage, contamination, and fires must be considered. Furthermore, if located in an earthquake zone, planning must address

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246 IN

T R

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Contingency planning and business continuity program

Site emergency response plan

(hazmat plan & fire prevention plan)

Site business recovery & resumption

plans

Site crisis management

plan

Escalated response

Communications

Accountability

Evacuation

Emergency response

Employee education

Focus: People

OSHA requirements

Transition to bus. cont. team

Initial assessment

Incident containment

Responsibilities notifications activation

Focus: Decision processes

Written process contingency

plans

Recovery strategies

approved by management

Critical process identification

Management guidance &

analysis

Focus: Maintaining revenue stream

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Business impact analysis (Identify process owners, information system dependencies, financial impact, maximum allowable downtimes)

Risk assessment & vulnerabilities analysis

Corporate and business unit requirments

FIGURE 11-1 Elements of a business continuity planning program.

F ischer, R

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 247

associated hazards. The risk assessment and vulnerability analysis must also include an assessment of enterprise-critical relationships. That means involving suppliers and customers in the contingency planning process. If a critical supplier or many key suppliers are not also prepared for various potential contingencies, their inability to recover will adversely impact your enterprise.

l Types of hazards: Planning for each and every type of hazard is not practical, nor desirable. Grouping them into similar or like categories will allow for planning to address categories of hazards. Since many hazards have similar consequences and result in like damages, it is best to plan for them in categories. The following is a list of common hazards: Medical Emergencies; Fires; Bomb Threats; High Winds; Power Interruptions; Floods; Hurricanes; Snow/Ice Storms/Blizzards; Hazardous Materials Issues; Aircraft Crashes; Civil Disorders; Earthquakes; Terrorist Threats/Activities; Workplace Violence; Explosions; and Tornados.

l Critical process identification: Critical processes must be ranked in accordance of criticality and importance to the productivity and survivability of the enterprise. Process of recovery must be focused on those critical processes that, when resumed, will restore operations to a minimal acceptable level. In essence, these processes are identified to be the first processes restored in the event of a major interruption to business operations. Failure to restore them presents the greatest possibility of damage or loss to the enterprise and could lead to the loss of a competitive edge, market share or even the viability of the enterprise.

l Business impact analysis: A business impact analysis must be accomplished to accurately determine the financial and operational impact that could result from an interruption of enterprise operations. Moreover, all critical interdependencies, those processes or activities critical processes are dependent upon, must be assessed to determine the extent to which they must be part of the contingency planning process.

l Emergency response: All participants in the emergency response process, particularly emergency responders, must understand their role. Expectations and responsibilities of emergency response personnel must be well defined and documented. Guidance for all employees on how to react in the event of an emergency and what their individual and collective responsibilities are must be documented and shared. Organizational responsibilities must also be established, to include the development of department-level emergency plans, generally for mid-size and large organizations. Events such as building evacuation and roll-call assembly need to be well defined so, in the event of an actual emergency, there is no confusion or uncertainty as to what must be accomplished.

l Incident management and crisis management: As an incident escalates, a crisis management team (CMT) should assume responsibility for managing the crisis. How this process works and who has what responsibilities must be clearly stated in the contingency plans. In the event of an actual emergency, some unauthorized people will attempt to manage the incident or participate in crisis management; however, they should not have any role in this process unless they were previously identified and trained as part of the crisis management team. Without established and well-defined incident management protocols and procedures, chaos is likely to erupt. Essentially, incident management and crisis management personnel must be trained and must understand their responsibilities.

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248 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

Where practical, back-up supporting personnel should be identified and trained in the event that primary personnel are not available.

l Incident/event analysis: After an event occurs and the situation is stable, an analysis of what occurred and why should be conducted to determine the immediate extent of damage and the potential for subsequent additional damage.

l Business resumption planning: The process of planning to facilitate recovery of designated critical processes and the resumption of business in the event of an interruption to the business should be performed in two parts. The first part focuses on business recovery in the short term while the other part focuses on business restoration in the long term. This process will also include establishment of priorities for restoration of critical processes, infrastructure and information systems.

l Post-event evaluation: An assessment of preceding events to determine what went well, what did not go so well, and what improvements to existing plans need to be made must also be part of the process. Learning from real events is an unfortunate opportunity. There is no better way to learn how to handle an emergency than to actually handle one.

Emergency Response When an emergency occurs, and unfortunately emergencies occur at even the most prepared businesses, being able to effectively respond is critical. The type and nature of emergencies that can occur vary widely. From a medical emergency in which an employee becomes injured or sick, to a natural or manmade disaster causing extensive damage to buildings and equipment, being prepared to respond will usually lessen the damage or impact of the event. Preparedness takes many forms. Being prepared to respond to a medical emergency is different from being prepared to respond to a natural disaster. The medical emergency may only require applying first aid to a victim or it may require the assistance and services of medical professionals. A natural disaster may require support from emergency medical services along with law enforcement, fire departments, search and rescue operations and hazardous material crews.

When planning for emergencies, types of emergencies should be grouped into like catego- ries so that planning is accomplished for only categories of emergencies, as opposed to each and every possible emergency occurrence. This strategy recognizes the similarities of different types of emergency and is efficient in terms of creating fewer, but flexible, actual plans.

The purpose of preparing an emergency response plan is to document the planning accomplished in preparation for an emergency. This documentation provides the ground rules for emergency response activities. It also provides a reference for all who need to know how the process works. The plan will identify general and specific responsibilities for emergency response personnel and for all employees, both management and non-management. Having a plan in place will assist emergency response personnel in their effort to return the business to normal operations.

l Reporting emergencies: Employees must know how, and to whom, emergencies should be reported. If handling an emergency is beyond the internal capability of an organization,

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 249

additional external assistance can be sought. For example, a seriously ill employee may require immediate medical attention. If paramedic capabilities exist within the company then the in- house paramedic should be the first respondent. If the situation calls for more sophisticated expertise and capabilities, external emergency medical services can be called for.

l Communications and warning systems during an emergency: l Fire alarm systems: These systems are generally the most widely used. Linked to a

variety of sensor detectors and manual pull stations, fire alarms do just that: sound an alarm. These systems are sufficiently unique in sound and volume as to clearly indicate the need for building and facility evacuation. Employees must be conditioned to respond immediately.

l Public address systems: These systems can be used to augment the fire alarm system. Announcements can be made alerting employees to the danger of fire. Announcements alerting employees to other types of dangers can also be made. Public address systems are particularly useful during emergencies when a building or facility evacuation is just the opposite of what is needed. For example, in the event of a chemical discharge or other environmental hazard, it may be necessary to keep people inside the facility and shut down all air movement systems, thus preventing employees from exposure to hazardous airborne substances. Since employees are conditioned to evacuate a building or facility when a fire alarm is sounded, they can be conditioned to wait and listen for specific instructions provided over a public address system.

l Floor wardens: The use of employees to augment the emergency notification system has much value. Specially selected and trained employees can be given responsibility to act during an emergency to spread the word to evacuate a building or facility during an emergency. Assigning each a specific area of responsibility (or floor, hence the term floor warden) ensures complete coverage of the building or facility. Communications between floor wardens and emergency response personnel or a security emergency operations center can be easily established. Floor wardens can be alerted by pager, cell-phone or other means (including a variety of wireless devices) in the event of an emergency and be instructed to react to the specific situation. Floor wardens can and should be empowered and trained to react on their own in the event they recognize danger. Authority should be provided to floor wardens to evacuate a building or facility based upon their judgment and assessment of an emergency situation. In the event of a complete communications failure, it may be necessary to empower them to dispatch people to a safe environment.

l Response to emergencies: Since security officers are generally located throughout the facility, they are usually the first to respond. Here, the officer can assess the situation and make a determination if additional assistance is necessary. In some cases, they may not be able to make an assessment and may require support from others. For example, in the event of a hazardous chemical spill, it will be necessary to have an expert in environmental and safety issues on the scene to make the assessment. It may even be necessary for a hazardous materials (HAZMAT) crew to respond to handle the event. Clean up of a chemical spill should only be done by skilled and certified personnel.

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250 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

Clearly, defining who has what response capabilities and responsibilities will impact the effectiveness of any response.

l Department-specific emergency plans: It is best to have one emergency response plan for each company facility. These plans should be incorporated into a master plan and provide a common framework for all sub-elements of the plan. A key sub-element of an emergency plan is the individual departments’ emergency plans. Those plans must specifically identify the following information: l Common and unique responsibilities in the event of an emergency to include:

- A roster of department employees - Emergency contact/notification roster (not all emergencies occur during working

hours so it may be necessary to reach people at home) l Identify floor wardens l Evacuation routes, procedures and assembly areas l Roll-call instructions l Procedures for evacuation of people requiring assistance l People identified as members of a search-and-rescue team l Additional manager- or employee-specific responsibilities

l Incident management: Personnel trained in handling emergencies should manage the incident at the scene. If the incident escalates to a crisis, a company crisis management team should be convened to manage the crisis. The senior emergency response person, when at the scene, should manage the incident with the assistance of specialists as appropriate.

l Evacuation and assembly: A critical objective during any emergency is employee safety. In the event it is necessary to evacuate a building or facility, having an established and orderly process is essential. Once a warning system sounds the notice to evacuate, employees must be aware of pre-established procedures for quick evacuation, including primary and alternate evacuation routes and where they should assemble. Maps or diagrams with this information should be included in the plan and posted throughout the work area. A floor warden or an employee with the assignment to facilitate evacuation should make a sweep of the area prior to their own evacuation to ensure all personnel have exited the building or facility. Once in the predetermined assembly area, a roll call must be taken. Primary, secondary and tertiary responsibilities should be assigned to ensure someone is available to take roll call and report the results to security. If someone did not evacuate the facility, a search-and-rescue team or other emergency personnel may be required to re-enter the facility and provide assistance.

l Emergency evacuation drills: The efficient and complete evacuation of personnel from a building or facility in the event of an emergency is such an important event that periodic drills should be conducted to reinforce the process and its importance. At least annually, each building or facility should undergo an evacuation drill where employees respond to a warning and completely evacuate the building or facility. A roll call should be conducted and results reported to security and senior management.

l Search and rescue: In the event of serious damage such as a fire or collapse of building, it may be necessary to search for persons not accounted for. Search and rescue is the

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 251

responsibility of responding emergency personnel who have proper protective equipment. Persons not trained in search-and-rescue techniques or who do not have proper equipment should not enter hazardous areas and conduct searches.

l Return to work: The process for returning to work after a crisis should also be included in the emergency plan. After any incident where employees are required to leave their work area and evacuate a building or facility, a process for having them return to work is necessary. For example, in the event of a false fire alarm where employees have evacuated a building, a means of communicating to them an all-clear, safe to return to work signal, is needed. This can be accomplished in many ways. Public address announcements can be made or plant protection personnel can go to assembly areas, directing employees to return to work. As appropriate, other methods may also be employed. In the event there is actual damage and employees cannot return to work, a process should be established identifying who makes the decision to send employees home, as well as how that is communicated to them and how they are kept apprised of event updates. For example, if a building was severely damaged due to fire and cannot be occupied for several days, posting daily direction and guidance for employees on the company website or on an emergency toll-free phone line will allow employees to call each day for specific instructions. For this to be effective, employees must know this process, must know the phone number to call or website to access and, as with all other processes, this one must be updated regularly.

l After action: When any incident occurs that necessitates evacuation or results in injuries, major damage, or presents the possibility of major business interruption, an after action report must be prepared. The primary focus is twofold: l Document the events, circumstances and chronology. l Prepare a lessons-learned review. Include key personnel involved in responding to and

managing the emergency so as to assess what occurred and how it could have been better handled.

Crisis Management Emergencies, contingencies, business interruptions and other unplanned events happen. Sometimes the event itself is a crisis, such as a fire burning a building or facility. In other cases, an incident not responded to or managed properly at the scene may turn into a crisis. For example, failing to respond promptly to that small fire may allow for it to turn into a large fire.

Crisis management is the process of managing events of a crisis to a condition of stability. Crisis management is not incident management. Emergency response personnel at the scene of an incident manage the incident. If the incident escalates, becoming a crisis, it is then neces- sary to have a different group take charge. Ideally, a crisis management team, or CMT, consist- ing of experienced personnel from multiple disciplines, would come together to manage the incidents that develop beyond the capability and decision authority of emergency response personnel. Essentially, the CMT manages the crisis to closure.

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After emergency response planning, crisis management planning is the next step in the continuum of the contingency planning process. A crisis management plan should address the following activities and concerns:

l Crisis management teams: Managing a crisis can’t be left to emergency personnel only. When an incident escalates into a crisis, the situation becomes more complex, affecting different aspects of the business if not the entire business and requiring different skills to manage it. Employees with a broad understanding of the enterprise and its mission, goals and objectives are much better suited to manage a crisis than those with a more narrow perspective of the business. Ideally, a crisis management team is like an integrated process team. Skilled professionals representing different disciplines come together on a short-term basis to work on a specific issue or tasking. In the case of crisis management teams, the task is to serve as a deliberative body to plan and prepare for a crisis and, when a crisis occurs, manage that crisis so as to mitigate damage or its impact. Crisis management teams should include members with expertise in the following areas: security, human resources, site management, safety and environmental and safety services, business management and communications.

l Disaster operations: In the event of a crisis or disaster, it is to be expected that some personnel may not be able to immediately leave the site. For example, following an earthquake the surrounding area may not be safe for travel. Employees may have no choice but to seek shelter at the workplace for hours or days. Furthermore, emergency personnel may be needed on site for an extended period to assist in recovery operations. Being prepared to deal with this or similar scenarios is essential. Preparation will include ensuring sufficient supplies are on hand to meet the needs of a reasonable number of stranded or support personnel. It is necessary to ensure that sufficient food, water, medical supplies and emergency sanitation and shelter facilities are available. All of these items can be acquired and placed in a long-term storage condition, providing they are regularly checked for serviceability, spoilage and maintained within the expected shelf life. During a crisis, much uncertainty exists. Consequently, it will be necessary to communicate to employees, keeping them as up to date as possible about the situation and events and providing guidance concerning their safety and work expectations. During a crisis, employees are naturally anxious. Prompt and clear communications can help reduce this anxiety and keep employees informed. Communication may need to extend beyond the duration of a crisis into an undefined subsequent period. Using the previously referred to emergency contact and notification number, or company Web site, can be very effective. Messages can be updated regularly as needed so the information is current. Also, information broadcast on local news radio stations can reach a large population of employees. At the point in time where an incident escalates into a crisis, the crisis management teams become involved, managing the crisis to closure. At some point during a crisis, a de-escalation of events will occur and eventually the crisis will terminate. If the impact or damage from the crisis is significant, the crisis management team will commence with restoration activities. These activities may be led by the crisis management team or passed on to a business continuity team. How this can work will be discussed further in the next section.

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l Media relations: During a crisis, it is possible that the local, national or even international media will become interested in events. For example, large industrial fires always draw the attention of local media. Natural disasters also draw much media attention. Even isolated events such as incidents of workplace violence can draw significant media attention. It is therefore important to have a media relations plan. The company media representative should be part of the company crisis management team. Since there is always a degree of unpredictability during a crisis, it is best that all crisis management team members understand how to deal with the media and be prepared should they be thrust into such a situation.

l Damage assessment: During a crisis, emergency personnel will make ongoing damage assessments, reporting status back to the crisis management team. These assessments are useful in determining actions to be taken next. However, these assessments are situational and due to the circumstances and nature of a crisis, do not have the luxury of thoroughness. The true extent of damage is not determined until after the crisis has terminated and a complete building, facility or site assessment can be made. Immediately following a crisis, a damage assessment for infrastructure safety and functionality must be made. Without this, a return-to-work decision cannot be made. The damage assessment is also the starting point for all restoration and resumption activities.

l Business continuity team: Earlier reference was made to the transition of responsibility from a crisis management team to a business continuity team. This is an important step in the effort to resume business. While the crisis management team’s focus is on managing through the crisis, the business continuity team’s focus is recovery and resumption. The role of a business continuity team will be discussed further in the next section.

l After action/post event assessments: After every crisis, an assessment of what occurred should be conducted. The chronology and circumstances of the event will be recorded. The crisis management team will review what went well and what did not. Performance to plan will be reviewed and a lessons-learned document will be created for all team members and supporting personnel to review and hopefully learn from.

Business Continuity Earlier in this chapter, we defined business continuity as the effort to minimize business inter- ruption or disruption caused by different contingencies. When contingencies occur, business recovery and resumption needs to happen as rapidly as possible. In essence, business must con- tinue. Business disruptions can be costly and even catastrophic. Customers, shareholders and stakeholders demand the business remain viable. Preparation to deal with contingencies is a critical component of keeping the business going and maintaining the viability of the enterprise.

Business continuity is a two-stage process. Business recovery is the first stage. Business resumption is the second. The recovery effort is the process of getting the business up and run- ning again but only in a minimal acceptable condition. It is not a recovery to a pre-event con- dition, but rather a recovery to produce product, make deliveries to customers and accomplish the basic activities to keep the business going.

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The business resumption stage is the effort to recover from a contingency and resume busi- ness in a pre-event condition. This is not to say that all critical processes and other processes will be exactly the same as they were pre-event. Resumption planning may call for new or modified processes. The intent is to resume business operations to a level similar to the pre- event operations level, but not necessarily exactly the same.

A business continuity team should be established to provide oversight of the develop- ment of business resumption plans. Representation from each of the major business func- tions should be part of this team. Manufacturing, business management, finance, engineering, information technology, human resources, legal and others major areas and disciplines within the business, depending upon the nature of the business, need to participate. Business resumption teams lead the effort and planning process to ensure the business is prepared to recover from contingencies and resume full business operations. In some cases it may be nec- essary to have a major supplier or customer participate as a member of this team. Business recovery and resumption planning have common elements. The difference is the stage of recovery and the time necessary to get there. Following are common elements of the processes for business recovery and resumption:

l Business impact analysis of critical processes and information systems: The most fundamental aspect of recovery and resumption planning is conducting a business impact analysis of critical processes. Critical processes must first be identified. Knowing what they are and having the business continuity team agree to their criticality will allow for proper planning and prioritization. Failure to properly identify critical processes may lead to wasted time, effort and money. Even worse, non-critical processes may be given priority over critical processes, leading to further delays in recovery and causing the unnecessary expenditure of resources. It is not uncommon for organizations to identify their processes as critical, where upon further examination they are determined not to be critical. Process owners have a tendency to believe all of their processes are critical. This is precisely why it is necessary to have the business continuity team make this assessment. When developing recovery and resumption plans, the following areas must be considered and addressed: l Define critical processes: Each major business area, function and discipline should

provide to the business continuity team a listing of all critical processes. The business continuity team should then review these processes for criticality and prioritize them, creating an official critical process list. Planning for recovery of the critical processes is the primary concern. Non-critical processes should be recovered and resumed after the critical processes. Resource and time limitations do not allow for resumption of all processes at the same time. Processes critical to the business must have top priority. Any processes determined not to be critical should be planned for during the later stages of the resumption effort.

l Critical process interdependencies: As part of the critical process assessment, particular emphasis must be placed on information systems and process interdependencies. For example, an information system in and of itself may not be determined by its process owner to be critical. However, if it supports a critical process and that critical process

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 255

can’t be completely restored without the information system, then that information system itself becomes critical. Examining processes as part of a system is essential in the assessment of criticality. Interdependencies need to be identified in order to properly assess criticality to the business. Other interdependencies may exist in the form of relationships with organizations outside of the enterprise. These too must be considered. Different methodologies can be used to estimate potential impact a contingency or disaster may have on a critical process. When considering the criticality of a process, the financial effect, operational effect and any less tangible or quantifiable concerns, such as customer satisfaction, must be addressed.

l Resources: Critical process recovery requires an assessment of resources. Planning for process restoration means considering what resources may no longer be available and will need to be acquired or obtained to get the critical process up and functional again. What type of facilities will be needed and where? Will additional hardware, software or equipment be required? Will people capable of managing and working the processes be available? Will there be effective means of communications? If not, what must be done to provide a minimum capability of communications until full communications can be restored? These are some of the resource issues and questions the team must grapple with.

l Mitigation strategies: For those processes identified as critical, pre-event actions can be taken to help mitigate the impact, both operationally and financially, of interruptions to the business. When developing contingency plans for critical processes, strategies will become apparent that may be implemented prior to an event that will lessen the impact of an event if and when it occurs. A cost/benefit analysis may be required to assess the feasibility of implementing a pre-event action and if the analysis shows it to be an effective action, it should be taken. For example, an old building not built to current building codes may be vulnerable to damage from an earthquake. If that building supports a critical process, it may be more cost effective to retrofit the building with the necessary structural supports and bring it into compliance with current standards than to risk severe damage in the event of an earthquake, rendering a critical process inoperative.

l Vital records: The ability to recover vital records is critical to the recovery and restoration process. Having a vital records protection and management program will enable the recovery of essential information during a contingency.

l Customers and suppliers: The importance of considering input, participation, and impact to customers and suppliers cannot be overstated. Any business continuity planning must take into consideration customer and supplier relationships. Moreover, it is important to work with your suppliers and providers of goods and services to ensure they too have contingency plans in place. In the event a supplier supports one or more of your critical processes, a disruption to their business will impact your business operations.

l Communications: Communicating during the recovery and resumption process can be just as important as communications during other phases of a contingency. Employees who may have been affected by the events of a crisis or disaster need to be kept abreast of developments affecting them and their employment. Customers and suppliers need to

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256 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

understand the progress made toward resumption of business, as it may have a serious impact on their operations. Even the external worlds of stakeholders and shareholders have an interest in these events.

l Lessons learned: There is an old adage that lightning doesn’t strike twice in the same place. If only that were certain and true, and applicable to the critical processes of a business. However, it is not. Therefore, much can be learned from each phase of managing and recovering from a contingency. Documenting the process of recovery and restoration will help in identifying the things learned, both good and bad, and will go a long way toward helping to deal with other crises when they occur.

Business Recovery The previous section addressed areas and issues common to resumption and recovery aspects of the total contingency planning process. This section will discuss areas specific to recovery and the short-term process of resuming normal business operations.

Recovery plans focus on getting the business up and running—in essence, the actions that need to be taken within the first 30 to 60 days to restore critical processes and resume opera- tions. These should be the most critical processes focused on infrastructure, product delivery and keeping damage or loss to an absolute minimum. As difficult as it may be, people need to be part of this equation. For example, should a natural disaster occur, causing severe damage to a building or facility, there is a good chance that some key employees may have experienced something similar. Some may be preoccupied with their own issues of recovery and restoration and may not be able to support the company. Generally, you can expect this to be limited to a few, but it could be a critical few. Part of the critical process planning should take this into con- sideration and identify alternatives.

Vital records recovery is very much part of the recovery process. Being able to access off- site records storage, hard copy and electronic, is critical to expediently moving this process forward. Many companies use outsource providers to handle, store and retrieve their vital records. This process allows for separate storage, away from company facilities, and reduces the possibility of damage or destruction to these records. There are many capable and reliable companies throughout the world who perform vital records handling, storage and recovery.

Business Resumption Issues and areas of focus and concern that are common with recovery and resumption were addressed earlier. This section discusses areas specific to resumption and the long-term pro- cess of resuming normal business. Long-term priorities are addressed in business resump- tion plans with the intention of restoring operations to a pre-event condition. Restoration to a pre-event condition does not necessarily mean that all is the same or equal to the conditions prior to contingency occurrence, crisis or disaster. During the process of recovery and restora- tion it may be learned or discovered that the implementation of a critical process or other pro- cesses can be accomplished differently, in the sense that improvements can make the process

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 257

more efficient and more cost effective. Consequently, changes can and should be made. Furthermore, it may be learned that some processes can be eliminated altogether. Recovery and resumption in many ways are similar to a re-engineering process. Process owners are usually the best source for ideas and as they participate in resumption they may develop new approaches and methods to implement and execute their process.

If the process is simple, changes can be implemented quickly with little or no additional review from management or the business continuity team. If the process is complex, affecting or dependent on other processes, a cost-benefit analysis is warranted to accurately assess the impact of any proposed changes.

Within this chapter the authors have attempted to provide the reader with a framework for understanding the complexities of contingency planning and the development of contin- gency plans. A particular point we attempt to make lies with the importance of planning for categories of contingencies. It is a daunting task to attempt to plan for each and every possible contingency. However, contingencies can be grouped into categories and planned for accord- ingly. This allows for consistency in preparedness and best utilization of resources. Types of contingencies develop and change over time as societies and organizations change and pro- gress. Prior to the 20th century, nuclear contamination was not a concern, but today countries with nuclear power generation capabilities have in place extensive contingency plans that are regularly tested. More common hazards such as severe weather and other natural events have caused enough damage to drive organizations to better preparedness. State and local govern- ments along with private enterprises in states like California and Mississippi spend large sums of money to prepare to mitigate the effects of earthquakes and hurricanes.

Pandemics Furthermore, not-so-common hazards drive governments and private organizations to take mitigating measures. Pandemic preparedness continues to receive much attention as the H5N1 Avian Flu and the H1N1 Swine Flu viruses remain active in various parts of the world, with the H5N1 being active mostly in Asia.4 Pandemics are not new, having been with us since humankind’s earliest time. They don’t occur frequently but when they do, the effects can be devastating. The last devastating pandemic occurred in 1918, when the Spanish flu affected more than 30% of the population, killing between 50 and 100 million people worldwide and disrupting the normal lives of societies around the globe.5

Planning for a pandemic requires an emphasis on people. The focus is on planning to keep employees, and their families, healthy and in the workplace where they can be productive. Pandemics affect people, not infrastructure, although without people operating an infrastructure is at best difficult, and may be nearly impossible. Consider running the air transportation infrastruc- ture without people. With a 30% reduction in the number of air traffic controllers, pilots and main- tenance personnel, would this system work effectively, or would it even work at all? How would your business be affected if air transportation was limited or shut down for operating for 30 days?

The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has created a Pandemic Severity Index to assist local and state governments in assessing the severity of a viral outbreak.

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258 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

The level will help officials determine the extent of school closure, quarantines and work-from- home assignments.

l Category 1 involves less than 90,000 deaths and would not require school closures. l Category 2 and 3 would recommend school closures and limiting personal contact for up to

one month. l Category 4 or 5 would potentially involve over 1.8 million deaths, school closures of up to

3 months and limits on public events.6

Fire Prevention and Protection Although all industry-specific vulnerabilities should be considered in contingency planning, the threat of fire is universal. Because it is also one of the most damaging and demoralizing hazards, fire prevention and control must be a major part of any comprehensive loss-preven- tion program. The following materials are designed to provide an overview of this important area. For a complete discussion on fire seek out professional literature for each topic, such as arson, fire suppression, or fire prevention.

For someone who has administrative oversight of fire issues, it is important to note that any defense against fire must be viewed in two parts. First, fire prevention, which is usually the major preoccupation of most businesses, embodies the control of the sources of heat and the elimination or isolation of the more obviously dangerous fuels. This commendable effort to prevent fire must not, however, be undertaken at the expense of an equal effort for the second part of defense, fire protection.

Fire protection includes not only the equipment to control or extinguish fire, but also those devices that will reduce the effect of fire in relationship to the building, its contents, and partic- ularly its occupants in the event of fire. Fire doors, firewalls, smokeproof towers, fireproof safes, nonflammable rugs and furnishings, fire detector and signalling systems—all are fire protec- tion components that are essential to any fire safety program.

Security Personnel

One of the key elements in fire prevention and protection is security personnel. While a smoke detector senses smoke and a heat detector senses heat, the human brain senses much more. The trained security officer can think, solve problems, and sense what detectors cannot. We can often sense when someone is having a bad day. Likewise, we can also sense when the building just “doesn’t feel right.” There are no detectors to tell you that the exits are blocked, or the exit doors are not opening properly.

Vulnerability to Fire

There are no fireproof buildings, although frequently the term is misapplied. However, there are fire-resistant buildings, meaning one that will not collapse quickly under fire conditions and that does not readily add fuel to the fire. But combustible materials inside a fire-resistant building,

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 259

such as furnishings, paneling, stored flammable materials, and so on, can make ovens out of these buildings, generating heat of sufficient intensity to destroy everything inside. Eventually such heat can even soften the structural steel to such an extent that part or all of a building may collapse. By this time, however, the collapse of the building may endanger only outside ele- ments because many things inside, with the possible exception of certain fire-resistant contain- ers and other metal or fire-resistant items and their contents, may already have been destroyed.

Heat was a major factor in the collapse of the World Trade Center. The heat generated by the burning jet fuel resulted in expansion and thus weakening of the steel superstructure. Coupled with the intense pressure of the burn, the building began to collapse. The weight of the collapsing structure created additional weight on the lower floors, eventually resulting in the collapse of the entire structure.

The particular danger of this situation is that while wood frame construction is recognized for the fire hazard it represents, many otherwise knowledgeable people are oblivious to the potential dangers from fire in steel and concrete construction. We have a normal tendency to think that because something does not burn, it is safer. The normal reaction would be that steel is better in a fire situation than wood. This is not always the case.

We cannot be blind to the fact that steel has its shortfalls. Though wood will ignite between 400 to 600 degrees, steel will start losing strength at 600 degrees and loses 40 percent of its strength at 1100 degrees, well within what common fires develop. While wood will burn, the shear mass of wood needed to match the strength of steel in any given construction project may mean that the structure will withstand the fire longer.7

Fireload

The degree of fire exposure in any fire-resistant building is dependent on its fire load—the amount of combustible materials that occupies its interior spaces. Fire load is often misunderstood when we look at different occupancies. We tend to look at some businesses as more hazardous, due to their operation, rather than taking into account their fire load. There may be more of a con- cern for a processing plant that fabricates steel products because of the intense heat present in the fabrication process than a doctor’s office or hospital. A factory atmosphere catches our inter- est due to electrical equipment, machinery, and stock. But what is the true fire load? A doctor’s office could warehouse many years of patient records, files, and x-rays, that could create a greater fire load than a factory. A hospital with its clean and safe environment needs to have supplies and replacement equipment. There could be storerooms of additional beds, furniture, and records. An in-house laundry department will add fire load with the bedding and gowns that workers and patients use. We need to look past the operation to see what will burn.

In the case of multiple occupancies where general businesses, retail, and residential units are under one roof, as in a large office building, no one office manager can have control over the building’s fire load. In such an environment, new furniture, decorative pieces, drapes, carpeting, unprotected insulated cables, or even volatile fluids for cleaning or lubricating are moved through the building every day. The building fire load may continue to increase without much thought from most of the occupants.

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260 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

The Nature of Fire

The classic triangle frequently referred to in describing the nature of fire consists of heat, fuel, and oxygen. This triangle has been augmented by the fire tetrahedron theory, which adds a fourth element—chemical reaction—pyrolysis or vaporization. Pyrolysis is the decomposi- tion of solids to the point where they give off enough flammable vapors and gases to form an ignitable mixture. In liquid fuels the process is called vaporization. Flammable gases require no pyrolysis because they are already in a form capable of combining with oxygen. If all four components exist, normally there will be a fire; remove or reduce any one, and the fire will be reduced or extinguished (see Figure 11-2).8

Fuel and oxygen are always present. It would be difficult to imagine any facility that had no combustible items exposed, and air most certainly will be present. Only sufficient heat and the

FIGURE 11-2 Fire triangle.

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 261

chemical breakdown associated with it are missing, and these factors can be readily supplied by a careless cigarette or faulty wiring, two of the most common causative factors. There are, in fact, an almost infinite number of heat sources that can complete the deadly tetrahedron and start a fire raging in virtually any facility.

Every fire prevention program begins with the education of staff and visitors, because it is nearly impossible to change existing fire-load problems overnight. Yet every fire prevention program must also work to control the amount and nature of the fire load or fuel, and institute programs to prevent the occurrence of any heat buildup, whether from careless smoking or from sparks from a welding torch. This is actually a two-prong approach. First, control ignition sources. Second, set fire loads at appropriate working levels.

By-products of Fire

Contrary to popular opinion, flame or visible fire is rarely the killer in deaths from fire. Death is usually caused by smoke or heat or from toxic gas, explosion, or panic. Several such by-prod- ucts accompany every fire; all must be considered when defenses are being planned.

Smoke will blind and asphyxiate in an astonishingly short time. Tests have been conducted in which smoke in a corridor reduced the visibility to zero in 2 minutes from the time of igni- tion. A stairway 2 feet from a subject in the test was totally obscured.

Fire gases, composed mostly of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, make up a large part of smoke. Still, most persons have a relatively lax attitude about smoke in comparison to fire. We need to understand that smoke is actually unburned fuel and gases that are still flammable. While most people would not walk into a kitchen when gas is coming out of the four burners of the stove, many people often fail to think of smoke in the same terms. Fire fighters are taking a much harder look at those burning gases in how they add to the fire and fire extension.

Heat plays an important part in the destructive capabilities of fire and its spread. A small fire that does not consume large amounts of fuel can produce large amounts of destruc- tive heat. A fire that may just consume a sofa or chair can produce heat damage many times greater than the cost of the fire-involved item. Heat is also the main means by which fire trav- els. Flames do not cause a fire to move across an area, room, or building. It is the heat associ- ated with the flames that leads to fire spread. Furthermore, heat can travel great distances and heights without flames, to start new points of ignition.

Ignition temperature is the temperature where a solid fuel will ignite without direct flame contact. Most materials we use in our everyday lives have an ignition temperature somewhere between 400 and 600 degrees, well below the temperatures developed in a fire. If one of these fuels is put into an oven that has no flame, when the fuel reaches its ignition temperature, it will ignite. No flame is required to start combustion. The point is that it does not matter where the fire is, the important question is, where is the heat going? For example, in a high rise build- ing, a fire that starts in a basement where someone has left the stairwell doors open allows heat from the fire to travel to the upper floors of the building. Once the heat reaches that 400 to 600 degree range on those upper floors, fire will develop. It does not matter that the original fire is located 300 feet below the 30th floor. Fires will start!

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262 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

FIGURE 11-3 Use of fire extinguishers.

Kind of fire Approved type of extinguisher

Decide the class of fire you are fighting

Foam Carbon Dioxide

Pump tank

Carbon Dioxide gas under pressure

Solution of aluminium sulphate and bicarbonate of soda

Plain water

Gas cartridge

Water expelled by

carbon dioxide gas

Multi- purpose

dry chemical

Ordinary dry

chemical

Dry powder

Wet chemical

Class A fires Ordinary combustibles • Wood • Paper • Cloth etc.

Class B fires Flammable liquids, grease • Gasoline • Paints • Oils etc.

Class C fires Electrical equipment • Motors • Switches etc.

Class D fires Combustible metals • Magnesium • Sodium • Potassium etc.

Class K fires • Cooking oils • Fats

How to operate

Foam: Don't spray into the burning liquid. Allow foam to fall lightly on fire.

Carbon Dioxide: Direct discharge as close to fire as possible, first at edge of flames and gradually forward and upward.

Pump tank: Place foot on footrest and direct stream at base of flames.

Dry chemical: Direct at the base of the flames. In the case of class A fires, follow up by directing the dry chemicals at the material that is burning.

Wet chemical: Direct at the base of the flames.

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Fire evolves through three stages: incipient, free burning, and smoldering. The incipient stage is the moment the fire begins, when fuel, air, and an ignition source all come together at the right rate, for the correct period of time. Picture the instant a match falls in a trash can. There is little heat and little smoke; you can stand right in front of the trash can with no real concern. In the free burning stage, the fire is doing just what it wants, as it has plenty of fuel and air. However, as flames continue to develop with heat increasing, being close to the fire is almost impossible. In the smoldering stage air has been reduced or fuel is dwindling to the point where there is no visible flame, just an entire area filled with tremendous heat.

The plan of how to “fight” a given fire for extinguishment is determined by the stage that the fire is in. Another determining factor is whether the fire is confined or unconfined.

Most fires in a commercial setting are of a confined nature. An unconfined fire is similar to a campfire. The fire is doing just what it wants; the heat is going up, the smoke is going up, and it is doing what it naturally does. We could walk up to that fire and warm our hands or put the fire out by simply pouring a bucket of water on it. However, put that same fire in a room, confine it, and the heat and smoke still go up until they hit the ceiling, and then they to start to move laterally. The smoke and heat will not allow direct access to the fire anymore. This is why the fire stage and whether the fire is confined or unconfined are so important in determining how a fire is fought and the amount of extinguishment time involved.

Classes of Fire

All fires are classified into one of five groups. It is important that these groups and their desig- nations be widely known because the use of various kinds of extinguishers is dependent on the type of fire to be fought (see Figure 11-3).

l Class A. Fires of ordinary combustible materials, such as wastepaper, rags, drapes, and furniture. These fires are most effectively extinguished by water or water fog. It is important to cool the entire mass of burning material to below the ignition point to prevent rekindling.

l Class B. Liquid fuel fires such as gasoline, grease, oil, or volatile fluids, with the exception of some cooking oils. In this type of fire an oxygen displacement effect such as carbon dioxide (CO2) is used, or other fire extinguishing agents. A stream of water on such fires would simply serve to spread the substances, with disastrous results. Water fog, however, is excellent because it cools without spreading the fuel if applied by properly trained personnel.

l Class C. Fires involving live electrical equipment such as transformers, generators, or electric motors. The extinguishing agent is nonconductive to reduce the danger of electrocution to the firefighter. Electrical power should be disconnected before beginning extinguishing efforts, because you are basically extinguishing the Class A or B fuel around the energized equipment.

l Class D. Fires involving certain combustible metals such as magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Dry powder is usually the most, and in some cases the only, effective extinguishing agent. Because these fires can only occur where such combustible metals are in use or production, they are fortunately rare.

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264 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

l Class K. In recent years studies have found that some cooking oils produce too much heat to be controlled and extinguished by the traditional Class B extinguishing agents. Class K fires and extinguishers deal with cooking oil fires.

Extinguishers

The security department must evaluate the fire risk for each facility or department and deter- mine the types of fires most likely to occur. Although the potential for all types of fires exists and should be planned for, certain production areas are more likely to have a specific type of fire than are others. This condition should be considered when assigning extinguishers to the department or facility. Every operation is potentially subject to Class A and C fires, and most are also threatened by Class B fires to some degree.

Having made such a determination, security must then select the types of fire extinguishers most likely to be useful. The choice of extinguisher is not difficult, but it can only be made after the nature of the risks is determined. Extinguisher manufacturers can supply all pertinent data on the equipment they supply, but the types in general use should be known. It is important to know, for example, that over the years the soda/acid and carbon tetrachloride extinguishers have been prohibited. They are no longer manufactured. An extinguisher that must be inverted to be activated is no longer legal.

There are a number of considerations when choosing fire extinguishers to be used in a given facility. First, what type of fire do you anticipate, as stated above? Second, how compat- ible is the fire extinguisher with the environment and personnel who are going to use it? Is the fire extinguishing agent inside the fire extinguisher going to do more harm than the fire? Are personnel of a size and stature to handle such an extinguisher?

Fire extinguishers must be matched up with the type of fire they will be effective on. Again, all extinguishers have their good and bad points to consider:

l Dry chemical. These are designed for Class B and C fires. l Multi-purpose dry chemical. These extinguishers are designed for use on Class A, B, and C fires. l Dry powder. This is used on Class D fires. It smothers and coats. l Foam extinguishers. These are effective for Class A and B fires where blanketing is desirable. l CO2. Used on Class B or C fires, CO2 has no lasting cooling effect due to the fact that the gas

dissipates so quickly, making flashbacks of fires a concern. l Wet agents. New clean water-based wet agents have been developed for different classes

of fires. They are cleaner then the powders and more desirable in some occupancies. It is necessary to match up the proper extinguisher with the type of protection desired.

Halogenated agents, though no longer in production, do have substitutes taking their place. Research the proper substitution agent to meet protection needs.

After extinguishers have been installed, a regular program of inspection and maintenance must be established. A good policy is for security personnel to check all devices visually once a month and to have the extinguisher service company inspect them twice a year. In this pro- cess, the service person should retag and if necessary recharge the extinguishers and replace

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defective equipment (see Figure 11-4). It is a good idea to check with your extinguisher ser- vice people to know when routine service requires the fire extinguishers to be discharged or emptied. This is a good time to do employee/fire brigade training because the company will be paying for refill service. It is a good cost-saving measure.

Fire Alarm Signaling Systems

Early notification is the key to fast, loss-reduction, and lifesaving extinguishment of fire. If a fire is discovered in the very first stages before it develops, it can be extinguished with a minimal amount of exposure to personnel and use of extinguishing agents. For example, should a fire develop in a waste can and activate a sensor quickly, a person could easily and safely approach it with a handheld extinguisher and extinguish it. This is the general concept of detection/sig- naling systems and fire extinguishers on the premises that could be used by trained person- nel. The simple rule is small fire, small extinguishment, large fire, large extinguishment. Should that waste can fire go undetected and develop, lateral extension would not allow personnel to safely approach it and on-premises extinguishing units would not be adequate for extinguish- ment. Delays in fire detection and alarm notification have been one of the major causes of large loss of life and property fires.

Most fires are discovered by our senses. We see them, smell them, and sometimes hear them. Normally we are left with nothing more than the chance for human discovery. A fully functional high-tech alarm system (see Figure 11-5) gives early detection 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Whether someone is on the premises or not, notification can occur.

A total fire alarm system, like intrusion alarms, can be viewed as consisting of the signaling system and the alarm and sensor system. The alarm system discovers the fire and activates a circuit, and then the signaling device notifies those concerned of the danger.

FIGURE 11-4 Fire extinguisher safety checklist.

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When determining the type of alarm system to utilize, one should check with code require- ments, seek recommendations from insurance carriers, and evaluate unique features of the premises and operation. One will discover that some systems have better sensitivity, reliabil- ity, maintainability, and stability than others. Though all detectors may on the surface appear to do what you want, it must be realized that some do a better job in certain situations. For example, it may not be advantageous to have a highly sensitive sensor in a highly contami- nated area. This could cause numerous false alarms. Also in areas such as computer rooms, one would want a sensor that would activate before heat or smoke develop.

Sensors Sensors (detectors) can be categorized by what they are sensing. By looking at what fire pro- duces, we can class them as flame detectors, smoke detectors, and heat detectors. Again, an

FIGURE 11-5 Elements of a fire alarm system. (Courtesy of EST, www.est.net/std.)

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 267

evaluation should be made of the premises to determine what type of detector meets code and the specific needs of the area to be protected.

Today the terms sensor, detector, and initiating device are synonymous. This is a device that “initiates” a signal to activate the alarm system. This device should be viewed as nothing more than a switch, similar in principle to a light switch. When we turn on a light switch the light comes on. When initiating devices are activated they can cause alarms to sound, signals to be sent, and even safety features of the premises to be activated. These devices can be automatic: smoke detectors, heat detectors, or flame detectors. They could also be manual, such as a pull station. Alarm systems will be incorporated with other safety systems such as a sprinkler sys- tem. Flow switches are initiating devices that are placed in the piping of sprinkler systems to send a signal indicating water is flowing and the system has activated. Sprinkler systems can be incorporated into the alarm system as any initiating device.

Flame detectors are used in locations where signals must be sent before heat and smoke develop. They are often found in computer and high-tech areas. Flame detectors are “line of sight” detectors, meaning they must be located in varying spots in the area to be protected because they must “see” the flame. They respond to either ultraviolet or infrared light. Some detectors today are produced with both ultraviolet and infrared sensors in them to reduce false alarms.

Smoke detectors are broken into two groups, photoelectric and ionization. Photoelectric are either beam or refraction type. Beam smoke detectors operate on the principle of a light and a receiver. Once enough smoke or fire by-product breaks the beam of light, the device acti- vates. The refraction type detector has a blocker between the light and the receiver and oper- ates with the principle that once there is enough smoke in the detector the light signal refracts (reflects) around the blocker to the receiver. Ionization type detectors monitor the air around them constantly. Once enough fire by-products enter the detector, the contaminants will com- plete a circuit that sends the signal.

Heat detectors can be grouped as fixed temperature and rate of rise. Fixed temperature detectors activate at a predetermined temperature. Rate of rise detectors activate at changes in heat in the area they are located. Heat detectors are slower to react than other detectors, but they have less chance for false alarms and are durable in many applications.

Fixed temperature detectors can be the following types: fusible link, frangible bulb, contin- uous line, and bimetallic.

Rate of rise detectors are categorized as either pneumatic, rate compensation, or thermoelectric.

Signal Devices The signal sent by initiating devices will send a signal to the system control unit that processes the alarm. It is often referred to as the main control panel. These main panels are electrically powered and have a secondary backup source of battery power or a generator.

The system control unit will send signals via circuitry to various components the system may have. It could retransmit the signal to a signaling system and activate on-premises safety features. For example, a system may be designed such that when a heat detector is activated, horns will go off in the building to notify the occupants, a signal will be sent via telephone

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wires to an alarm monitoring location, fire doors in the building will shut to compartmental- ize the fire, and heating and cooling units will shut down to stop the spread of smoke and toxic gases.

Signaling systems are broken into five categories: local, auxiliary, remote station, proprie- tary, and central station.

Local systems do not retransmit the alarm anywhere. This is always a concern because there is a fear that people will assume that a response to the alarm is coming. Workers, resi- dents, and employees must be made aware of the operation of this system. Most codes today will require systems to be retransmitted, but many are still in place since their installation.

Auxiliary systems are utilized in communities that have a municipal alarm system. Building alarms are connected to a system owned and operated by the municipality. The signal may be transmitted to a fire station or central receiving location.

Remote station systems are ones that lease phone line service to transmit the alarm signal to a location. This is nothing more than a phone line, the same as you have in your home.

Proprietary systems are those that are owned and operated by the building or complex owner. A series of buildings or warehouses on the same location would have their alarm sys- tems send a signal to an owner-controlled location, such as a security office. This office would monitor the entire area. Once a signal is received, company personnel via phone would retransmit the alarm.

A central station system is one that is independently owned and operated by an alarm com- pany. It may be located in the immediate town or city, or it may be located across the country. Signals are transmitted via phone lines to a continually manned location that then contacts the proper responding agency. This is one of the more popular systems due to the fact that many cities have decided not to take on the responsibility of receiving alarms and instead have priva- tized systems.

Whenever alarm and signaling systems are on the premises, representatives of the property should view an acceptance test after the installation of the system. Service tests should be con- ducted at required or recommended intervals and documentation should verify the testing.

Automatic Sprinkler Systems Similar to alarm systems, sprinkler systems provide around-the-clock protection to a building. Ninety-six percent of fires in buildings equipped with sprinkler systems will either be extin- guished or held in check until responding agencies arrive. The 4 percent of failure is due to human error, design, maintenance, or the result of an explosion that has rendered the system inoperative.

Concerns of sprinkler systems are the high cost of installation, especially retrofitting them to existing buildings, and water damage. As the popularity of plastic pipe increases and the fire codes allow more of their use, the cost of sprinkler system installation is coming down. If one were to calculate the cost of smoke and heat damage in a fire and the amount of water damage done by fire personnel with fire hoses, it would be realized that the fears of sprinkler system water damage are unfounded. Good sprinkler system design will eliminate those fears. Many codes will require sprinkler systems in certain occupancies and it can be found that over

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a period of time the savings in insurance coverage justifies their use. Interfacing the sprinkler system with a detection system can control water damage.

Sprinkler systems are classified into five groups: wet, dry, pre-action, deluge, and cyclic. Wet systems will have water in them all the time, right up to the sprinkler head mounted

in the ceiling or wall. The sprinkler heads are made to open individually at a given tempera- ture, determined by code or requirements of the occupancy. Once they open, they do not close again. To discontinue water flow the source of water must be shut off.

A dry system has no water in it. The water is held back by a valve that is kept in the closed position by air pressure or an electric valve. This system is used mainly to protect unheated areas. It is more cost-effective to heat the valve room than an entire warehouse used for cold storage.

Pre-action systems incorporate a detection system. Concerns for water damage and false activation of the system can be eliminated with this system. A valve holds water in the sys- tem back. The valve is activated by initiating devices (detectors) in the area. Once the detector senses the fire, the valve is opened and the system is charged. The sprinkler head must also open for water to be discharged. In this case, two steps are required to discharge water. Multi- detector circuits could be added to require multiple steps for system activation.

A deluge system is similar to a pre-action system except all the sprinkler heads are in the opened position. It is obvious that water damage in this case is not a concern. Due to the nature of the situation or occupancy, extinguishment far outweighs other issues. Once the detector senses a fire, the valve opens and all sprinkler heads discharge.

A cyclic sprinkler head is more of a head type than a system. The opening and closing of a cyclic sprinkler head is controlled by a thermostat that is part of the sprinkler head. When the thermostat reaches a predetermined temperature, it opens; once it falls below that tempera- ture, it closes. Cyclic sprinkler heads are one of the rare sprinkler heads that do not need to be replaced after a fire unless damaged. One drawback to the cyclic sprinkler head is that, although many thought it to be a help in reducing water damage, it was troublesome in that it often just discharged enough water to keep the fire in the smoldering state, causing smoke generation.

Education in Fire Prevention and Safety

Educating employees about fire prevention, fire protection, and evacuation procedures should be a continuous program. Ignorance and carelessness are the causes of most fires and of much loss of life. An ongoing fire-safety program will inform all employees and help keep them aware of the ever-present, very real danger of fire.

Such a program would ideally include fire and evacuation drills. Since such exercises require shutting down operations for a period of time and lead to the loss of expensive produc- tive effort time, management is frequently cool toward them. Indoctrination sessions for new employees and regular review sessions for all personnel, however, are essential. Such sessions should be brief and involve only small groups.

In many businesses visitors and guests should also be made aware of fire and evacua- tion plans. Pamphlets describing plans should be available as well as placards that indicate the location of fire exits in relation to the placards. In the case of hotels and other facilities

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that have resident clientele, the law demands such actions. In the recent nightclub deaths in Chicago (2003), West Warwick, Rhode Island (2003), and Perm, Russia (2009), patrons were unable to escape the facilities due to panic and lack of orientation to their surroundings. Perhaps better marking of emergency exits with properly working emergency exit hardware may have reduced the number of fatalities.

Employees in Fire Fighting Because the danger of fire with its concomitant risk to life and property affects every employee, many experts feel that the responsibility in case of fire is a shared one. The exception to this rule is when the firm has a well-trained fire unit. Few experts would disagree that everyone must be educated in the principles of fire prevention and protection, including indoctrination in evacuation procedures and on reporting a fire. But beyond this, there is little agreement on what employees should be asked to do.

Some business offices set up a system of floor wardens whose job it is to pass the word for evacuation and who then sweep their area of responsibility to see that it is clear of person- nel, that papers are deposited in fireproof containers, and that high-value, portable assets are removed from the premises.

Others take the view that their employees were not hired to act as emergency supervisors. Many firms of this latter persuasion ask that certain minimal functions be performed by those persons who are on hand but do not assign roles to specific people. Examples might be a pol- icy of returning tapes to a fireproof container in the computer area or securing fire-resistant safes in the accounting or cashier’s office before evacuation. This responsibility would fall on the personnel in these areas at the time of an alarm and would or should take little time to accomplish. When the signal for evacuation is given, no time should be lost in vacating the building.

Many professionals feel that office employees should never be asked to do more than see to their own safety by making an orderly retreat along predetermined escape routes. Only in the most extreme emergency—and then only if they are otherwise trapped—should employees engage in fighting a fire of any magnitude. They can be expected as a normal reaction to make an effort to put out a wastebasket fire or a small blaze in a broom closet, but even in these cases the alarm must be given as first priority. Any fire that threatens to involve a major part of an office or other parts of the building should be left to professionals (company fire units, secu- rity personnel, or the fire department). Obviously all such situations are matters of on-the-spot judgment. Policies covering every situation are difficult, if not impossible, to predetermine.

The situation is quite different in industrial fire operations. In such facilities, the formation of a fire brigade composed of a few selected and trained employees is a fairly common prac- tice. There is general agreement that the nature of their employment in industrial areas makes these employees more competent to handle fire-fighting assignments, which are in many cases not that far removed from their regular work.

The exact size of each fire-protection organization will vary according to the size and func- tion of each facility. Very large facilities or those whose fire risks are high because of the nature of the operations may have a full-time fire department. In smaller or less hazardous facilities,

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regular employees are organized into fire brigades that are broken down, usually by depart- ments or areas, into fire companies. These companies are assigned to given areas for purposes of fire protection, fire prevention, and fire fighting. They are also available, as part of the fire brigades, in any other area of the plant if a fire occurs that requires more personnel than the assigned company can provide.

The size of the brigade will depend on the size of the plant, the nature of the risk involved, and the willingness to take on that risk. It will also be affected by the general availability, size, competence, and response capability of the public fire-fighting facilities in the neighboring areas. Whatever the size, however, it must consist of people sufficiently well trained and famil- iar with the plant operation and layout to fight fires effectively in any part of the facility if such a need arises. They may be an incipient fire brigade or an interior fire brigade. Incipient fire brigades will be trained to handle fires in their earliest stage. The use of fire extinguishers by employees may be all the involvement this group will have. Interior fire brigades will be trained and equipped to the level of many fire departments. OSHA standards as well as other standards should be evaluated to determine the level of training required for an interior fire brigade.

The plant engineer and the maintenance crew should certainly be included in the brigade. Their knowledge in servicing valves, pumps, and other machinery is invaluable in emergency situations.

Evacuation EVACUATING INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES Evacuation plans for an industrial facility are relatively simple to design because most buildings within the perimeter are one-, two-, or in rare cases three-story buildings. Fire exits can be read- ily identified for such a plan of action. Because they are occupied by personnel of a single com- pany or under that company’s jurisdiction, a single plan involving all personnel can be drawn up. And because in most cases aesthetic considerations are not a prime concern in the design of the industrial building, fire escapes can be constructed in any way for the greatest safety.

Although many of these buildings have elevators, most of which serve the dual purpose of hauling freight and personnel, these elevators are not necessarily the prime means of moving to and from the upper level as they are in high-rise office buildings.

Generally, these buildings can be cleared in minutes. This is not to say that an evacuation plan is not needed. It is, and it must be widely distributed and clearly understood. Most indus- trial buildings are more open, the exits are more visible—more a part of the unconscious ori- entation of the employees and, therefore, more a part of the natural traffic flow—than these elements are in many other types of construction. Again, accountability of all personnel is nec- essary once evacuation is completed. Part of the evacuation plan should address and define the process to be used for accountability.

EVACUATING HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS Evacuation from high-rise urban buildings is quite a different story. In this situation, employ- ees come to work and leave regularly by elevator. Yet if there should be a fire, they are told they must not use the only means of entrance and exit they really know.

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In most cases, they have never been on the fire stairs. They may have only a vague idea where those stairs are located, but in a time of emergency—a time of anxiety bordering on panic when instinctual behavior is the most natural—they are asked to vacate the premises in a way that to them is very unnatural indeed.

Even in wide-open industrial facilities where orientation is quick and easy, there will always be some people who will pass a clearly marked exit to get to the employee door they are used to using. This is much more likely to happen in buildings with windowless corridors and fire exits—however clearly lighted and marked they are—that are well off the normal traffic pattern used by employees. A good emergency lighting system can do much to reduce this potentially life-threatening problem.

To overcome this problem, which must be overcome until such time as elevators are made safe to use in the case of fire, it is advisable to walk all employees as a drill from their desks to the nearest fire exit and to the nearest secondary exit they would use in case their first escape route was cut off by fire or smoke. In addition, the use of “You Are Here” placards can assist those who become disoriented in a building to find the nearest safe exit. This orientation could be done over a period of time with small groups at each drill. It is important that the drill actually start at the desk or office of the employee so that the route as well as the location of the exit is made clear.

People need to be educated that in some occupancies elevators are programmed not to operate once the fire alarm system activates. And though dramatic on the news, roof evacua- tions are difficult, slow, and subject to many factors that make it the least desirable evacuation. People should be taught to move down, and if down is not possible, laterally to another exit and then down. Roof evacuation should be the last consideration.

PLANNING AND TRAINING Evacuation plans must be based on a well-considered system and on thorough and continu- ing education. They should also be based on indoctrinating employees in the principles of fire safety, stressing that they are to make their own way to the proper exit and leave as quickly and as calmly as possible.

Adults do not respond to being lined up like children at a fire drill and marched down the fire stairs. Though they might be inclined to follow a leader under many circumstances, when it comes to a concept as simple as vacating the premises, a leader has no purpose or place. They will rebel or even panic if they feel restrained or regimented in their movements toward the exit.

In setting up plans for evacuation, it might be well to review and evaluate the circum- stances of a given facility and then ask a few questions.

1. Are routes to exits well lighted, fairly direct, and free of obstacles? 2. Are elevators posted to warn against their use in case of fire? Do these signs point out the

direction of fire exits? 3. Are disabled persons provided for? 4. Do corridors have emergency lighting in the event of power failure? 5. Who makes the decision to evacuate? How will personnel be notified? 6. Who will operate the communication system? What provisions have been made in case

the primary communication system breaks down? Who is assigned to provide and receive

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information on the state of the emergency and the progress of the evacuation? By what means?

7. How do we account for everyone? Do we know if everyone is out of the building? How do we verify that?

Safety and Loss Control Safety consciousness in business and industry did not begin with the establishment of the OSHA in 1970, but it is largely a product of the 20th century. Prior to the Industrial Revolution early in the 19th century, workers were independent craftspeople. If they suffered economic loss because of accident or illness rising out of prolonged exposure to a particular work envi- ronment, the problem was the craftsperson’s, not the employer’s. This attitude generally prevailed during the rapid expansion of the factory system in America throughout the 19th century. Only toward the latter part of the 19th century did it begin to become obvious that factories were far superior in terms of production capability to the small handicraft shops, yet they were often inferior in terms of human values, health, and safety.

The atmosphere of reform that gained impetus after the turn of the century resulted in, among other new laws, the first effective Workmen’s Compensation Act in Wisconsin in 1911. Compulsory laws on workmen’s compensation followed in many states after the U.S. Supreme Court upheld their constitutionality in 1916. Even the most hardheaded employers found that their costs dictated compliance with the spirit of the law.

As a result of this growing concern for industrial safety, there followed a long downward curve in work-connected accidents and injuries that lasted through the period between the two world wars and continued into the 1950s. By 1958 this trend had leveled off, and by 1968, for the first time in more than 50 years, the curve began to rise again.

Fourteen thousand occupational fatalities and more than two million disabling, work-con- nected injuries each year seemed to be considerably more than the number that might one day be arrived at as the irreducible minimum. The result throughout the 1960s was increas- ing federal concern with establishing standards of occupational safety and health. Prior to that decade, only a few federal laws, such as the Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act, had been enacted, with most legislation in this area being left to the states. During the 1960s a number of laws were passed—the McNamara-O’Hara Service Contracts Act, the Federal Construction Safety Act, and the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act among others—all dealing with safety and health standards in specific fields and under specific circumstances. Public Law 91-596, known as OSHA, which was signed into law on December 29, 1970, was the first leg- islation that attempted to apply standards to virtually every employer and employee in the country.

OSHA Standards

Generally speaking, OSHA requires that an employer provide a safe and healthful place for employees to work. This is spelled out in great detail in the act to avoid leaving the thrust of

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the legislation in any doubt. Though much of the language in the act is technical in nature and largely couched in legalese, the thrust of the legislation is absolutely clear and unambiguous in what is known as the “General Duty” clause that states that each employer “shall furnish to each of his employees a place of employment free from recognized hazards that are causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees” and that, further, the employer “shall comply with all occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this Act.”9 Much of the rest of the act deals with procedures and standards of safety and is in places difficult to follow.

It speaks of free and accessible means of egress, of aisles and working areas free of debris, of floors free from hazards. It gives specific requirements for machines and equipment, mate- rials, and power sources. It specifies fire protection by fixed or portable systems, clean lunch- rooms, environmental health controls, and adequate sanitation facilities. Whereas in past years employers might contend in all sincerity that their facilities met community standards for safety and cleanliness, with the enactment of OSHA these standards have been formalized to describe minimum levels of acceptability. Although employers might also contend that some specific demands of the act are unclear, there is no mistaking the purpose of the act: “The Congress declares to be its purpose and policy to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources.”

Perhaps the strongest resistance to OSHA in its first years was the complaint that some of the basic standards went too far or were unnecessary. In May 1978 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the agency could not conduct surprise workplace inspections without a proper war- rant.10 And with growing criticism from that time period, the OSHA administration has con- tinually sought the elimination of “Mickey Mouse” standards that have no direct bearing on improving safety in the workplace.

In 1988 OSHA issued the Hazard Communication Standard, which states that all employees have the right to know what hazards exist in their place of employment and what to do to pro- tect themselves from the hazards. Simple labels and warnings on containers are not enough. Employers must have a program to communicate more detail on all hazards, including a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) that must be available for each chemical at the work site. Each MSDS contains seven sections:

1. Product identification and emergency notification instructions 2. Hazardous ingredients list and exposure limits 3. Physical and chemical characteristics 4. Physical hazards and how to handle them (that is, fire, explosion) 5. Reactivity—what the product might react with and whether it is stable 6. Health hazards—how the product can enter the body, signs and symptoms of problems,

and emergency first-aid steps 7. Safe handling procedures

Setting Up the Safety Program

H. W. Heinrich, an outstanding pioneer in safety studies, held that unsafe acts caused 85 percent of all accidents and that unsafe conditions caused the remaining 15 percent.11 Therefore if these

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acts could be modified, the accidents would be sharply reduced. Today safety supervisors agree that unsafe acts are the principal villain and that the system’s approach to safety is the only real way to control losses. It is necessary, however, for management to get the system together and implement a strong, active program so that it is effective. Safety problems are caused, they do not just happen, and each problem can be identified and controlled.12

The three Es need to be addressed when developing a safety program. They are engineer- ing, education, and enforcement. First, one must build and develop a good program. Second, everyone needs to be educated to the program and the part he or she plays in it. Third, the pro- gram must be enforced to see that it is followed.

Accidents, by our definition, refer to property damage as well and in aggregate can amount to substantial cost for the company that fails to keep them under control. In fact, an effective loss-control program can be an organization’s best moneymaker, when it can be shown that the actual cost of accidents may be anywhere from 6 to 50 times as much as the money recovered from insurance. Uninsured costs in building damage, production damage, wages to the injured for lost time, clerical costs, cost of training new workers and supervisors, and extra time all mount up. By controlling such incidents through careful study of hazards and the introduction of safety programs to deal with the hazards, the profit picture will be immeasurably improved. In a company operating at a 4 percent profit margin, the sales department would have to gener- ate sales of $1,250,000 just to compensate for an annual loss of $50,000 in incidents.

Finding the Causes of Accidents

The causes of accidents should be determined before they occur. Because accidents are caused, the conditions that cause them can be known and controlled. It is therefore of the greatest importance that management deal vigorously with what can cause an accident. Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions will ultimately cause accidents if they are allowed to continue.

Unsafe acts will be discovered and corrected only when immediate supervisors are alert to the problems. They must set up systems for observing all workers closely while they are per- forming their jobs, especially those in hazardous jobs. To do this, they must have a job-safety analysis at their disposal. This analysis divides each job into component parts, and each part is studied for the hazards it may present.

Unsafe conditions are uncovered by constant inspection. Such conditions do not disappear entirely because they have been taken care of once. Unsafe conditions are continuously cre- ated by the operation of the facility. Normal wear and tear, careless housekeeping, initial bad design, or simply the deterioration that results from inadequate maintenance caused by a cost- cutting management—all create unsafe conditions that have high potential loss factors. Early discovery of unsafe conditions is essential to good loss control, and the procedure is simply inspection, inspection, inspection.

Identification and Control of Hazards

OSHA standards (or equivalent state standards) provide the baseline for a company’s safety program. A bewildering catalog of standards has already developed, and new ones are

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constantly being added. Checklists (available from OSHA, the National Safety Council, insur- ance carriers, and other sources) can provide the starting point for detailed inspections to identify hazards. The confusion that might accompany a consideration of all the standards begins to sort itself out when inspections zero in only on those standards that apply to specific operations and conditions.

A safety program should include periodic inspections scheduled at regular intervals. Figure 11-6 is an example of a monthly checklist for inspection. In addition, looking for safety hazards and violations should be part of the day-to-day activity of both safety professionals and security personnel. Some hazards that might be present in any business facility are shown in Table 11-1.

A Hazardous Materials Program

In addition to the seven steps in safety planning, particular types of businesses dealing with hazardous substances should have a hazardous materials program. As a minimum, it is neces- sary to:

1. Identify what hazardous materials you have and where they are 2. Know how to respond to an accident involving hazardous materials 3. Know how to deal with spills 4. Set up appropriate safeguards 5. Train employees in dealing with hazardous materials

As has been discussed earlier, MSDSs are designed specifically to help identify the nature of potential hazards. These data sheets are obtainable from vendors of hazardous materials or equipment.

Management Leadership

Management’s attitude toward safety filters down throughout the entire company. Top man- agement’s concern will be reflected in that of the supervisors; in turn, the supervisor’s atten- tion to safety will affect the individual employee’s attitude. Management is responsible not only for a basic policy for providing a work environment free of hazards, which should be embodied in an executive policy statement, but also for active leadership. This can be expressed by holding subordinates responsible for accident prevention and in such visible ways as plant tours, letters to employees, safety meetings, posters, prompt accident investiga- tions, and personal example. (In a hard hat area, for example, the president of the company should also put on a hard hat.)

General safety rules must be established and published in the employee handbook or man- ual. Safety rules should be continually reviewed and updated.

Assignment of Responsibility

Responsibility for the safety program should be clear and personal. In the small company, it may rest on the owner. It will generally be an added responsibility of the supervisors in compa- nies with fewer than 100 employees.

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 277

In larger companies, safety should be a responsibility assigned to a ranking member of management who may delegate the authority to oversee the program to a safety director (who may be called the safety professional, safety engineer, or safety supervisor, depending on his or

FIGURE 11-6 Monthly safety checklist.

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Table 11-1 Common Safety Hazards

1. Floors, aisles, stairs, and walkways Oil spills or other slippery substances that might result in an injury-producing fall. Litter-obscuring hazards such as electrical floor plugs, projecting material, or material that might contribute to the fueling of a fire. Electrical wire, cable, pipes, or other objects crossing aisles that are not clearly marked or properly covered. Stairways that are too steep, have no nonskid floor covering, inadequate or nonexistent railings, poor lighting, or those that are in a poor state of repair. Overhead walkways that have inadequate railings, are not covered with nonskid material, or that are in a poor state of repair. Walks and aisles that are exposed to the elements and have not been cleared of snow or ice, that are slippery when wet, or that are in a poor state of repair. Aisles may be blocked with stock or items that reduce the ability to exit safely or get emergency equipment where needed.

2. Doors and emergency exits Doors that are ill-fitting, stick, and that might cause a slowdown during emergency evacuation. Panic-type hardware that is inoperative or in a poor state of repair. Doors that have been designated for emergency exit but that are locked and not equipped with panic-type hardware. Doors that have been designated for emergency exit but that are blocked by equipment or by debris. Missing or burned-out emergency exit lights. Nonexistent or poorly marked routes leading to emergency exit doors.

3. Flammable and other dangerous materials Flammable gases and liquids that are uncontrolled, in areas in which they might constitute a serious threat. Radioactive material not properly stored or handled. Paint or painting areas that are not properly secured or that are in areas that are poorly ventilated. Gasoline pumping areas located dangerously close to operations that are spark-producing or in which open flame is being used.

4. Protective equipment or clothing Workmen in areas where toxic fumes are present who are not equipped with or who are not using respiratory protective apparatus. Workmen involved in welding, drilling, sawing, and other eye-endangering occupations who have not been provided or who are not wearing protective eye covering. Workmen in areas requiring the wearing of protective clothing, due to exposure to radiation or toxic chemicals, who are not using such protection. Workmen engaged in the movement of heavy equipment or materials who are not wearing protective footwear. Workmen who require prescription eyeglasses who are not provided or are not wearing safety lenses.

5. Vehicle operation and parking Forklifts that are not equipped with audible and visual warning devices when backing. Trucks that are not provided with a guide when backing into a dock or that are not properly chocked while parking. Speed violations by cars, trucks, lifts, and other vehicles being operated within the protected area. Vehicles that are operated with broken, insufficient, or nonexistent lights during the hours of darkness. Vehicles that constitute a hazard due to poor maintenance procedures on brakes and other safety-related equipment. Vehicles that are parked in fire lanes, block fire lanes and emergency exits, or fire protection equipment and system access.

(Continued)

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 279

her qualifications and the nature of the operation). In many companies, safety is a responsibil- ity of the security director, who will often have a safety specialist as a subordinate. (In virtually all circumstances, there is a close relationship between safety and security.)

Training

All employees must be initially and periodically trained both in general safety principles and in safe work practices in their specific jobs. Safety rules such as the wearing of protective cloth- ing (gloves, headgear, respirators, shoes, eye protection, and such) should be clearly explained and promptly enforced. The importance the company attaches to safety should particularly be emphasized in new employee training, but it is also important to pay attention to regular employees including the “old-timers” who did not grow up with safety awareness as part of their conditioning. Certificates for completion of classes should be given to employees at the workplace to show the importance of the program.

In addition to the above, there are specific training requirements in the OSHA standards (such as those involving the operation of certain types of equipment). Employers and employ- ees should be aware of those standards that apply in the specific workplace.

Emergency Care

Under OSHA, all businesses are required, in the absence of an infirmary or hospital in the immediate vicinity, to have a person or persons trained in first aid available, along with

Table 11-1 (Continued)

6. Machinery maintenance and operation Frayed electrical wiring that might result in a short circuit or malfunction of the equipment. Workers who operate, process, or work near or on belts, conveyors, and other moving equipment who are wearing loose-fitting clothing that might be caught and drag them into the equipment. Presses and other dangerous machinery that is not equipped with the required hand guards or with automatic shutoff devices or dead-man controls.

7. Welding and other flame- or spark-producing equipment Welding torches and spark-producing equipment being used near flammable liquid or gas storage areas or being used in the vicinity where such products are dispensed or are part of the productive process. The use of flame- or spark-producing equipment near wood shavings, oily machinery, or where they might damage electrical wiring. Follow-up inspection should be done periodically at intervals to make sure there are no smoldering heat sources.

8. Miscellaneous hazards Medical and first-aid supplies not properly stored, marked, or maintained. Color coding of hazardous areas or materials not being accomplished or that is not uniform. Broken or unsafe equipment and machinery not being properly tagged with a warning of its condition. Electrical boxes and wiring not properly inspected or maintained, permitting them to become a hazard. Emergency evacuation routes and staging areas not properly marked or identified.

Source: Eugene Finneran, Security Supervision: A Handbook for Supervisors and Managers (Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1981).

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280 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

first-aid supplies. Where employees are exposed to corrosive materials, procedures for drench- ing or flushing the eyes and body should be provided in the work area.

Procedures should be established for handling injury accidents without confusion or delay. The extent of these preparations will, of course, depend on the nature of the business and the types of hazards.

Employee Awareness and Participation

Developing safety and health awareness is one of the primary goals of OSHA. Active steps by management, such as those suggested previously, are essential to involve all employees in the need to create a safe work environment.

Safety awareness has an added benefit for both the employer and employees in that it tends to carry over into a concern for off-the-job safety. Accidents away from the work environment account for more than half of all injuries, and the ratio of deaths is three-to-one higher in off- the-job accidents. Carrying safety practices from the job to activities away from the job is an aspect of safety training that is receiving increasing emphasis from today’s safety profession- als. Table 11-2 lists potential problems associated with disasters and the agency charged with providing potential assistance.

Summary With the advent of OSHA, the attention focused on safety in the workplace created many new attitudes about the place of loss control within the organization. Many companies that had at best paid lip service to concepts of safety that are commonplace today came to see that safety, like security, is good business and that a well-managed loss-control program would produce gratifying savings in a potentially costly area of company operations. But it must be noted that a well-managed safety program goes well beyond simply complying with OSHA standards.

Table 11-2 Typical Human Problems as a Result of Disaster and Potential Agencies for Assistance

Shelter Civil Defense and Red Cross Food Red Cross and civic groups Water Civil government Emergency care Hospitals and clinics Medical evaluations Hospitals and health agencies Personal protection Police and National Guard Illumination Public utilities Communications Citizen band radio and National Guard Transportation National Guard, local trucking and bus companies Property protection Police, auxiliary police, and National Guard

Source: Dennis Sigwart, “Disaster Planning Considerations for the Security/Safety Professional: A Historical Interface,” in John Chuvala III and Robert Fischer, eds., Suggested Preparation for Careers in Security/Loss Prevention, ed. 2 (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt 1999).

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Chapter 11 l Contingency Planning, Fire Protection, Emergency Response and Safety 281

In addition to recognizing OSHA standards, many companies have also placed more emphasis on fire prevention and protection. Some companies have even established their own fire departments, which are often better equipped than some municipal departments. Although there is some recognition of the importance of contingency planning, far too few firms have anything beyond a contingency plan that sits on a shelf in the CEO’s office. Even in those companies with crisis management teams, the members often do not meet to discuss how the team would function in an actual situation.

The most progressive firms offer the team members, fire brigades, and employees an opportunity to preplan (contingency planning) through mock exercises that replicate indus- trial disasters, explosions, fires, or tornado alerts. The end result is a better-prepared team of employees. Unfortunately many firms have not gone this far.

Contingency planning may not have been a traditional security process, but in today’s global business environment the security organization is assuming a much greater role and responsibility for its implementation. Even prior to the events of September 11, 2001, many organizations were becoming more conscious of the need to have contingency plans. A com- plete contingency planning program has three major elements:

1. Emergency response 2. Crisis management 3. Business continuity: business recovery and business resumption

Emergency response activities involve responding to an incident, crisis or disaster and managing that incident at the scene. Should an incident escalate to the crisis or disaster stage, a CMT should take over managing the crisis to its conclusion. If the crisis or disaster does cause damage to a company building, facility or operation, the CMT should hand over to a business continuity team the responsibility of recovery and resumption. After a disaster, it is critical that the business recovers and resumes normal (pre-event) operations as soon as possible. Customers, shareholders and stakeholders expect nothing less. Executive manage- ment has the obligation to ensure contingency planning is properly considered and addressed within their company. The consequences of not planning for contingencies can be cata- strophic, with numerous liability issues.

CRITICAL THINKING What is the relationship between safety issues, fire prevention and fire fighting, other emergencies and the process of contingency planning? Can a business be successful without having contingency plans?

Review Questions 1. What are the classes of fire, the fuels needed to ignite each, and the extinguishing agents

that can be used in each class? 2. In what ways is an ionization detector different from a smoke, infrared, or thermal detector?

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282 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

3. What are the key elements of any contingency plan? 4. What should be the role of security in developing a contingency plan? 5. When management is developing a plan for emergency evacuations, what things need to be

considered? 6. What is OSHA, and what effect has it had on company safety operations?

References [1] Block R. Pushing disaster preparedness the lieberman way. Wall St J Online 02/09/2007 and ANAB

Accreditation for Private Sector Preparedness Voluntary Certification, download 6/17/12, www.anab.org/ accreditation/preparedness.aspx.

[2] Sigwart DF. Disaster planning considerations for the security/safety professional: a historical interface. In: Chuvala III J, Fischer R, editors. Suggested preparation for careers in security/loss prevention (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt; 1999.

[3] <www.acp-international.com/> For contact information mail to:[email protected].

[4] http://www.flu.gov/individualfamily/about/h5n1/#what

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu

[6] Pugh T. Rating system develop to gauge pandemics. Houst Chron February 2, 2007:A10.

[7] Chapter 13, Firefighter’s handbook. 2nd ed. Clifton Park, NY: Thompson Delmar Learning; 2004.

[8] Bryan JL. In: Fire suppression and detection systems. New York: Macmillan; 1982. pp. 11–12.

[9] General Industry: Safety and Health Regulations, Part 1910, U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA; 1974.

[10] Marshall v. Barlow’s, 98 Sct. Rptr. 1816 (1978).

[11] Heinrich HW. In: Industrial accident prevention. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1959.

[12] Ibid.

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http://www.acp-international.com/

http://www.flu.gov/individualfamily/about/h5n1/%23what

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu