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Introduction to Leadership Fourth Edition

To Madison and Isla

Introduction to Leadership Concepts and Practice

Fourth Edition

Peter G. Northouse Western Michigan University

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Brief Contents Preface About the Author 1. Understanding Leadership 2. Recognizing Your Traits 3. Engaging Strengths 4. Understanding Philosophy and Styles 5. Attending to Tasks and Relationships 6. Developing Leadership Skills 7. Creating a Vision 8. Establishing a Constructive Climate 9. Embracing Diversity and Inclusion 10. Listening to Out-Group Members 11. Managing Conflict 12. Addressing Ethics in Leadership 13. Overcoming Obstacles Glossary Index

Detailed Contents Preface About the Author 1. Understanding Leadership

Introduction Leadership Explained

“Leadership Is a Trait” “Leadership Is an Ability” “Leadership Is a Skill” “Leadership Is a Behavior” “Leadership Is a Relationship” “Leadership Is an Influence Process”

Global Leadership Attributes The Dark Side of Leadership Leadership Snapshot: Indra Nooyi Summary Application

1.1 Case Study 1.2 Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire 1.3 Observational Exercise 1.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 2. Recognizing Your Traits

Introduction Leadership Traits Explained

Intelligence Confidence Charisma Determination Sociability Integrity

Leadership Snapshot: Nelson Mandela Leadership Traits in Practice

George Washington (1732–1799) Winston Churchill (1874–1965) Mother Teresa (1910–1997) Bill Gates (1955–) Oprah Winfrey (1954–)

Summary Application

2.1 Case Study 2.2 Leadership Traits Questionnaire 2.3 Observational Exercise 2.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 3. Engaging Strengths

Introduction Strengths-Based Leadership Explained

Historical Background Identifying and Measuring Strengths

Strengths-Based Leadership in Practice Discovering Your Strengths Developing Your Strengths Addressing Your Weaknesses

Leadership Snapshot: Steve Jobs Recognizing and Engaging the Strengths of Others Fostering a Positive Strengths-Based Environment

Summary Application

3.1 Case Study 3.2 Leadership Strengths Questionnaire 3.3 Observational Exercise 3.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 4. Understanding Philosophy and Styles

Introduction Leadership Philosophy Explained

Theory X Theory Y

Leadership Styles Explained Authoritarian Leadership Style Democratic Leadership Style Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

Leadership Snapshot: Victoria Ransom Leadership Styles in Practice Summary Application

4.1 Case Study 4.2 Leadership Styles Questionnaire 4.3 Observational Exercise 4.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 5. Attending to Tasks and Relationships

Introduction Task and Relationship Styles Explained

Task Style Relationship Style

Leadership Snapshot: Mick Wilz Task and Relationship Styles in Practice

Task Leadership

Relationship Leadership Summary Application

5.1 Case Study 5.2 Task and Relationship Questionnaire 5.3 Observational Exercise 5.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 6. Developing Leadership Skills

Introduction Administrative Skills Explained

Administrative Skills in Practice Interpersonal Skills Explained

Interpersonal Skills in Practice Leadership Snapshot: Coquese Washington Conceptual Skills Explained

Conceptual Skills in Practice Summary Application

6.1 Case Study 6.2 Leadership Skills Questionnaire 6.3 Observational Exercise 6.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 7. Creating a Vision

Introduction Vision Explained

A Picture A Change Values

Leadership Snapshot: Rosalie Giffoniello A Map A Challenge

Vision in Practice Articulating a Vision Implementing a Vision

Summary Application

7.1 Case Study 7.2 Leadership Vision Questionnaire 7.3 Observational Exercise 7.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 8. Establishing a Constructive Climate

Introduction Constructive Climate Explained

Climate in Practice Providing Structure Clarifying Norms Building Cohesiveness Promoting Standards of Excellence

Leadership Snapshot: Meg Whitman Summary Application

8.1 Case Study 8.2 Organizational Climate Questionnaire 8.3 Observational Exercise 8.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 9. Embracing Diversity and Inclusion

Introduction Diversity and Inclusion Explained

Definitions Brief Historical Perspective

Inclusion Framework Leadership Snapshot: Ursula Burns Diversity and Inclusion in Practice

Model of Inclusive Practices Leader Practices That Advance Diversity and Inclusion Barriers to Embracing Diversity and Inclusion

Summary Application

9.1 Case Study 9.2 Cultural Diversity Awareness Questionnaire 9.3 Observational Exercise 9.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 10. Listening to Out-Group Members

Introduction Out-Group Members Explained

How Out-Groups Form The Impact of Out-Group Members

Out-Group Members in Practice Strategy 1: Listen to Out-Group Members Strategy 2: Show Empathy to Out-Group Members Strategy 3: Recognize the Unique Contributions of Out-Group Members Strategy 4: Help Out-Group Members Feel Included Strategy 5: Create a Special Relationship With Out-Group Members Strategy 6: Give Out-Group Members a Voice and Empower Them to Act

Leadership Snapshot: Abraham Lincoln

Summary Application

10.1 Case Study 10.2 Building Community Questionnaire 10.3 Observational Exercise 10.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 11. Managing Conflict

Introduction Conflict Explained

Communication and Conflict Conflict on the Content Level

Leadership Snapshot: Humaira Bachal Conflict on the Relational Level

Managing Conflict in Practice Fisher and Ury Approach to Conflict Communication Strategies for Conflict Resolution Kilmann and Thomas Styles of Approaching Conflict

Summary Application

11.1 Case Study 11.2 Conflict Style Questionnaire 11.3 Observational Exercise 11.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 12. Addressing Ethics in Leadership

Introduction Leadership Ethics Explained Leadership Ethics in Practice

1. The Character of the Leader 2. The Actions of the Leader

Leadership Snapshot: Warren Buffett and Bill and Melinda Gates 3. The Goals of the Leader 4. The Honesty of the Leader 5. The Power of the Leader 6. The Values of the Leader

Culture and Leadership Ethics Summary Application

12.1 Case Study 12.2 Sample Items From the Ethical Leadership Style Questionnaire 12.3 Observational Exercise 12.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References 13. Overcoming Obstacles

Introduction

Obstacles Explained Overcoming Obstacles in Practice

Obstacle 1: Unclear Goals Obstacle 2: Unclear Directions Obstacle 3: Low Motivation

Leadership Snapshot: Bill Courtney Obstacle 4: Complex Tasks Obstacle 5: Simple Tasks Obstacle 6: Low Involvement Obstacle 7: Lack of a Challenge

Summary Application

13.1 Case Study 13.2 Path–Goal Styles Questionnaire 13.3 Observational Exercise 13.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

References Glossary Index

Preface Leadership is a salient topic today. Given the volatility of global events and our national political climate, it is even more important now than it was when the third edition of this book was published. The public remains fascinated by who leaders are and what leaders do. People want to know what accounts for good leadership and how to become good leaders. Despite this strong interest in leadership, there are very few books that clearly describe the complexities of practicing leadership. I have written Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice to fill this void.

Each chapter describes a fundamental principle of leadership and how it relates in practice to becoming an effective leader. These fundamentals are illustrated through examples, profiles of effective leaders, and case studies. The text comprises 13 chapters: Chapter 1, “Understanding Leadership,” analyzes how different definitions of leadership have an impact on the practice of leadership. Chapter 2, “Recognizing Your Traits,” examines leadership traits found to be important in social science research and explores the leadership traits of a select group of historical and contemporary leaders. Chapter 3, “Engaging Strengths,” discusses the emerging field of strengths-based leadership, looking at how several assessment tools can help one to recognize his or her own strengths and those of others and then put those strengths to work as an effective leader. Chapter 4, “Understanding Philosophy and Styles,” explores how a person’s view of people, work, and human nature forms a personal philosophy of leadership and how this relates to three commonly observed styles of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. Chapter 5, “Attending to Tasks and Relationships,” describes how leaders can integrate and optimize task and relationship behaviors in their leadership role. Chapter 6, “Developing Leadership Skills,” considers three types of leadership skills: administrative, interpersonal, and conceptual. Chapter 7, “Creating a Vision,” explores the characteristics of a vision and how a vision is expressed and implemented. Chapter 8, “Establishing a Constructive Climate,” focuses on how important it is for leaders who are running groups or organizations to provide structure, clarify norms, build cohesiveness, and promote standards of excellence. Chapter 9, “Embracing Diversity and Inclusion,” discusses the importance of inclusive leadership and the barriers that can be encountered when trying to embrace diversity and inclusion. Chapter 10, “Listening to Out-Group Members,” explores the nature of out-groups, their impact, and ways leaders should respond to out-group members. Chapter 11, “Managing Conflict,” addresses the question of how we can manage conflict and produce positive change. Chapter 12, “Addressing Ethics in Leadership,” explores six factors that are related directly to ethical leadership: character, actions, goals, honesty, power, and values. Finally, Chapter 13, “Overcoming Obstacles,” addresses seven obstacles that subordinates may face and how a leader can help to overcome these.

New to This Edition

This edition retains the chapters of the previous edition but has been expanded and enhanced in several ways:

First and foremost, it includes a new chapter on diversity and inclusion that examines the nature of diversity and inclusion, provides a model of inclusive behavior, describes communication practices to improve inclusion, and identifies barriers to effective inclusive leadership. Second, this edition premieres the Ethical Leadership Style Questionnaire, a self-assessment instrument that allows readers to learn what their ethical leadership behaviors tend to be. The questionnaire in this book is an abridged edition of a longer, more comprehensive assessment available to readers online. Third, several chapters include a look at the dark side of leadership in terms of the approaches explored in the book. Fourth, new case studies, examples, and research are integrated throughout the book. Fifth, this edition includes new “Ask the Author” videos that show Peter Northouse answering student questions.

Special Features Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice is designed to help the reader understand how to become a better leader. While the book is grounded in leadership theory, it describes the basics of leadership in an understandable and user-friendly way. Each chapter focuses on a fundamental aspect of leadership, discusses how it can be applied in real leadership situations, and provides a relevant profile of a leader.

Perhaps the most notable features of this book are the four applied activities included in every chapter, which allow the reader to explore leadership concepts and real-world applications:

Case studies illustrate the leadership concepts discussed in the chapter. At the end of each case, thought-provoking questions help the reader analyze the case using ideas presented in the chapter. Self-assessment questionnaires help the reader determine his or her own leadership style and preferences. Students may want to complete this questionnaire before reading the chapter’s content. By completing the questionnaire first, the reader will be more aware of how the chapter’s content specifically applies to his or her leadership tendencies. Observational exercises guide the reader in examining behaviors of leaders from his or her life experiences. Reflection and action worksheets stimulate the reader to reflect on his or her leadership style and identify actions to take to become more effective.

Audience A practice-oriented book, Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice is

written in a user-friendly style appropriate for introductory leadership courses across disciplines. Specifically, it is well suited for programs in leadership studies and leadership courses in schools of agriculture, allied health, business, management, communication, education, engineering, military science, public administration, nursing, political science, social work, and religion. In addition, this book is appropriate for programs in continuing education, corporate training, executive development, in-service training, and government training. It is also useful for student extracurricular activities.

Digital Resources SAGE coursepacks allow instructors to import high-quality online resources directly into Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, or Brightspace by Desire2Learn (D2L) in an intuitive, simple format. Instructors who do not use an LMS platform can still access many of the online resources by visiting edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e.

SAGE coursepacks include, for each chapter:

A diverse range of test items with pretests, posttests, and test banks built on Bloom’s Taxonomy and AACSB standards, available with ExamView test generation Assignable SAGE Premium Video (available via the interactive eBook version, linked through SAGE coursepacks) that includes insights from Peter G. Northouse and other leadership experts, with corresponding multimedia assessment options that automatically feed to a gradebook A comprehensive Media Guide for the video resources Discussion questions to help launch classroom interaction SAGE journal articles to show how scholarship relates to chapter concepts Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides that offer flexibility when creating multimedia lectures Sample course syllabi with suggested models for structuring a leadership course Lecture notes that summarize key concepts for each chapter Ideas for class activities that can be used in class to reinforce active learning Web exercises that direct students to useful websites to complete creative activities and reinforce learning Suggested films to facilitate showing examples of leadership in action Case notes that include case summaries, analyses, and sample answers to case questions The Reflection and Action Worksheets and Observational Exercises from the text in downloadable Word document format for more flexibility in using these resources Tables and figures from the textbook

SAGE edge for students at edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e enhances learning in an easy-to-use environment that offers, for each chapter, learning objectives, action plans to track progress, mobile-friendly flashcards and practice quizzes, SAGE

Premium Video featuring author Peter G. Northouse, additional multimedia resources, and selected SAGE journal articles to strengthen learning.

Interactive eBook An interactive eBook version of the text is available for students to provide a contemporary, multimedia-integrated presentation for learning. In addition to a fully electronic textbook, students can link directly to “Ask the Author” video, audio, additional enrichment readings from SAGE journals titles, and other relevant resources, bringing the subject matter to life in a way a traditional print text cannot.

The interactive eBook features exclusive Interactive Leadership Assessments to help students strengthen their leadership abilities by providing them with individualized feedback based on their responses to each questionnaire. After completing each questionnaire, a student using the interactive eBook will receive an in-depth analysis of her or his scores as well as personalized, pragmatic suggestions for further developing her or his leadership.

You can find the eBook icons in the print and electronic versions of the text. Below is a guide to the icons:

“Ask the Author” video icon

SAGE journal article icon

Video icon

Web icon

Acknowledgments I would like to express my appreciation to many individuals who directly or indirectly played a role in the development of this book. First, I would like to thank the many people at SAGE Publications, in particular my editor, Maggie Stanley, who along with her leadership team (Liz Thornton, Lauren Holmes, Neda Dallal, Katie Ancheta, Ashlee Blunk, Georgia Mclaughlin, and Gail Buschman) has competently guided this revision from the beginning review phase through the production phase. In addition, I would like to thank copy editor Melinda Masson and production editor Libby Larson. In their own unique ways, each of these people made valuable contributions that enhanced the overall quality of the book. Collectively, they are an extraordinary team

that demonstrates the very highest standards of excellence in all that they do.

For their thoughtful and constructive feedback on this latest edition, I would like to thank the following reviewers:

Jens Beyer, Hochschule Anhalt Standort Bernburg Carl Blencke, University of Central Florida Roger Clark, NWN Corporation Dan Cunningham, McDaniel College D. Keith Gurley, University of Alabama at Birmingham Sat Ananda Hayden, University of Southern Mississippi Sharon Kabes, Southwest Minnesota State University Lorin Leone, Independence University Douglas Micklich, Illinois State University Bryan Patterson, Johnson C. Smith University, Northeastern University Robert W. Robertson, Independence University Lou L. Sabina, Stetson University Stephanie Schnurr, University of Warwick Douglas Threet, Foothill College Simone Wesner, Birkbeck, University of London Paula White, Independence University Cecilia Williams, Independence University

For comprehensive reviews of past editions, I would like to thank the following reviewers:

Maureen Baldwin, Saint Ambrose University Barry L. Boyd, Texas A&M University Susan Bramlett Epps, East Tennessee State University Linda L. Brennan, Mercer University Shannon Brown, Benedictine University Lisa Burgoon, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Tom Butkiewicz, University of Redlands Patricia Cane, Klamath Community College Stephen C. Carlson, Piedmont College Melissa K. Carsten, Winthrop University James R. “Chip” Coldren Jr., Governors State University Barbara Collins, Cabrini College Stacey A. Cook, College of Marin Ronald J. Cugno, Nova Southeastern University Greg Czyszczon, James Madison University Douglas Davenport, Truman State University Edward Desmarais, Salem State College Marco Dowell, California State University, Dominguez Hills Tiffany Erk, Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana Leon Fraser, Rutgers Business School

Jim Fullerton, Idaho State University Jennifer Garcia, Saint Leo University Don Green, Lincoln Christian University Francesca Grippa, Northeastern University Yael Hellman, Woodbury University Vanessa Hill, University of Louisiana at Lafayette Martha A. Hunt, NHTI—Concord’s Community College Jean Gabriel Jolivet, Southwestern College Ruth Klein, Le Moyne College Renee Kosiarek, North Central College Robert Larison, Eastern Oregon University Karen A. Longman, Azusa Pacific University Maureen Majury, Bellevue Community College James L. Morrison, University of Delaware Terry W. Mullins, University of North Carolina at Greensboro Jane Murtaugh, College of DuPage Joanne E. Nottingham, University of North Carolina, Wilmington Ramona Ortega-Liston, University of Akron Ron Parlett, Nova Southeastern University Bruce Peterson, Sonoma State University Joseph W. T. Pugh, Immaculata University Deana Raffo, Middle Tennessee State University Melody Rawlings, Northern Kentucky University Bronte H. Reynolds, California State University, Northridge Louis Rubino, California State University, Northridge Laurie A. Schreiner, Azusa Pacific University Thomas Shields, University of Richmond Pearl Sims, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University Bruce Tucker, Santa Fe Community College Mary Tucker, Ohio University John Tummons, University of Missouri Sameer Vaidya, Texas Wesleyan University Natalie N. Walker, Seminole State College Amy Wilson, University at Buffalo Laurie Woodward, University of South Florida

Critiques by these reviewers were invaluable in helping to focus my thinking and writing during the revision process.

I would like to thank Dr. Bernardo Ferdman for his helpful comments and suggestions on the “Embracing Diversity and Inclusion” chapter, and Terry Hammink for his assistance in the construction and scoring of the Ethical Leadership Style Questionnaire and James Ludema for his support.

For their outstanding work in developing creative resources for this edition, I am grateful to Isolde Anderson of Hope College, Matthew Creasy of the University of

Delaware, Jeff Paul of the University of Tulsa, Lou Sabina of Stetson University, Andrea Smith-Hunter of Siena College, and Douglas Threet of Foothill College.

Finally, I wish to thank Marie Lee for her thorough editing and commitment and Laurel Northouse for her editorial insights and extraordinary support. It takes a lot of dedicated people to write a book, and I feel fortunate to have those people in my life.

In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there are several icons that reference links (videos, journal articles) to additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not live, all content referenced may be accessed at edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e . This URL is referenced at several points throughout your electronic edition.

About the Author

Peter G. Northouse, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Communication in the School of Communication at Western Michigan University. In addition to publications in professional journals, he is the author of Leadership: Theory and Practice (now in its seventh edition) and coauthor of Health Communication: Strategies for Health Professionals (now in its third edition) and Leadership Case Studies in Education. His scholarly and curricular interests include models of leadership, leadership assessment, ethical leadership, and leadership and group dynamics. For more than 30 years, he has taught undergraduate and graduate courses in leadership, interpersonal communication, and organizational communication on both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Currently, he is a consultant and lecturer on trends in leadership research, leadership development, and leadership education. He holds a doctorate in speech communication from the University of

Denver, and master’s and bachelor’s degrees in communication education from Michigan State University.

1 Understanding Leadership

Introduction This book is about what it takes to be a leader. Everyone, at some time in life, is asked to be a leader, whether to lead a classroom discussion, coach a children’s soccer team, or direct a fund-raising campaign. Many situations require leadership. A leader may have a high profile (e.g., an elected public official) or a low profile (e.g., a volunteer leader in Big Brothers Big Sisters), but in every situation there are leadership demands placed on the individual who is the leader. Being a leader is challenging, exciting, and rewarding, and carries with it many responsibilities. This chapter discusses different ways of looking at leadership and their impacts on what it means to be a leader.

What is Leadership?

Leadership Explained At the outset, it is important to address a basic question: What is leadership? Scholars who study leadership have struggled with this question for many decades and have written a great deal about the nature of leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Conger & Riggio, 2007). (See Box 1.1.)

In leadership literature, more than 100 different definitions of leadership have been identified (Rost, 1991). Despite these many definitions, a number of concepts are recognized by most people as accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader.

Leadership Basics

“Leadership Is a Trait” First, leadership is thought of as a trait. A trait is a distinguishing quality of an individual, which is often inherited. Defining leadership as a trait means that each individual brings to the table certain qualities that influence the way he or she leads. Some leaders are confident, some are decisive, and still others are outgoing and sociable. Saying that leadership is a trait places a great deal of emphasis on the leader and on the leader’s special gifts. It follows the often-expressed belief “leaders are born, not made.” Some argue that focusing on traits makes leadership an elitist enterprise because it implies that only a few people with special talents will lead. Although there may be some truth to this argument, it can also be argued that all of us are born with a wide array of unique traits and that many of these traits can have a positive impact on our leadership. It also may be possible to modify or change some traits.

Through the years, researchers have identified a multitude of traits that are associated with leadership. In Chapter 2 we will discuss some key leadership traits, and in Chapter 3 we will explain how strength-based leadership is a variation of trait leadership. Although there are many important leadership traits, what is most important for leaders is having the required traits that a particular situation demands. For example, a chaotic emergency room at a hospital requires a leader who is insightful and decisive and can bring calm to the situation. Conversely, a high school classroom in which students are bored demands a teacher who is inspiring and creative. Effective leadership results when the leader engages the right traits in the right place at the right time.

“Leadership Is an Ability” In addition to being thought of as a trait, leadership is conceptualized as an ability. A person who has leadership ability is able to be a leader—that is, has the capacity to lead. While the term ability frequently refers to a natural capacity, ability can be acquired. For example, some people are naturally good at public speaking, while others rehearse to become comfortable speaking in public. Similarly, some people have the natural physical ability to excel in a sport, while others develop their athletic capacity through exercise and practice. In leadership, some people have the natural ability to lead, while others develop their leadership abilities through hard work and practice.

Box 1.1 The Evolution of Leadership

Leadership has long intrigued humankind and has been the topic of extensive literature for centuries. The earliest writings include philosophies of leadership such as Machiavelli’s The Prince (1531/2005) and biographies of great leaders. With the development of the social sciences during the 20th century, inquiry into leadership became prolific. Studies on leadership have emerged from every discipline “that has had some interest in the subject of leadership: anthropology, business administration, educational administration, history, military science, nursing administration, organizational behavior, philosophy, political science, public administration, psychology, sociology, and theology” (Rost, 1991, p. 45).

As a result, there are many different leadership approaches and theories. While the words are often used interchangeably, approaches and theories are different conceptually. An approach is a general way of thinking about a phenomenon, not necessarily based on empirical research. A theory usually includes a set of hypotheses, principles, or laws that explain a given phenomenon. Theories are more refined and can provide a predictive framework in analyzing the phenomenon. For example, the spiritual leadership approach is a conceptualization of leadership that does not yet have a body of empirical research to validate it, while contingency leadership theory has a refined set of propositions based on the results of multiple research studies.

Not unlike fashion, approaches to leadership have evolved, changed focus and direction, and built upon one another during the past century. To understand this evolution, a brief historical view can be helpful:

Trait Approach

The early trait approach theories were called “Great Man” theories because they focused on identifying the innate qualities and characteristics possessed by great social, political, and military

leaders such as Catherine the Great, Mohandas Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Moses, and Joan of Arc. Studies of leadership traits were especially strong from 1900 to the early 1940s and enjoyed a renewed emphasis beginning in the 1970s as researchers began to examine visionary and charismatic leadership. In the 1980s, researchers linked leadership to the “Big Five” personality factors while interest in emotional intelligence as a trait gained favor in the 1990s. (For a discussion of emotional intelligence as a leadership skill, see Chapter 6, pages 126–127.)

Behavior Approach

In the late 1930s, leadership research began to focus on behavior—what leaders do and how they act. Groundbreaking studies by researchers at The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan in the 1940s and 1950s analyzed how leaders acted in small group situations. Behavior approach theories hit their heyday in the early 1960s with Blake and Moulton’s (1964) work exploring how managers use task and relationship behaviors in the organizational setting.

Situational Approach

The premise of this approach is that different situations demand different kinds of leadership. Serious examination of situational approach theories began in the late 1960s by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) and Reddin (1967). Situational approaches continued to be refined and revised from the 1970s through the 1990s (Vecchio, 1987). One of these, path–goal theory, examines how leaders use employee motivation to enhance performance and satisfaction. Another approach, contingency theory, focuses on the match between the leader’s style and specific situational variables.

Relational Approach

In the 1990s, researchers began examining the nature of relations between leaders and followers. This research ultimately evolved into the leader–member exchange (LMX) theory. LMX theory predicts that high-quality relations generate more positive leader outcomes than low-quality relations. Research in the relational approach to leadership continues to generate moderate interest today.

“New Leadership” Approach

When these approaches began appearing in the mid-1980s—three decades ago—they were, and continue to be, called “new leadership” approaches (Bryman, 1992). Beginning with the work of Bass (1985, 1990), leadership studies generated visionary or charismatic leadership theories. From these approaches developed transformational leadership theory, which describes leadership as a process that changes people and organizations.

Emerging Leadership Approaches

A diverse range of approaches to leadership is emerging during the 21st century:

Adaptive leadership examines how leaders help people address problems, face challenges, and adapt to change. Adaptive leadership stresses that the leaders don’t solve the problems, but rather encourage others to do the problem solving and adapt to change. Authentic leadership is an approach that looks at the authenticity of leaders and their leadership and is currently enjoying strong interest. Spiritual leadership considers how leaders use values, a sense of “calling,” and membership to motivate followers. Servant leadership emphasizes the “caring principle” with leaders as “servants” who focus on their followers’ needs in order to help these followers become more autonomous, knowledgeable, and like servants themselves. Gender-based studies, which have gained much momentum as women continue to become

more dominant in the workforce, especially on a global level, view how one’s gender affects and differentiates one’s leadership.

The historical timeline in Figure 1.1 is not intended to represent these approaches as separate and distinct eras, only to disappear from the picture when a new theory appears. Instead, many of these theories occur concurrently, building upon one another. Even when a certain approach’s period of popularity has waned, the theory continues to influence further study and the development of new leadership approaches.

Figure 1.1 Development of Leadership Theories Through History

Source: Adapted from Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2004). The nature of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 7.

Key Theories

An example of leadership as ability is the legendary University of California at Los Angeles basketball coach John Wooden, whose teams won seven consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association titles. Described first as a teacher and then as a coach, Wooden implemented four laws of learning into his coaching: explanation, demonstration, imitation, and repetition. His goal was to teach players how to do the right thing instinctively under great pressure. Less visible or well known, but also an example of leadership as ability, is the unheralded but highly effective restaurant manager who, through years of experience and learning, is able to create a successful, award-winning restaurant. In both of these examples, it is the individuals’ abilities that create outstanding leadership.

“Leadership Is a Skill” Third, leadership is a skill. Conceptualized as a skill, leadership is a competency developed to accomplish a task effectively. Skilled leaders are competent people who know the means and methods for carrying out their responsibilities. For example, a skilled leader in a fund-raising campaign knows every step and procedure in the fund-

raising process and is able to use this knowledge to run an effective campaign. In short, skilled leaders are competent—they know what they need to do, and they know how to do it.

Describing leadership as a skill makes leadership available to everyone because skills are competencies that people can learn or develop. Even without natural leadership ability, people can improve their leadership with practice, instruction, and feedback from others. Viewed as a skill, leadership can be studied and learned. If you are capable of learning from experience, you can acquire leadership.

“Leadership Is a Behavior” Leadership is also a behavior. It is what leaders do when they are in a leadership role. The behavioral dimension is concerned with how leaders act toward others in various situations. Unlike traits, abilities, and skills, leadership behaviors are observable. When someone leads, we see that person’s leadership behavior.

Leadership Behaviors

Research on leadership has shown that leaders engage primarily in two kinds of general behaviors: task behaviors and process behaviors. Task behaviors are used by leaders to get the job done (e.g., a leader prepares an agenda for a meeting). Process behaviors are used by leaders to help people feel comfortable with other group members and at ease in the situations in which they find themselves (e.g., a leader helps individuals in a group to feel included). Since leadership requires both task and process behaviors, the challenge for leaders is to know the best way to combine them in their efforts to reach a goal.

“Leadership Is a Relationship” Another, and a somewhat unusual, way to think about leadership is as a relationship. From this perspective, leadership is centered on the communication between leaders and followers rather than on the unique qualities of the leader. Thought of as a relationship, leadership becomes a process of collaboration that occurs between leaders and followers (Rost, 1991). A leader affects and is affected by followers, and both leader and followers are affected in turn by the situation that surrounds them. This approach emphasizes that leadership is not a linear one-way event, but rather an interactive event. In traditional leadership, authority is often top down; in the interactive type of leadership, authority and influence are shared. When leadership is defined in this manner, it becomes available to everyone. It is not restricted to the formally designated leader in a group.

Leadership and Change

Thinking of leadership as a relationship suggests that leaders must include followers and their interests in the process of leadership. A leader needs to be fully aware of the followers and the followers’ interests, ideas, positions, attitudes, and motivations. In addition, this approach has an ethical overtone because it stresses the need for leaders to work with followers to achieve their mutual purposes. Stressing mutuality lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that are forced or unethical. It also increases the possibility that leaders and followers will work together toward a common good (Rost, 1991).

“Leadership Is an Influence Process” A final way of thinking about leadership is as an influence process. This is the perspective that will be emphasized in this book.

Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.

Leadership Development

Defining leadership as an influence process means that it is not a trait or an ability that resides in the leader, but rather an interactive event that occurs between the leader and the followers. Influence is central to the process of leadership because leaders affect followers. Leaders direct their energies toward influencing individuals to achieve something together. Stressing common goals gives leadership an ethical dimension because it lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that use coercion or are unethical.

Finally, in explaining what leadership is, it is important to make a distinction between leadership and management. In discussing what leadership is and can be, the concepts of leadership and management sometimes overlap. Both leadership and management involve influence, but leadership is about seeking constructive change, and management is about establishing order. For example, it is often said that “managers are people who do things right, and leaders are people who do the right thing.” Since both leaders and managers are engaged in influencing people toward goal accomplishment, our discussion in this book will treat the roles of managers and leaders similarly and not emphasize the differences between them.

Global Leadership Attributes We probably all wonder at the differences in leadership around the world. Why do some countries gravitate toward the distributed leadership of a democracy, while

others seem content with the hierarchical leadership of a monarchy or dictatorship? The definition and concepts of leadership outlined in this chapter are from an American perspective. If you were to travel to nations across the world, you would no doubt encounter different views of leadership specific to those ethnic and political cultures.

Universal Leadership Attributes

In 2004, Robert House led a group of 160 researchers in an ambitious study to increase our understanding of the impact culture has on leadership effectiveness. The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) studies drew on the input of 17,000 people in 62 countries in determining how leadership varies across the world. Among the many findings generated by the GLOBE studies was the identification of positive and negative leadership characteristics that are universally accepted worldwide (see Table 1.1).

Table 1.1

Source: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 677–678. Reprinted with permission.

The Dark Side of Leadership Those same characteristics and behaviors that distinguish leadership can also be used

by leaders in nonpositive ways (Conger, 1990). The dark side of leadership is the destructive side of leadership where a leader uses his or her influence or power for personal ends. Lipman-Blumen (2005) suggests that such leaders are “toxic,” where their leadership leaves their followers worse off than they found them, often violating the basic human rights of others and playing to their followers’ basest fears. Dark leadership is able to thrive when three conditions exist, according to Padilla, Hogan, and Kaiser (2007): a destructive leader, susceptible followers, and a conducive environment. Destructive leaders will prevail when the checks and balances of an organization are weak and the rules of the institution are ineffective. While many cite Adolf Hitler as the prime example of the dark side of leadership, there are many current examples in the world today from the regime of Bashar al-Assad in Syria, whose leadership has led to violent civil war that has left hundreds of thousands dead, to religious extremist groups, such as ISIS and al-Qaeda, who use their followers to engage in mass murder of innocents.

The Dark Side of Leadership

The meaning of leadership is complex and includes many dimensions. For some people, leadership is a trait or an ability, for others it is a skill or a behavior, and for still others it is a relationship or a process. In reality, leadership probably includes components of all of these dimensions. Each dimension explains a facet of leadership.

Destructive Leadership

In considering these various definitions of leadership and based on the results of your Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire (page 14), which dimension seems closest to how you think of leadership? How would you define leadership? Answers to these questions are important because how you think about leadership will strongly influence how you practice leadership.

There is a strong demand for effective leadership in society today. This demand exists at the local and community levels, as well as at the national level, in this country and abroad. People feel the need for leadership in all aspects of their lives. They want leaders in their personal lives, at school, in the work setting, and even in their spiritual lives. Everywhere you turn, people are expressing a need for strong leadership.

When people ask for leadership in a particular situation, it is not always clear exactly what they want. For the most part, however, they want effective leadership. Effective leadership is intended influence that creates change for the greater good. Leadership uses positive means to achieve positive outcomes. Furthermore, people want leaders who listen to and understand their needs and who can relate to their circumstances. The challenge for each of us is to be prepared to lead when we are asked to be the leader.

Leadership Snapshot: Indra Nooyi, CEO, PepsiCo

Mark Wilson/Staff/Getty Images News/Getty Images

The daughter of a conservative, middle-class family in southern India, Indra Nooyi didn’t seem destined to one day run one of the world’s largest snack food and beverage companies. But Nooyi does just that as the CEO and president of PepsiCo, making her one of the top female executives in the United States and probably the highest-ranking woman of Indian heritage in corporate America.

Nooyi, who grew up in Madras (now Chennai), India, admits she always pushed social conventions. She played on an all-girls cricket team and was a guitarist in a rock band at a time when it was deemed inappropriate for Indian girls to do such things. Despite graduating from college with bachelor’s degrees in chemistry, math, and physics from Madras Christian College in 1974 and a master of business administration from the Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, Nooyi was reportedly remembered for being only a “mediocre student” (Pandey, 2006).

Nooyi’s first job after college was for Tootal, a British textile company in India, but she was hired away as a brand manager for Johnson & Johnson to oversee the company’s Stayfree account in India. It was a job that would have challenged the most seasoned marketing executive because, at the time, advertising women’s feminine products was not allowed in her country (Murray, 2004).

By 1978, Nooyi felt she needed more preparation for the business world and applied to and was accepted to the Yale School of Management in the United States. To her surprise, her parents agreed to let her go, although it would essentially make her an unmarriageable commodity in her culture. She received financial aid from Yale, but still struggled to make ends meet, working as an overnight receptionist. She didn’t have the money to buy a business suit, so she wore her traditional sari to work and later in job interviews, choosing to be herself rather than adhere to expected cultural norms.

Nooyi did not earn an MBA from Yale, choosing instead to get a master’s degree in public and private management. Her first jobs after graduation were for the prestigious Boston Consulting Group and Motorola. In 1990, she joined ASEA Brown Boveri (ABB), a Swiss-Swedish industrial conglomerate. Her success in directing ABB’s North American operations caught the attention of PepsiCo CEO Wayne Calloway who wooed her away to become his company’s chief strategist.

Nooyi quickly left her mark at PepsiCo. She was the chief deal maker for two of PepsiCo’s most important acquisitions: the Tropicana orange juice brand in 1998 and Quaker Oats in 2001. The Quaker Oats deal added a huge range of cereals and snack foods to the PepsiCo empire. Nooyi also helped the company acquire beverage maker SoBe, beating out a competing offer from Coca-Cola. Her deal-making talents elevated her to the job of PepsiCo’s chief financial officer in 2000, and a year later she was given the title of president.

Nooyi’s vision for PepsiCo—that “for any part of the day, we will have a little snack for you” (Byrnes, 2001)—has been implemented through development of new products and acquisitions. The company now sells a wide range of foods and beverages from Cap’n Crunch and Doritos to Mountain Dew and Gatorade. The company’s 18 brands are sold in 200 countries, and it employs 198,000 people worldwide.

But the strategist in Nooyi has also foreseen the effect that growing lifestyle diseases such as obesity could have on her company. Again, she has chosen to follow an unconventional path, looking to create healthier products in an industry dominated by salt, fat, and sugar. She invested heavily in the creation of a research and development lab that took five years to complete, drawing criticism from stockholders and industry analysts. So far, the investment has had some success: PepsiCo introduced a “mid-calorie” cola, Pepsi True, which has 30% less sugar and uses stevia extract instead of artificial sweeteners, and has created potato chips that taste just as salty as the original but have less sodium. The company has also introduced a new line of craft sodas called Stubborn Soda, which contain natural flavors and sugarcane instead of high-fructose corn syrup.

Summary All of us at some time in our lives will be asked to show leadership. When you are asked to be the leader, it will be both demanding and rewarding. How you approach leadership is strongly influenced by your definitions of and beliefs about leadership. Through the years, writers have defined leadership in a multitude of ways. It is a complex, multidimensional process that is often conceptualized in a variety of ways by different people. Some of the most common ways of looking at leadership are as a trait, as an ability, as a skill, as a behavior, as a relationship, and as a process. The way you think about leadership will influence the way you practice leadership.

Glossary Terms ability 2 adaptive leadership 4 approach 3

authentic leadership 4 behavior approach 3 “Big Five” personality factors 3 contingency theory 4 dark side of leadership 9 emotional intelligence 3 gender-based studies 4 “Great Man” theories 3 leader–member exchange (LMX) theory 4 leadership 7 path–goal theory 4 process behaviors 6 relational approach 4 relationship behaviors 3 servant leadership 4 situational approach 4 skill 5 spiritual leadership 4 task behaviors 3, 6 theory 3 trait 2 trait approach 3 transformational leadership theory 4

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Application

1.1 Case Study: King of the Hill

Denny Hill’s career as a high school swimming coach didn’t start out well. The seniors on his team quit in the first season because he required them to come to all the workouts. The team only won three meets the whole season. That was 40 years ago. Since that time, the high school chemistry teacher’s success as a swimming coach has been extraordinary; his winnings include more than 900 boys’ and girls’ dual meets and a phenomenal 31 state titles.

Denny is noted for creating a team effort out of what is usually considered an individual sport. He begins every season with a team sleepover, followed by “Hell Week,” a two-week grueling regimen in which team members swim at least 5 miles a workout and 10 miles a day. He acknowledges this is a bonding experience for the swimmers, regardless of their skill, because they are “all in the same boat.”

Denny passes the mantle of leadership onto his team members. Seniors are expected to be mature leaders who inform the freshmen of the team goals and expectations. Juniors are to be role models, while sophomores serve as quiet leaders who are still learning but have a foundation in the team

culture. Even the freshmen members have a job: They are required to pay attention to the coaches and other team members as they learn the team’s culture and what’s expected.

Denny holds a 20-minute team meeting each Monday where every member has the opportunity to present a rose or a complaint to anyone on the team including the coaches. He is tough on swimmers and makes them work, but when they need support he is always there to put an arm around them. Denny also uses humor, often making jokes that help take the edge off long, hard workouts.

And despite his teams’ successes, Denny isn’t about winning; he’s more about preparing to win— telling his swimmers that by preparing to win, everything takes care of itself. When you do win, he says, you’ve done it the right way.

Questions

1. What leadership traits account for Denny Hill’s success? 2. How would you describe Denny Hill’s leadership abilities? 3. Leadership includes administrative skills, interpersonal skills, and conceptual skills. How

does Denny Hill stack up on these skills? 4. How does Denny Hill integrate task and relationship behaviors in his leadership? 5. From a relational perspective, how would you describe Denny Hill’s leadership? 6. In what way does Denny Hill’s coaching exemplify leadership as an influence process?

1.2 Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire

Purpose

1. To identify how you view leadership 2. To explore your perceptions of different aspects of leadership

Directions

1. Consider for a moment your own impressions of the word leadership. Based on your experiences with leaders in your lifetime, what is leadership?

2. Using the scale below, indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements about leadership.

Scoring

1. Sum scores on items 1, 7, 13, and 19 (trait emphasis) 2. Sum scores on items 2, 8, 14, and 20 (ability emphasis) 3. Sum scores on items 3, 9, 15, and 21 (skill emphasis)

4. Sum scores on items 4, 10, 16, and 22 (behavior emphasis) 5. Sum scores on items 5, 11, 17, and 23 (relationship emphasis) 6. Sum scores on items 6, 12, 18, and 24 (process emphasis)

Total Scores

1. Trait emphasis: _________________ 2. Ability emphasis: ________________ 3. Skill emphasis: __________________ 4. Behavior emphasis: ______________ 5. Relationship emphasis: ___________ 6. Process emphasis: _______________

Scoring Interpretation

The scores you received on this questionnaire provide information about how you define and view leadership. The emphasis you give to the various dimensions of leadership has implications for how you approach the leadership process. For example, if your highest score is for trait emphasis, it suggests that you emphasize the role of the leader and the leader’s special gifts in the leadership process. However, if your highest score is for relationship emphasis, it indicates that you think leadership is centered on the communication between leaders and followers, rather than on the unique qualities of the leader. By comparing your scores, you can gain an understanding of the aspects of leadership that you find most important and least important. The way you think about leadership will influence how you practice leadership.

Improve Your Leadership Skills

If you have the interactive eBook version of this text, log in to access the interactive leadership assessment. After completing this chapter’s questionnaire, you will receive individualized feedback and practical suggestions for further strengthening your leadership based on your responses in this questionnaire.

Visit edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e for a downloadable version of this questionnaire.

1.3 Observational Exercise

Defining Leadership

Purpose

1. To develop an understanding of the complexity of leadership 2. To become aware of the different ways people define leadership

Directions

1. In this exercise, select five people you know and interview them about leadership. 2. Ask each person to give you his or her definition of leadership, and to describe his or her

personal beliefs about effective leadership.

3. Record each person’s response on a separate sheet of paper. Person #1 (name) __________________________________________ Person #2 (name) _________________________________________ Person #3 (name) _________________________________________ Person #4 (name) _________________________________________ Person #5 (name) _________________________________________

Questions

1. What differences did you observe in how these people define leadership? 2. What seems to be the most common definition of leadership? 3. In what ways did people describe leadership differently from the definitions in Chapter 1,

“Understanding Leadership”? 4. Of the people interviewed, whose definition comes closest to your own? Why?

Visit edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e for a downloadable version of this exercise.

1.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

Understanding Leadership

Reflection

1. Each of us has our own unique way of thinking about leadership. What leaders or people have influenced you in your thinking about leadership? Discuss what leadership means to you and give your definition of leadership.

2. What do the scores you received on the Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire suggest about your perspective on leadership? Of the six dimensions on the questionnaire (trait, ability, skill, behavior, relationship, and process), which one is the most similar to your own perspective? Which one is least like your own perspective?

3. Do you think leadership is something everyone can learn to do, or do you think it is a natural ability reserved for a few? Explain your answer.

Action

1. Based on the interviews you conducted with others about leadership, how could you incorporate others’ ideas about leadership into your own leadership?

2. Treating leadership as a relationship has ethical implications. How could adding the relationship approach to your leadership make you a better leader? Discuss.

3. Think about your own leadership. Identify one trait, ability, skill, or behavior that you could develop more fully to become a better leader.

Visit edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e for a downloadable version of this worksheet.

References Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2004). The nature of

leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press.

Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: A survey of theory

and research. New York, NY: Free Press.

Blake, R. R., & Moulton, J. S. (1964). The managerial grid. Houston, TX: Gulf.

Bryman, A. (1992). Charisma and leadership in organizations. London, U K: Sage.

Byrnes, N. (2001, January 29). The power of two at Pepsi. Businessweek. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2001-01-28/the-power-of-two-at- pepsi

Conger, J. (1990). The dark side of leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19(2), 44–55.

Conger, J. A., & Riggio, R. E. (Eds.). (2007). The practice of leadership: Developing the next generation of leaders. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1969). Life-cycle theory of leadership. Training and Development Journal, 23(5), 26–34.

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lipman-Blumen, J. (2005). The allure of toxic leaders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Machiavelli, N. (2005). The prince (W. J. Connell, trans.). Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s. (Original work published in 1531)

Murray, S. (2004, January 26). From poor Indian student to powerful U.S. business- woman. Financial Times, p. 3.

Padilla, A., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2007). The toxic triangle: Destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(3), 176–194.

Pandey, J. M. (2006, August 18). Nooyi: IIM-C’s “average” student turns role model. The Times of India. Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nooyi- IIM-Cs-average-student-turns-role-model/articleshow/1902571.cms

Reddin, W. J. (1967, April). The 3-D management style theory. Training and Development Journal, pp. 8–17.

Rost, J. C. (1991). Leadership for the twenty-first century. Westport, CO: Praeger.

Vecchio, R. P. (1987). Situational leadership theory: An examination of a prescriptive theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3), 444–451.

2 Recognizing Your Traits

Introduction Why are some people leaders while others are not? What makes people become leaders? Do leaders have certain traits? These questions have been of interest for many years. It seems that all of us want to know what characteristics account for effective leadership. This chapter will address the traits that are important to leadership.

Is Leadership a Trait?

Since the early 20th century, hundreds of research studies have been conducted on the traits of leaders. These studies have produced an extensive list of ideal leadership traits (see Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990). The list of important leadership traits is long and includes such traits as diligence, trustworthiness, dependability, articulateness, sociability, open-mindedness, intelligence, confidence, self-assurance, and conscientiousness. Because the list is so extensive, it is difficult to identify specifically which traits are essential for leaders. In fact, nearly all of the traits are probably related to effective leadership.

What traits are important when you are asked to be a leader? To answer this question, two areas will be addressed in this chapter. First, a set of selected traits that appear by all accounts to be strongly related to effective leadership in everyday life will be discussed. Second, the lives of several historical and contemporary leaders will be examined with a discussion of the traits that play a role in their leadership. Throughout this discussion, the unique ways that certain traits affect the leadership process in one way or another will be emphasized.

Leadership Traits Explained From the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, researchers have focused a great deal of attention on the unique characteristics of successful leaders. Thousands of studies have been conducted to identify the traits of effective leaders. The results of these studies have produced a very long list of important leadership traits; each of these traits contributes to the leadership process.

Leadership Traits

For example, research studies by several investigators found the following traits to be important: achievement, persistence, insight, initiative, self-confidence, responsibility, cooperativeness, tolerance, influence, sociability, drive, motivation, integrity, confidence, cognitive ability, task knowledge, extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Stogdill,

1974). On the international level, House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004), in a study of 17,000 managers in 62 different cultures, identified a list of 22 valued traits that were universally endorsed as characteristics of outstanding leadership in these countries. The list, which was outlined in Table 1.1 in Chapter 1, “Understanding Leadership,” includes such attributes as being trustworthy, just, honest, encouraging, positive, dynamic, dependable, intelligent, decisive, communicative, informed, and a team builder. As these findings indicate, research studies on leadership traits have identified a wide array of important characteristics of leaders.

Are There Certain Traits a Leader Needs?

However, these research findings raise an important question: If there are so many important leadership traits, which specific traits do people need to be successful leaders? While the answer to this question is not crystal clear, the research points to six key traits: intelligence, confidence, charisma, determination, sociability, and integrity. In the following section, we will discuss each of these traits in turn.

Intelligence Intelligence is an important trait related to effective leadership. Intelligence includes having good language skills, perceptual skills, and reasoning ability. This combination of assets makes people good thinkers, and makes them better leaders.

While it is hard for a person to alter his or her IQ (intelligence quotient), there are certain ways for a person to improve intelligence in general. Intelligent leaders are well informed. They are aware of what is going on around them and understand the job that needs to be done. It is important for leaders to obtain information about what their leadership role entails and learn as much as possible about their work environment. This information will help leaders be more knowledgeable and insightful.

For example, a few years ago a friend, Chris, was asked to be the coach of his daughter’s middle school soccer team even though he had never played soccer and knew next to nothing about how the game is played. Chris took the job and eventually was a great success, but not without a lot of effort. He spent many hours learning about soccer. He read how-to books, instructors’ manuals, and coaching books. In addition, Chris subscribed to several soccer magazines. He talked to other coaches and learned everything he could about playing the game. By the time he had finished the first season, others considered Chris to be a very competent coach. He was smart and learned how to be a successful coach.

Regarding intelligence, few if any of us can expect to be another Albert Einstein. Most of us have average intelligence and know that there are limits to what we can do. Nevertheless, becoming more knowledgeable about our leadership positions gives us the information we need to become better leaders.

Confidence Being confident is another important trait of an effective leader. Confident people feel self-assured and believe they can accomplish their goals. Rather than feeling uncertain, they feel strong and secure about their positions. They do not second-guess themselves, but rather move forward on projects with a clear vision. Confident leaders feel a sense of certainty and believe that they are doing the right thing. Clearly, confidence is a trait that has to do with feeling positive about oneself and one’s ability to succeed.

Confidence

If confidence is a central trait of successful leaders, how can you build your own confidence? First, confidence comes from understanding what is required of you. For example, when first learning to drive a car, a student’s confidence is low because he or she does not know what to do. If an instructor explains the driving process and demonstrates how to drive, the student can gain confidence because he or she now has an understanding of how to drive. Awareness and understanding build confidence. Confidence can also come from having a mentor to show the way and provide constructive feedback. This mentor may be a boss, an experienced coworker, or a significant other from outside the organization. Because mentors act as role models and sounding boards, they provide essential help to learn the dynamics of leadership.

Confidence also comes from practice. This is important to point out, because practice is something everyone can do. Consider Michael Phelps, one of the most well-known athletes in the world today. Phelps is a very gifted swimmer, with 23 Olympic gold medals and the record for winning the most medals, 28, of any Olympic athlete in history. But Phelps also spends an enormous amount of time practicing. His workout regimen includes swimming six hours a day, six days a week. His excellent performance and confidence are a result of his practice, as well as his gifts.

In leadership, practice builds confidence because it provides assurance that an aspiring leader can do what needs to be done. Taking on leadership roles, even minor ones on committees or through volunteer activities, provides practice for being a leader. Building one leadership activity on another can increase confidence for more demanding leadership roles. Those who accept opportunities to practice their leadership will experience increased confidence in their leadership abilities.

Charisma Of all the traits related to effective leadership, charisma gets the most attention. Charisma refers to a leader’s special magnetic charm and appeal, and can have a huge effect on the leadership process. Charisma is a special personality characteristic that gives a leader the capacity to do extraordinary things. In particular, it gives the leader exceptional powers of influence. A good example of a charismatic leader is former

president John F. Kennedy, who motivated the American people with his eloquent oratorical style (visit edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e to read one of his speeches). President Kennedy was a gifted, charismatic leader who had an enormous impact on others.

Charismatic Leadership

It is not unusual for many of us to feel challenged with regard to charisma because it is not a common personality trait. There are a few select people who are very charismatic, but most of us are not. Since charisma appears in short supply, the question arises: What do leaders do if they are not naturally charismatic?

Based on the writings of leadership scholars, several behaviors characterize charismatic leadership (Conger, 1999; House, 1976; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). First, charismatic leaders serve as a strong role model for the values that they desire others to adopt. Mohandas Gandhi advocated nonviolence and was an exemplary role model of civil disobedience; his charisma enabled him to influence others. Second, charismatic leaders show competence in every aspect of leadership, so others trust their decisions. Third, charismatic leaders articulate clear goals and strong values. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is an example of this type of charismatic leadership. By articulating his dream, he was able to influence multitudes of people to follow his nonviolent practices. Fourth, charismatic leaders communicate high expectations for followers and show confidence in their abilities to meet these expectations. Finally, charismatic leaders are an inspiration to others. They can excite and motivate others to become involved in real change, as demonstrated by John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr.

Determination Determination is another trait that characterizes effective leaders. Determined leaders are very focused and attentive to tasks. They know where they are going and how they intend to get there. Determination is the decision to get the job done; it includes characteristics such as initiative, persistence, and drive. People with determination are willing to assert themselves, they are proactive, and they have the capacity to persevere in the face of obstacles. Being determined includes showing dominance at times, especially in situations where others need direction.

Determination

We have all heard of determined people who have accomplished spectacular things— the person with cancer who runs a standard 26.2-mile marathon, the blind person who climbs Mount Everest, or the single mom with four kids who graduates from college. A good example of determined leadership is Nelson Mandela, who is featured in the

Leadership Snapshot in this chapter. Mandela’s single goal was to end apartheid in South Africa. Even though he was imprisoned for many years, he steadfastly held to his principles. He was committed to reaching his goal, and he never wavered from his vision. Mandela was focused and disciplined—a determined leader.

What distinguishes all of these leaders from other people is their determination to get the job done. Of all the traits discussed in this chapter, determination is probably the one trait that is easily acquired by those who lead. All it demands is perseverance. Staying focused on the task, clarifying the goals, articulating the vision, and encouraging others to stay the course are characteristics of determined leaders. Being determined takes discipline and the ability to endure, but having this trait will almost certainly enhance a person’s leadership.

Sociability Another important trait for leaders is sociability. Sociability refers to a leader’s capacity to establish pleasant social relationships. People want sociable leaders— leaders with whom they can get along. Leaders who show sociability are friendly, outgoing, courteous, tactful, and diplomatic. They are sensitive to others’ needs and show concern for their well-being. Sociable leaders have good interpersonal skills and help to create cooperative relationships within their work environments.

Being sociable comes easier for some than for others. For example, it is easy for extroverted leaders to talk to others and be outgoing, but it is harder for introverted leaders to do so. Similarly, some individuals are naturally “people persons,” while others prefer to be alone. Although people vary in the degree to which they are outgoing, it is possible to increase sociability. A sociable leader gets along with coworkers and other people in the work setting. Being friendly, kind, and thoughtful, as well as talking freely with others and giving them support, goes a long way to establish a leader’s sociability. Sociable leaders bring positive energy to a group and make the work environment a more enjoyable place.

To illustrate, consider the following example. This scenario occurred in one of the best leadership classes I have had in 40 years of teaching. In this class, there was a student named Anne Fox who was a very sociable leader. Anne was an unusual student who dressed like a student from the 1960s, although it was more than two decades later. Even though she dressed differently than the others, Anne was very caring and was liked by everyone in the class. After the first week of the semester, Anne could name everyone in class; when attendance was taken, she knew instantly who was there and who was not. In class discussions, Anne always contributed good ideas, and her remarks were sensitive of others’ points of view. Anne was positive about life, and her attitude was contagious. By her presence, Anne created an atmosphere in which everyone felt unique but also included. She was the glue that held us all together. Anne was not assigned to be the leader in the class, but by the semester’s end she emerged as a leader. Her sociable nature enabled her to develop strong relationships and become a leader in the class. By the end of the class, all of us were the beneficiaries of her leadership.

Integrity Finally, and perhaps most important, effective leaders have integrity. Integrity characterizes leaders who possess the qualities of honesty and trustworthiness. People who adhere to a strong set of principles and take responsibility for their actions are exhibiting integrity. Leaders with integrity inspire confidence in others because they can be trusted to do what they say they are going to do. They are loyal, dependable, and transparent. Basically, integrity makes a leader believable and worthy of our trust.

Integrity

Leadership Snapshot: Nelson Mandela, First Black President of South Africa

South Africa The Good News / www.sagoodnews.co.za CC BY 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

In 1990, when Nelson Mandela was released from prison after serving 27 long years, he was determined not to be angry or vindictive, but instead to work to unite his country of South Africa, which had been fractured by generations of apartheid.

The descendent of a tribal king, Mandela was born in 1918 in a small African village and grew up in a country where Whites ruled through subjugation and tyranny over Blacks and other races. Mandela attended Methodist missionary schools and put himself through law school, eventually opening the first Black law partnership in 1942. His firm represented the African National Congress (ANC), which was engaged in resisting South Africa’s apartheid policies, and during the

1950s, he became a leader of the ANC. Influenced by Mohandas Gandhi, Mandela was initially committed to nonviolent resistance but shifted to supporting violent tactics when the government refused to change its apartheid policies. In 1964, Mandela received a life sentence for plotting to overthrow the government by violence.

During the nearly three decades Mandela spent in prison, he became a symbolic figure for the anti- apartheid movement. But during those years, Mandela spent time examining himself, coming to see himself as others did: as an aggressive and militant revolutionary. He learned to control his temper and strong will, instead using persuasion and emphasis to convince others. He listened to others’ life stories, including those of the White guards, seeking to understand their perspectives. He was steadfast in maintaining his dignity, carefully refusing to be subservient while being respectful to the guards and others. As a result, he became a natural leader inside the prison, while outside, his fame framed him as a symbolic martyr not only to Black Africans but also to people across the globe. Free Mandela campaigns were building around the world, with other countries and international corporations being pressured by stockholders and citizens to “divest” in South Africa.

In 1990, South African president F. W. de Klerk, fearing civil war and economic collapse, released Mandela, at the time 71, from prison. Mandela emerged as a moral leader who stood by the principles of liberty and equal rights for all. He began speaking around the world, raising financial support for the ANC while seeking to bring peace to his fractured country. In 1992, the South African government instituted a new constitution and held a popular election with all parties represented including the ANC. The result? In 1994, Mandela was elected as the first Black president of South Africa, effectively ending apartheid. For his role in negotiations to abolish apartheid, Mandela received the Nobel Peace Prize, sharing it with de Klerk.

As president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, Mandela’s mission was to transform a nation from minority rule and apartheid to a multiracial democracy. On the first day of his presidency, he set the tone with the predominantly White staff of the former president, telling them that those who wanted to keep their jobs were welcome to stay, stating “Reconciliation starts here.” He developed a multiracial staff and cabinet, using his friendly smiling style and tactic of listening to all viewpoints carefully before making decisions to keep the staff focused on problems and issues rather than on partisanship.

Mandela served his five-year term as president but, at 76 years old, chose not to seek another term. In retirement, he continued to advocate for social causes, serving as a mediator in disputes outside of South Africa, and to bring a message of peace and justice throughout the world. Mandela died in 2013. While it is difficult to summarize all that he accomplished, Mandela’s legacy is best described by former U.S. president Bill Clinton who in 2003 wrote, “Under a burden of oppression he saw through difference, discrimination and destruction to embrace our common humanity.”

Grown-ups often tell children, “Never tell a lie.” For children, the lesson is “Good children are truthful.” For leaders, the lesson is the same: “Good leaders are honest.” Dishonesty creates mistrust in others, and dishonest leaders are seen as undependable and unreliable. Honesty helps people to have trust and faith in what leaders have to say and what they stand for. Honesty also enhances a leader’s ability to influence others because they have confidence in and believe in their leader.

Integrity demands being open with others and representing reality as fully and completely as possible. However, this is not an easy task: There are times when telling the complete truth can be destructive or counterproductive. The challenge for leaders is to strike a balance between being open and candid and monitoring what is appropriate to disclose in a particular situation. While it is important for leaders to be authentic, it is also essential for them to have integrity in their relationships with others.

Integrity undergirds all aspects of leadership. It is at the core of being a leader. Integrity is a central aspect of a leader’s ability to influence. If people do not trust a leader, the leader’s influence potential is weakened. In essence, integrity is the bedrock of who a leader is. When a leader’s integrity comes into question, his or her potential to lead is lost.

Former president Bill Clinton (1993–2001) is a good example of how integrity is related to leadership. In the late 1990s, he was brought before the U.S. Congress for misrepresenting under oath an affair he had engaged in with a White House intern. For his actions, he was impeached by the U.S. House of Representatives, but then was acquitted by the U.S. Senate. At one point during the long ordeal, the president appeared on national television and, in what is now a famous speech, declared his innocence. Because subsequent hearings provided information suggesting he might have lied during his television speech, many Americans felt Clinton had violated his duty and responsibility as a person, leader, and president. As a result, Clinton’s integrity was clearly challenged and the impact of his leadership substantially weakened.

Effective Traits

In conclusion, there are many traits related to effective leadership. The six traits discussed here appear to be particularly important in the leadership process. As will be revealed in subsequent chapters, leadership is a very complex process. The traits discussed in this chapter are important but are only one dimension of a multidimensional process.

Leadership Traits in Practice Throughout history, there have been many great leaders. Each of them has led with unique talents and in different circumstances. The following section analyzes the accomplishments and the traits of five famous leaders. Although there are hundreds of equally distinguished leaders, these five are highlighted because they represent different kinds of leadership at different points in history. All of these leaders are recognized as being notable leaders: Each has had an impact on many people’s lives and accomplished great things.

Traits of Great Leaders

The leaders discussed below are George Washington, Winston Churchill, Mother Teresa, Bill Gates, and Oprah Winfrey. As you read about each of them, think about their leadership traits.

George Washington (1732–1799)

George Washington is considered to be the founding father of the United States of America. His leadership was pivotal in the development of this country’s government. He was truly respected by everyone, from low-ranking soldiers to feisty public officials. He was a man of great integrity who was a good listener. After the Revolutionary War, Washington was the reason that various factions did not splinter into small groups or nations. He became the United States’ first president because his leadership was so well suited for the times.

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Born into a prosperous Virginia family, he grew up on a large plantation. His father died when he was 11. Washington received formal schooling for seven years and then worked as a surveyor. He entered the military at the age of 20. During the French and Indian War, Washington learned about the difficulties of battle and experienced both victories and defeats. He served as commander in chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783. His leadership was instrumental in leading the colonies to victory over Great Britain in the Revolutionary War. After the war, he retired to farm for a short period. In 1787, however, his interests in politics and the nation took him to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, where he was chosen to preside over the successful creation of the U.S. Constitution. After the Constitution was ratified, Washington was elected by 100% of the electoral college as the first president of the United States. Washington served two terms as president (1789–1793, 1793–1797); although he had the people’s support, he chose not to serve a third term. He retired to Mount Vernon in 1797 and died there from pneumonia at the age of 67. At his funeral, one of his officers, Henry Lee, eulogized him as an American who was “first in war, first in peace, and first in the heart of his countrymen.”

Traits and Characteristics George Washington exhibited many special leadership traits (Brookhiser, 1996; Burns & Dunn, 2004; Fishman, 2001; Higginbotham, 2002). Researchers identify him as a modest man with great moral character who demonstrated integrity, virtuousness, and wisdom in his leadership. Though neither highly educated nor brilliant, he is reported to have read 10 newspapers each day. He was tall, and careful about his appearance. For much of his life, he kept a daily record of his work. Although reserved, as a military leader he was brave and tenacious. Rather than use power to his own ends, he gave up his position as commander in chief after the war. Washington provided stability, reason, and order after the American Revolution when the United States was in its formative stages. His evenness made him predictable to the American people, who considered him trustworthy. Above all, Washington was a prudent leader who made sound judgments and provided balance and wisdom to the new government. Washington was a special leader with many unique talents who, as Schwartz (1987, p. 147) has suggested, “was ‘great’ because he was ‘good.’”

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Winston Churchill (1874–1965) Winston Churchill was one of the greatest statesmen and orators of the 20th century. In addition, he was a talented painter and prolific writer; he received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953. Churchill served in the military during World War I, became prime minister of Great Britain in May 1940, and remained in that office through World War

II, until 1945. It was at this time that his masterful leadership was most visible. When the Germans threatened to invade Britain, Churchill stood strong. He made many famous speeches that had far-reaching effects on the morale of the people of Great Britain and the Allied forces. On the home front, he was a social reformer. He served a second term as prime minister from 1951 to 1955. He died at the age of 90 in 1965.

Traits and Characteristics Winston Churchill’s leadership was remarkable because it emerged from a man who was average in many respects and who faced challenges in his personal life. In his education, he did not stand out as superior to others. On a societal level, he was a loner who had few friends. On a personal level, he suffered from bouts of depression throughout his life. Despite these characteristics, Churchill emerged as a leader because of his other unique gifts and how he used them (Hayward, 1997; Keegan, 2002; Sandys & Littman, 2003). A voracious reader, Churchill was plain speaking, decisive, detail oriented, and informed (Hayward, 1997). Furthermore, he was very ambitious, but not out of self-interest: He wanted what was right for others, and he wanted the best for Great Britain. His most significant talent was his masterful use of language. In his oratory, the normally plainspoken Churchill used words and imagery in powerful ways that touched the hearts of many and set the moral climate of the war (Keegan, 2002). He had the ability to build hope and inspire others to rise to the challenge. His stoicism and optimism were an inspiration to his people and all of the Allied forces (Sandys & Littman, 2003).

Mother Teresa (1910–1997) A Roman Catholic nun considered a saint by many, Mother Teresa received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her work with the poor and helpless in Kolkata, India, and throughout the world. Born in Macedonia, Mother Teresa came from a comfortable background. At the age of 18, she joined the Catholic Sisters of Loreto order and worked for 17 years as a high school teacher in Kolkata. Her awareness of poverty in Kolkata caused her to leave the convent in 1948 to devote herself to working full-time with the poorest of the poor in the slums of the city. In 1950, Mother Teresa founded a new religious order, the Missionaries of Charity, to care for the hungry, homeless, unwanted, and unloved.

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Today, there are more than 1 million workers affiliated with the Missionaries of Charity in more than 40 countries. The charity provides help to people who have been hurt by floods, epidemics, famines, and war. The Missionaries of Charity also operate hospitals, schools, orphanages, youth centers, shelters for the sick, and hospices. For her humanitarian work and efforts for peace, Mother Teresa has been recognized with many awards, including the Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971), the Nehru Award (1972), the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom (1985), and the Congressional Gold Medal (1994). Although she struggled with deteriorating health in her later years, Mother Teresa remained actively involved in her work to the very end. She died at the age of 87 in 1997. In September 2016, Pope Francis declared Mother Teresa a saint, with the official name of Saint Teresa of Kolkata. In a statement announcing the canonization, the Vatican called her a “metaphor for selfless devotion and holiness” (Lyman, 2016).

Traits and Characteristics Mother Teresa was a simple woman of small stature who dressed in a plain blue and white sari, and who never owned more than the people she served. Mirroring her appearance, her mission was simple—to care for the poor. From her first year on the

streets of Kolkata where she tended to one dying person to her last years when thousands of people were cared for by the Missionaries of Charity, Mother Teresa stayed focused on her goal. She was a true civil servant who was simultaneously determined and fearless, and humble and spiritual. She often listened to the will of God. When criticized for her stand on abortion and women’s role in the family, or her approaches to eliminating poverty, Mother Teresa responded with a strong will; she never wavered in her deep-seated human values. Teaching by example with few words, she was a role model for others. Clearly, Mother Teresa was a leader who practiced what she preached (Gonzalez-Balado, 1997; Sebba, 1997; Spink, 1997; Vardey, 1995).

Bill Gates (1955–) For many years, William (Bill) H. Gates III, cofounder and chair of Microsoft Corporation, the world’s largest developer of software for personal computers, was the wealthiest person in the world with assets estimated at more than $70 billion. A self- made man, Gates began his interest in computers at the age of 13 when he and a friend developed their first computer software program. He later attended Harvard University but left, without graduating, to focus on software development. He cofounded Microsoft in 1975. Under Gates’s leadership, Microsoft developed the well-known Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), Windows operating system, and Internet Explorer browser. Microsoft is one of the fastest-growing and most profitable companies ever established. From the success of Microsoft, Gates and his wife established the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in 2000 to reduce inequities and improve lives around the world. This foundation promotes education, addresses global health issues (such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis), sponsors libraries, and supports housing and community initiatives in the Pacific Northwest. Beginning in 2006, Gates transitioned away from his day-to-day operating role at Microsoft to spend more time working with his foundation, but he remained the corporation’s chair. But in February 2014, Gates stepped down as the company’s board chairman in order to increase his involvement in the company’s operations, serving in a new role of technology adviser and mentor to the company’s new CEO Satya Nadella. Gates continues to tackle global challenges as co-chair of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which has become the world’s largest private charitable foundation.

Yamaguchi Haruyoshi/Contributor/Corbis Historical/Getty Images

Traits and Characteristics Bill Gates is both intelligent and visionary. When he cofounded Microsoft, he had a vision about how to meet the technological needs of people in the future, and he hired friends to help him accomplish that vision. Gates is also task oriented and diligent, often working 12 or more hours a day to promote his interest in software product

development. Furthermore, Gates is focused and aggressive. When Microsoft was accused by the U.S. government of antitrust violations, Gates appeared before congressional hearings and strongly defended his company. When asked about whether he has a “win at all cost” mentality, he answered that you bring people together to work on products and make products better, but there is never a finish line —there are always challenges ahead (Jager & Ortiz, 1997, pp. 151–152). In his personal style, Gates is simple, straightforward, unpretentious, and altruistic: He has demonstrated a strong concern for the poor and underserved.

Intelligence in Leadership

Oprah Winfrey (1954–) An award-winning television talk show host, Oprah Winfrey is one of the most powerful and influential women in the world. Born in rural Mississippi into a dysfunctional family, she was raised by her grandmother until she was 6. Winfrey learned to read at a very early age and skipped two grades in school. Her adolescent years were difficult: While living in inner-city Milwaukee with her mother who worked two jobs, Winfrey was molested by a family member. Despite these experiences, she was an honors student in high school and received national accolades for her oratory ability. She received a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, where she studied communication and worked at a local radio station. Winfrey’s work in the media eventually led her to Chicago where she became host of the highly acclaimed Oprah Winfrey Show. In 2007, Winfrey was the highest-paid entertainer in television, earning an annual salary estimated at $260 million. She also is an actor, a producer, a book critic, and a magazine publisher, and, in 2011, left her successful television show to concentrate on her television network, OWN. For years, Winfrey had publicly battled her weight, using her struggles as inspiration for her millions of fans to lead healthier lives. In 2015, Winfrey become a 10% stockholder and board member of the diet empire Weight Watchers. Winfrey, who has long shown an interest in health issues and dieting programs, serves as an adviser to the company, using her undeniable clout to further encourage others to engage in healthier lifestyles.

Frederick M. Brown/Stringer/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images

Her total wealth is estimated at more than $3.1 billion. Winfrey is also a highly regarded philanthropist: Her giving has focused on making a difference in the lives of the underprivileged and poor. Winfrey has paid special attention to the needs of people in Africa, raising millions of dollars to help AIDS-affected children there and creating a leadership academy for girls in a small town near Johannesburg, South Africa.

Traits and Characteristics Oprah Winfrey’s remarkable journey from rural poverty to influential world leader can be explained by several of her strengths (Harris & Watson, 2007; Illouz, 2003; McDonald, 2007). Foremost, Winfrey is an excellent communicator. Since she was a little girl reciting Bible passages in church, she has been comfortable in front of an audience. On television, she is able to talk to millions of people and have each person feel as if she is talking directly to him or her. Winfrey is also intelligent and well read, with a strong business sense. She is sincere, determined, and inspirational. Winfrey has a charismatic style of leadership that enables her to connect with people. She is spontaneous and expressive, and has a fearless ability to self-disclose. Because she has “been in the struggle” and survived, she is seen as a role model. Winfrey has overcome many obstacles in her life and encourages others to overcome their struggles as well. Her message is a message of hope.

All of these individuals have exhibited exceptional leadership. While each of these leaders is unique, together they share many common characteristics. All are visionary, strong willed, diligent, and inspirational. As purpose-driven leaders, they are role models and symbols of hope. Reflecting on the characteristics of these extraordinary leaders will provide you with a better understanding of the traits that are important for effective leadership. Although you may not aspire to be another Bill Gates or Mother Teresa, you can learn a great deal from these leaders in understanding how your own traits affect your leadership.

Summary This chapter describes the traits required of a leader. Social science research has provided insight into leadership traits. Thousands of leadership studies have been performed to identify the traits of effective leaders; the results of these studies point to a very long list of important leadership traits. From this list, the traits that appear to be especially important for effective leadership are intelligence, confidence, charisma, determination, sociability, and integrity.

Traits and Leadership Styles

From an examination of a select group of well-known historical and contemporary leaders including George Washington, Winston Churchill, Mother Teresa, Bill Gates, and Oprah Winfrey, it is clear that exemplary leaders exhibit many similar traits. In the main, these leaders were or are visionary, strong willed, diligent, inspirational, purpose driven, and hopeful. These leadership figures provide useful models for understanding the traits that are important and desirable for achieving effective leadership.

Because leadership is a complex process, there are no simple paths or guarantees to becoming a successful leader. Each individual is unique, and each of us has our own

distinct talents for leadership. Those who are naturally strong in the six traits discussed in this chapter will be well equipped for leadership. If you are not strong on all of these traits but are willing to work on them, you can still become an effective leader.

Remember that there are many traits related to effective leadership. By becoming aware of your own traits and how to nourish them, you will be well on your way to becoming a successful leader.

Glossary Terms charisma 24 confidence 23 determination 25 integrity 26 intelligence 22 sociability 25

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Application

2.1 Case Study: An Emerging Leader

Tim T. portrays his life as a tension between “nature” and “nurture.” He sees it this way: He has two sets of DNA, and these two very different sets of characteristics have given him what he needs to be a leader. The first set of DNA, he says, comprises those “God-given genetic talents” that came from the biological parents who abandoned him at birth. The second set comes from the religious and caring family who adopted him two years later.

Tim’s nature is to be out in front of people and relating to them. These innate abilities of his have always been very public and people oriented: from his easy and eloquent speaking style and teaching skills to singing and acting. “As a baby, I was always an extrovert, and since age 2 or 3, people have told me that I would be either president of the United States, a preacher, or a comedian,” he says. “I didn’t intentionally work on these abilities; I have just always had them.”

His “other strand of DNA” came from his adoptive family whom he describes as gentle, unassuming, and quiet. Tim admits he ran in the “middle of the crowd,” while his family members were often silent bystanders standing off in a corner. They did, however, instill in him the strong values of “loving God, loving family, working hard, and giving back” that he embraces today.

Those two sets of characteristics allowed Tim to thrive early. Just out of high school, he was given an opportunity by baseball player Derek Jeter’s Turn 2 Foundation to create a new after-school program for second to fifth graders called Proud to Be Me. The goal of the pilot program was to build children’s self-esteem and self-concept by providing them with new and diverse experiences. Tim developed it with the goal of giving these children a larger lens of what the world could be, so they would be empowered to see more choices than what they found in their neighborhoods.

“My core belief and approach has been to help others by giving them things that nobody can take

away,” he says.

When Tim went to college, he supported himself working part-time at a bank doing collections, calling people on the phone to try to convince them to make payments on their debts. It wasn’t fun, but Tim excelled at it. “I would use my powers of persuasion to get people to make payments, not because it was my job, but because I wanted to help them. These weren’t bad people; they just got in over their heads.”

It was in this job that Tim realized his talents only worked if there was a purpose. “I tried to sell vacuum cleaners once and couldn’t even sell one to my own mama,” he says. “Do you know why? Because there was no purpose in it. But yet, I could talk these people who are struggling and hurting into making a payment. That’s when I knew that I can’t walk on the face of this earth and not help somebody. My persuasion has to have a purpose.”

After finishing college, Tim went on to get a master’s degree in communication and, at the age of 28, became the executive director of the Douglass Community Association, a 90-year-old private, nonprofit, inner-city agency that provides opportunities for youth development, education, healthy living, and leadership. Tim managed the center’s $1.2 million budget and 24 people. He spent much of his time out in the larger community raising money and resources and putting out fires. Although Tim enjoyed his role as executive director, he admits he had difficulty handling the day- to-day personnel issues at the agency.

“I spent a lot of time managing external human resources, but not paying attention to the needs of internal human resources at the center. When my staff did an assessment of me, they consistently said, ‘He does a great job as a leader, but he is our boss and we need him here.’”

To enhance his skills, he took advanced leadership training at the Center for Creative Leadership in North Carolina and Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Tim left the community center after four years to become an associate vice president at Southwest Michigan First, a regional agency focused on catalyzing job creation and economic growth in an area that has been hard hit by job losses. For Tim, it’s an opportunity that makes the most of his double set of DNA.

“This is the place where my talent and my passions meet. I can help people. I can sift through problems and take big issues and break them down in ways people understand. I can persuade and motivate people and organizations to grow,” he says. “And I am still helping others in ways that people can’t take away.”

But Tim still wants to find more ways to help others by creating an independent foundation to help people and kids in need. “My experience has been that it is hard to help hurting people because there is so much bureaucracy and BS tied up in how we do it. I want to help people without strings. If you give people money to help them, don’t give it to them if you need it back. If you’re gonna do something for someone, just do it.”

Questions

1. What is your reaction to Tim’s story? 2. Nature and nurture play a significant role in Tim’s leadership journey. From your

perspective, which has the greatest impact on Tim? Discuss your answer. 3. Of the six major traits described in the chapter (i.e., intelligence, confidence, charisma,

determination, sociability, and integrity), which traits are Tim’s strongest, and which traits are his weakest?

4. What characteristics of Tim’s leadership would you like to incorporate into your own style of leadership?

2.2 Leadership Traits Questionnaire

Purpose

1. To gain an understanding of how traits are used in leadership assessment 2. To obtain an assessment of your own leadership traits

Directions

1. Make five copies of this questionnaire. It should be completed by you and five people you know (e.g., roommates, coworkers, relatives, friends).

2. Using the following scale, have each individual indicate the degree to which he or she agrees or disagrees with each of the 14 statements below regarding your leadership traits. Do not forget to complete this exercise for yourself.

3. ______________________________ (your name) is

Scoring

1. Enter the responses for Raters 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in the appropriate columns on the scoring sheet on this page. An example of a completed chart is provided on page 41.

2. For each of the 14 items, compute the average for the five raters and place that number in the “average rating” column.

3. Place your own scores in the “self-rating” column.

Leadership Traits Questionnaire Chart

Summary and interpretation:

Scoring Interpretation

The scores you received on this questionnaire provide information about how you see yourself and how others see you as a leader. The chart allows you to see where your perceptions are the same as those of others and where they differ. There are no “perfect” scores for this questionnaire. The purpose of the instrument is to provide a way to assess your strengths and weaknesses and to evaluate areas where your perceptions are similar to or different from those of others. While it is confirming when others see you in the same way as you see yourself, it is also beneficial to know when they see you differently. This assessment can help you understand your assets as well as areas in which you may seek to improve.

Example 2.1 Leadership Traits Questionnaire Ratings

Summary and interpretation: The scorer’s self-ratings are higher than the average ratings of others on articulate, perceptive, conscientious, and diligent. The scorer’s self-ratings are lower than the average ratings of others on self- confident, persistent, dependable, outgoing, sensitive, and empathic. The scorer’s self-ratings on self-assured, determined, trustworthy, and friendly are the same as the average ratings of others.

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2.3 Observational Exercise

Leadership Traits

Purpose

1. To gain an understanding of the role of traits in the leadership process 2. To examine the traits of selected historical and everyday leaders

Directions

1. Based on the descriptions of the historical leaders provided in the chapter, identify the three major leadership traits for each of the leaders listed below.

2. Select and briefly describe two leaders in your own life (e.g., work supervisor, teacher,

coach, music director, business owner, community leader). Identify the three major leadership traits of each of these leaders.

Questions

1. Based on the leaders you observed, which leadership traits appear to be most important? 2. What differences, if any, did you observe between the historical and everyday leaders’

traits? 3. Based on your observations, what one trait would you identify as the definitive leadership

trait? 4. Overall, what traits do you think should be used in selecting our society’s leaders?

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2.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

Leadership Traits

Reflection

1. Based on the scores you received on the Leadership Traits Questionnaire, what are your strongest leadership traits? What are your weakest traits? Discuss.

2. In this chapter, we discussed five leadership figures. As you read about these leaders, which leaders did you find most appealing? What was it about their leadership that you found remarkable? Discuss.

3. As you reflect on your own leadership traits, do you think some of them are more “you” and authentic than others? Have you always been the kind of leader you are today, or have your traits changed over time? Are you a stronger leader today than you were five years ago? Discuss.

Action

1. If you could model yourself after one or more of the historical leaders we discussed in this chapter, whom would you model yourself after? Identify two of their traits that you could and should incorporate into your own style of leadership.

2. Based on the case study of Tim T., which of his traits could you incorporate into your own leadership? Discuss.

3. Although changing leadership traits is not easy, which of your leadership traits would you like to change? Specifically, what actions do you need to take to change your traits?

4. All of us have problematic traits that inhibit our leadership but are difficult to change. Which single trait distracts from your leadership? Since you cannot easily change this trait, what actions can you take to “work around” this trait? Discuss.

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3 Engaging Strengths

Introduction Think of a time or circumstance when you were at the top of your game. Now, step back and try to explain why you were so effective in that situation. What was it about you or the way you presented yourself that made you feel good? What did you do that worked so well? Why did others respond to you the way they did? The answers to each of these questions are related to your strengths—the central theme of this chapter.

What Do You Mean By Strengths?

Every one of us has identifiable leadership strengths, areas in which we excel or thrive. But we often fail to recognize these strengths. As a result, many times our strengths are used ineffectively or not at all. The same is true for the strengths of our coworkers and followers; sometimes their strengths are known, but often they go untapped. The challenge we face as leaders is to identify our own strengths as well as the strengths of others and then use these to make our organizations and followers more efficient, productive, and satisfied.

Identifying individual strengths is a unique challenge because people often feel hesitant and inhibited about acknowledging positive aspects of themselves. In the American culture, expressing positive self-attributes is often seen as boastful or self- serving. In fact, focusing on self is disdained in many cultures, while showing humility and being self-deprecating is seen as virtuous. In this chapter, you will be asked to set aside your inhibitions about identifying your own strengths in an effort to better understand the inextricable role these strengths play in leading and working with others.

Our goal in this chapter is to explore how understanding strengths can make one a better leader. First, we will explain the concept by defining strengths and describing the historical background of strengths-based leadership. We will examine how to identify strengths, followed by a description of different measures that can be used to assess your strengths. The final section of the chapter will look at the concept of strengths-based leadership in practice, including specific strategies that leaders can employ to use strengths to become more effective leaders.

Strengths-Based Leadership Explained Before discussing the development and principles of strength leadership, we first need to clarify what is meant by strengths. A strength is an attribute or quality of an individual that accounts for successful performance. It is the characteristic, or series of characteristics, we demonstrate when our performance is at its best. Strength researchers (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Rath, 2007) suggest that strengths are the ability to consistently demonstrate exceptional work. Similarly, Linley (2008) defines

strength as a preexisting capacity that is authentic and energizing and enables peak performance. Simply put, strengths are positive features of ourselves that make us effective and help us flourish. For example, Antonio was born with a talent for drawing and design. He worked as a construction laborer for years while he attended a university to study architecture. As a result, when Antonio became an architect, his experiences in building made his design skills stronger because he more fully understood the concepts of actual construction. His clients often comment that one of his strengths is his “construction-friendly” designs.

What is Strengths-Based Leadership?

Historical Background Studying leadership from the perspective of strengths is a new area of study, which came to the forefront in the late 1990s as a result of two overlapping research developments. First, researchers at the Gallup Organization initiated a massive study that included interviews of over 2 million people to describe what’s right with people —that is, their talents and what they are good at—rather than what’s wrong with people (Rath, 2007).

Second, academic research scholars began to question the exclusive focus in psychology on the disease model of human problems and started to study mentally and physically healthy people and what accounted for their well-being. From this work, a new field called positive psychology emerged (Peterson & Seligman, 2003). Each of these two developments helped to explain the rising popularity of strengths-based leadership.

Gallup Organization Best known as a public opinion research organization that conducts political polling, the Gallup Organization also conducts research in other areas of the social sciences. For nearly 40 years, the study of people’s strengths has been a major research focus at Gallup. This work was spearheaded by the late Donald O. Clifton, under whose leadership millions of people were interviewed regarding their performance and human strengths. Based on these interview data, Gallup researchers designed and published the StrengthsFinder profile, an online assessment of people’s talents and potential strengths. This profile was subsequently titled the Clifton StrengthsFinder in honor of its chief designer and since 2007 has been called StrengthsFinder 2.0. Later in the chapter, we will discuss more extensively StrengthsFinder and the specific talent-based strengths it measures.

The Strengths Finder

StrengthsFinder is one of the most widely used self-assessment questionnaires in the

world and has been completed by more than 10 million people to date. This assessment has been adopted by many universities and organizations to help individuals identify their strengths, become more engaged, and improve their performance. While Gallup has not published a theory about strengths, the widely accepted use of StrengthsFinder has elevated strengths as a key variable in discussions of factors that account for effective leadership development and performance.

Positive Psychology At the same time Gallup’s StrengthsFinder profile was growing in popularity, a major change was occurring in the discipline of psychology. Researchers were challenging the discipline to expand its focus on not only what is wrong with people and their weaknesses, but also what is right with people and their positive attributes. This expanded focus, which was initiated by Martin Seligman in an address to the American Psychological Association in 1998 (see Fowler, Seligman, & Kocher, 1999), soon became the field of positive psychology. Since its inception a decade ago, positive psychology has grown exponentially and developed into a credible and important area of psychological research.

Positive Psychology

Specifically, positive psychology can be defined as “the ‘scientific’ study of what makes life most worth living” (Peterson, 2009, p. xxiii). Rather than study the frailties and flaws of individuals (the disease model), positive psychology focuses on individuals’ strengths and the factors that allow them to thrive (Fredrickson, 2001; Seligman, 2002; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). It addresses people’s positive experiences, such as their happiness and joy; people’s positive traits, such as their characteristics and talents; and people’s positive institutions, such as families, schools, and businesses that influence them (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003).

Positive Psychology in Action

Most prominently, positive psychology is devoted to the study of people’s positive characteristics—their strengths. This makes it invaluable for understanding strengths- based leadership. Positive psychology launched the analysis of people’s strengths into the mainstream of scientific research (Linley, 2008). Concepts and theories from the field of positive psychology directly relate to learning how strengths-based leadership works.

Identifying and Measuring Strengths As indicated in the historical background, most of the research on strengths has been done by scholars connected with Gallup and scholars studying positive psychology.

This body of research has produced multiple ways of identifying strengths and a wide- ranging list of individual strengths. This section explores the way strengths have been identified by three major groups: (1) Gallup Organization, (2) Values in Action Institute, and (3) Centre of Applied Positive Psychology in Great Britain. Although there is much overlap in their work, each research group provides a unique perspective on identifying and measuring individual strengths. Collectively, this research provides an extensive list of specific strengths, a clear picture of how strengths can be measured, and an expansive view of how strengths can be used to understand human behavior.

Gallup and the StrengthsFinder Profile Gallup researchers interviewed an enormous number of executives, salespeople, teachers, doctors, nurses, and other professionals about their strengths and what made them good at what they did. The goal of the interviews was to identify the qualities of high-performing individuals. From interviews, Gallup researchers extracted 34 patterns or themes that they thought did the best job at explaining excellent performance (see Table 3.1). These 34 items are “the most common themes that emerged from the study of human talent” (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001, p. 12). For the last decade, these themes have been the benchmark for discussing strengths in the workplace.

It is important to point out that Gallup researchers identified themes of human talent, not strengths. Talents are similar to personality traits—they are relatively stable, fixed characteristics that are not easily changed. From talents, strengths emerge. The equation for developing a strength is talent times investment (see Figure 3.1). Strengths are derived from having certain talents and then further developing those talents by gaining additional knowledge, skills, and practice (Rath, 2007). For example, you may have the talent for being able to communicate easily with others. If you were to invest time in learning more about the intricacies of effective communication and practicing it with the help of Toastmasters International, a club that helps individuals develop public speaking skills, you could enhance your communication strength. Similarly, if you were born with talent as an initiator, you could develop it further into one of your strengths by studying how to “think outside of the box” and then practicing this thought process in your organization. To summarize, talents are not strengths, but they provide the basis for developing strengths when they are coupled with knowledge, skills, and practice.

How are strengths measured from the Gallup perspective? Gallup’s StrengthsFinder is a 177-item questionnaire that identifies “the areas where you have the greatest potential to develop strengths” (Rath, 2007, p. 31). After taking this questionnaire, you receive a list of your five strongest talents. You can build on these talents, furthering your personal growth and development. The questionnaire, which takes about 30 minutes to complete, is available through an access code that appears in the back of strengths books published by Gallup. It is also available on the organization’s website at www.strengthsfinder.com.

Becoming Influential

Table 3.1

Figure 3.1 Strength Equation

How can leaders use strengths in their leadership? In the book Strengths Based

Leadership, Rath and Conchie (2008) explain how a leader’s scores on the StrengthsFinder profile can be interpreted. To facilitate understanding, they developed a configuration that depicts four domains of leadership strengths (see Table 3.2). The four domains are executing, influencing, relationship building, and strategic thinking. These domains were derived from information obtained during interviews with thousands of executive teams and from a factor analysis of the Gallup talent data set. Taken together, the four domains represent the four kinds of strengths that help create successful teams.

Effective teams possess broad groupings of strengths and work best when all four domains of leadership strengths are represented on their teams (Rath & Conchie, 2008). Effective teams are generally well rounded, and they have different group members who fulfill different needs of the group. Leaders bring unique strengths to teams, but leaders do not have to demonstrate strengths in all four domains. Strong and cohesive teams bring into play everyone’s strengths to make the team effective.

For example, Maria Lopez, who has owned a successful bridal shop for 10 years, took the StrengthsFinder profile and found her dominant strengths were in the strategic thinking domain. Maria is known for her futuristic thinking and deliberate planning. She is outstanding at forecasting trends in bridal wear and helping her team navigate the constantly changing bridal market. Maria hired Claudia, whose dominant strengths are in relationship building. Claudia is the most positive person on the staff and connects with everyone. It is Claudia who treats customers in the store like they are part of “the family.” To run the store on a day-to-day basis, Maria brought on Kristen who is a hard worker and uses her strengths in executing to get the job done. She is highly disciplined and motivated to make the bridal shop the best in the city. Lastly, Maria hired Brianna because of her strengths in the domain of influencing. Brianna is always out in the community promoting the shop. She is seen as a credible professional by other shop owners because she is self-assured and knowledgeable. In the store, people like Brianna because she is not afraid to be in charge and give directions to others. In summary, Maria, the store’s owner, is a leader with strengths in one domain, but has the wisdom to hire personnel who have strengths in other domains. Collectively, the combined strengths of Maria and her team allow them to have a very successful bridal shop.

Table 3.2

Gallup retains all rights of republication.

Values in Action Institute and Inventory of Strengths At the same time the StrengthsFinder profile was gaining prominence, researchers at the Values in Action (VIA) Institute, led by Martin Seligman and Christopher Peterson, were engaged in a project to develop a framework for the field of positive psychology that defined and conceptualized character strengths. This classification focused on what is best in people rather than their weaknesses and problems. To develop the classification, they reviewed philosophical and spiritual literature in Confucianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Judeo-Christianity, Ancient Greece, and Islam to determine whether there were commonalities that consistently emerged across cultures regarding virtues (Peterson & Park, 2009; Peterson & Seligman, 2004). From the review, they identified six universal core virtues: courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom. These six virtues represent the basic structure around which Seligman and Peterson developed the Values in Action Classification of Character Strengths (see Table 3.3). The VIA Classification includes 24 strengths organized under these six basic virtues.

As illustrated in Table 3.3, the 24 character strengths identified in the VIA Classification are somewhat different from the strengths identified in Gallup’s StrengthsFinder profile (see Table 3.1). For example, “justice” and “love,” which are strengths in the VIA Classification, seem more encompassing and virtue oriented than “connectedness” and “ideation,” which are strengths identified in the Gallup list. Furthermore, the strengths outlined by the StrengthsFinder are more closely tied to the workplace and helping individuals perform better, while VIA strengths are focused more directly on a person’s character and how one can become more virtuous.

Table 3.3

Source: Adapted from A Primer in Positive Psychology, by Christopher Peterson, 2006, pp. 142–146.

Values in Action

From the VIA perspective, character strengths are measured with the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS), a questionnaire designed to create a profile of your character strengths. It takes about 30 minutes to complete and is available free at www.viacharacter.org. After completing the questionnaire, you will receive reports and feedback identifying your top five character strengths as well as a rank order of

your scores on all 24 character strengths.

Centre of Applied Positive Psychology and the R2 Strengths Profiler Assessment Based on the principles of positive psychology, researchers at the Centre of Applied Positive Psychology (CAPP) in the United Kingdom developed an approach to strengths that differs from the approaches used in Gallup’s StrengthsFinder and the Values in Action perspectives. Rather than focusing exclusively on the identification of a specific number of strengths, CAPP researchers created a more dynamic model of strengths that emphasizes the changing nature of strengths (see Figure 3.2). They also examined different kinds of strengths and weaknesses. CAPP argued that strengths are more fluid than personality traits and can emerge over a lifetime through the different situations we experience.

From CAPP’s perspective, strengths were conceptualized as “the things that we are good at and that give us energy when we are using them” (Linley & Dovey, 2012, p. 4). The three central elements of this definition became the criteria in CAPP’s questionnaire (R2 Strengths Profiler) for assessing strengths: (1) performance—how good we are at doing something; (2) energy—how much vitality we get out of it; and (3) use—how often we are able to do it. Therefore, the R2 Strengths Profiler assesses 60 strengths in relation to three dimensions of energy, performance, and use. Based on an individual’s combined scores across these dimensions, CAPP provides feedback that specifies the individual’s realized strengths, unrealized strengths, learned behaviors, and weaknesses. It takes about 20 minutes to complete the R2 Strengths Profiler, which is available for a fee at www.cappeu.com.

The CAPP strengths perspective is represented in the R2 Strengths Profiler Quadrant Model (see Figure 3.2). It is divided into quadrants labeled realized strengths, unrealized strengths, learned behaviors, and weaknesses. As you can see in Figure 3.2, each quadrant lists attributes based on the dimensions of performance, energy generation, and use. Each quadrant characterizes different individual attributes and how they can be put into use.

Realized Strengths. Realized strengths are personal attributes that represent our strongest assets. We are energized when we use them because they help us perform well. For example, one of Rachel’s strengths is narrator. She is a wonderful storyteller and uses these stories to convey her message and express her values. The model suggests that people should make every effort to maximize the use of these realized strengths, when it is appropriate to do so.

Unrealized Strengths. Unrealized strengths are personal attributes that are less visible. We feel good when we tap into unrealized strengths because they support our efforts and help us achieve our goals. One of Jason’s unrealized strengths is creativity. He is good at coming up with new ideas and concepts, but more often than not he just goes with the flow and does not express his creativity. The model challenges individuals to become more aware of these strengths and to use them more frequently

—thus to marshal them as a resource.

Figure 3.2 R2 Strengths Profiler 4M Model

Source: Centre of Applied Positive Psychology (CAPP), Coventry, UK: CAPP Press.

Learned Behaviors. Learned behaviors represent those ingrained things we have learned throughout our life experience. Although valuable, they do not excite or inspire us. For example, one of Sunil’s learned behaviors is driver. As the eldest of five, he was driven to graduate from college. Highly self-motivated, Sunil constantly pushes himself to succeed in everything he does, often to the detriment of his own health. Many times Sunil doesn’t recognize when his goals are unrealistic, and not succeeding in these leads to feelings of self-doubt and worthlessness. The model suggests limiting, or moderating, the use of these behaviors because they are draining and do not energize us.

Weaknesses. Weaknesses are our limiting attributes. They often drain our energy and result in poor performance. One of Kaylee’s weaknesses is unconditionality. She finds it hard to genuinely accept people for who they are, without being judgmental about them and expecting them to change to meet her ideals. As a leader, she is constantly frustrated by others because they don’t meet her standards in a number of areas. The model suggests that effective people try to minimize their weaknesses so as to make them irrelevant or of less concern.

Unlike the previous approaches to strengths, the CAPP model is prescriptive and pragmatic. The R2 Strengths Profiler suggests ways people can be more effective by

increasing their strengths and minimizing their weaknesses. The model recommends that individuals use their realized strengths when possible, but also intentionally look for ways to increase use of their unrealized strengths. Stated another way, we should capitalize on our strengths but also seek out ways to express our unrealized strengths. In addition, the model recommends that we try to moderate our use of learned behaviors and minimize our use of our weaknesses. We are energized by our strengths (the top two quadrants), and we lose energy when we express our weaknesses and learned behavior (the bottom two quadrants).

A good example of using the CAPP model is Tamaria, who has recently taken on the role of project manager for a team that is developing a new website for her company. Tamaria’s realized strength is her focus on details and organization; her weakness is that she isn’t as technically skilled as some of the members of her team. As a child, Tamaria struggled in school, and one of her coping mechanisms was to ask a lot of questions so that she thoroughly understood assignments. That has become a learned behavior she still employs. Finally, one of Tamaria’s unrealized strengths is her ability to problem-solve and mediate in conflict.

In order for her team to succeed, Tamaria will need to maximize the use of her realized strengths of organization and attention to detail in outlining the tasks and deadlines for the project. To deal with her weakness in technical skills, she will need to minimize her involvement in the technical development of the website, relying on other team members’ technical skills. By employing her learned behavior of asking her team members a lot of questions about what they are doing and why, Tamaria will slow down the team’s progress and frustrate team members who may feel she’s micromanaging them. In this case, she will need to moderate her inquisitiveness, identifying the questions that she really needs answered or finding a way to research the questions on her own. Finally, working within a team can result in disparate opinions and ideas, and Tamaria will need to marshal her unrealized strength in the mediation and problem solving so the team works smoothly together and meets deadlines while creating a dynamic website.

To summarize, researchers have developed three unique assessment tools to identify strengths: (1) StrengthsFinder, (2) Values in Action Inventory of Strengths, and (3) R2 Strengths Profiler (see Table 3.4). Each of these assessments provides a unique approach to strengths, and together they help to define and clarify the meaning of strengths. All of the questionnaires are accessible online, and they are worthwhile self- assessment tools for identifying and exploring your personal strengths.

Strengths-Based Leadership in Practice How are strengths used in leadership? Although there are no established leadership theories on how to practice leadership from a strengths perspective, many useful applications can be made from strengths research in everyday leadership situations. In this section, we discuss several specific ways to incorporate strengths in your personal and work settings. The steps include (1) discovering your strengths, (2) developing your strengths, (3) recognizing and engaging the strengths of others, and (4) fostering

a positive strengths-based environment around you. Following these steps will not be a panacea for becoming a perfect strengths-based leader, but they will most certainly help you, as a leader, to maximize the use of your strengths as well as those of others.

Using Strengths in a Pharmacy

Discovering Your Strengths As we discussed earlier in this chapter, strengths emerge from our basic personality traits. We all have unique personality traits, and therefore we all have unique strengths. No one is without strengths. As suggested by psychologist Howard Gardner (1997), extraordinary individuals are “distinguished less by their impressive ‘raw power’ than by their ability to identify their strengths and then exploit them” (p. 15). MacKie (2016) suggests that our leadership capability is enhanced when we are able to discover our fully utilized strengths, underutilized strengths, and weaknesses. The challenge we face is identifying our strengths and then employing them effectively in our leadership and personal lives.

Table 3.4

Discovering your strengths requires you to concentrate on your positive attributes and those times when you feel inspirited. To do so, you need to pay attention to your successes rather than focusing on your weaknesses or failures. For example, when are you at the top of your game? What is it about you or your interactions with others that contributes to that feeling? What accounts for your best performance? When things are going really well for you, what attributes are behind this success? Answering these questions will help you discover your strengths. They are the first and most important step in practicing strengths-based leadership.

Discovering Strengths

There are several ways you can discover your strengths. First, you can complete one or more of the strengths questionnaires (e.g., StrengthsFinder 2.0, VIA-IS, and R2 Strengths Profiler) that are available online. Each questionnaire gives a unique snapshot of your greatest strengths. Second, you can fill out the Leadership Strengths Questionnaire that appears in this chapter. This questionnaire will provide you with specific feedback regarding your relative strengths in the areas of implementation, innovation, encouragement, analysis, and mediation. Third, you can complete the Reflected Best Self Exercise (RBSE) (Quinn, Dutton, & Spreitzer, 2003), which can be found at http://positiveorgs.bus.umich.edu/cpo-tools/reflected-best-self-exercise- 2nd-edition/. The RBSE can assist you in identifying unrecognized and unexplored area of strengths (Roberts et al., 2005). Fourth, you can complete the “discovering your strengths” exercise that appears at the end of this chapter in Reflection and Action Worksheet 3.4. This exercise allows people you know to tell you what they see as your strengths when you are performing at your best. It is a powerful exercise you can use to become more aware of your strengths, and it may help you learn about some you have not recognized. Fifth, you can engage in a self-assessment of what you believe to be your strongest attributes. Intuitively, we all have a sense of what we do well, but taking the time to intentionally contemplate and consider our own strengths leads us to become more fully aware of our strengths.

This myriad of methods for discovering strengths will allow you to painlessly develop a definitive list of your major strengths. This process is not only enlightening but is also a vital first step in developing strengths-based leadership.

Developing Your Strengths Once you have discovered your strengths, what do you do with that knowledge? How do you make use of this information to be a stronger leader? Developing one’s strengths is a multifaceted process that involves several steps. First, you must acknowledge your strengths and be prepared to reveal them to others. As we discussed at the beginning of this chapter, it is often difficult to share our strengths with others because we may feel inhibited about openly and verbally acknowledging positive aspects of ourselves. But expressing our strengths is essential to making others aware of our leadership.

Telling others about our strengths is important because it lets them know how we can be most useful when working or collaborating together, clarifying the unique contributions we can make to others and their work. In essence, disclosing strengths declares “this is what I bring to the table, this is what I am best at, this is what I can do for you,” and that allows others to know what they can expect from us. For example, when Tanya lets others know that her strongest quality is that she is an achiever, others learn that Tanya is not likely to allow mediocrity in their work. She is going to be demanding and push others toward excellence. Similarly, when Jason tells his staff that his strength is listening, his staff learns that Jason will have an open door and be willing to hear their problems or concerns. Putting our strengths out in the open makes

us more transparent to others, and this helps others predict how we are going to act and how they might want to act toward us.

Developing Strengths

People use a variety of ways to reveal their strengths. Some people post their top five strengths on Facebook or LinkedIn, add them to their email signature, or list them on their résumé as a way of making their strengths more visible to others. Several unique examples of how some people share their strengths are illustrated in Figure 3.3. Disclosing our strengths to others does not need to be a daunting or embarrassing task, but can be done in a fairly simple, straightforward manner.

Expressing strengths has a cultural element to it as well. What one culture may see as a strength that should be revealed, another may see as something to be kept hidden. For example, many Western cultures encourage women to recognize and celebrate their intelligence. In some cultures, such as those in religiously conservative, patriarchal societies of the Middle East, women expressing intelligence is not seen as a strength. Many girls are prohibited from attending school.

In addition to revealing your strengths, practice working consistently with others based on your strengths. For example, if your strength is being an innovator, find ways to be creative in your leadership. For example, do not hesitate to engage in activities like brainstorming or creating a vision for your group or organization. Similarly, if your strength is that you are deliberative, place yourself in a position where your strength in providing structure and order to a project can be put to use. Add your well-thought-out perspective by being vigilant and practical when people around you are coming up with ideas that have never been tested. The point is that you should lead from your strengths; your strengths represent the best you have to offer in influencing others. As Anderson (2004) from the Gallup Organization has suggested, “The best of the best invent ways of developing and applying strengths in areas where they want to improve, achieve, and become more effective” (p. 7).

Figure 3.3 Examples of Ways to Express Strengths

A good example of practicing strengths is Warren Buffett, one of the wealthiest people in the world. Buffett is known for his patience, practicality, and trustfulness, and he used these strengths to make Berkshire Hathaway, a multinational conglomerate,

successful (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001). His patience led him to adopt the now famous “20-year perspective” on investing only in companies that he believed would be successful for the long term. His practicality explains how he selected specific companies whose services and products he understood (e.g., American Express). Finally, Buffett’s trustfulness allowed him to select senior managers who were reputable and dependable to run his company. Clearly, Buffett recognized his strengths and carved out a role for himself that allowed him to practice these strengths every day (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001).

Addressing Your Weaknesses Leaders must not only recognize and capitalize on their strengths, but also be able to identify their weaknesses and address them (MacKie, 2016). Harvard leadership professor John P. Kotter states, “Great leadership doesn’t mean running away from reality . . . sharing difficulties can inspire people to take action that will make the situation better” (Blagg & Young, 2001).

While some of the models discussed here advocate minimizing your weaknesses, understanding them can allow you to work to improve them and to recognize situations where your weaknesses can be a liability to your leadership. For example, Lisa owns a small business developing e-commerce websites for companies that sell products online. Her strengths are her structural and process-oriented thinking and technical expertise. She is adept at anticipating and managing the many small details for creating a website that is secure and provides a good user experience. However, Lisa can’t describe what she does in normal “layperson” terms for clients. In her proposals and presentations, she tends to lose clients with her use of technical language and minutiae of detail. In Lisa’s case, it isn’t enough that she minimize her weakness—she can’t not talk to clients because that’s how she generates new business. She must find a way to communicate better with her clients.

Leadership Snapshot: Steve Jobs, Founder, Apple Inc.

While Steve Jobs was undoubtedly brilliant, he didn’t possess the technical abilities to be a computer genius. In fact, Jobs didn’t know how to write computer code or program a computer. But he succeeded—twice—in building one of the most successful and profitable computer companies in the world.

Jobs had many notable strengths, including his creativity, team building, strategic vision, and influencing. He had intuitive vision, imagining products and applications of which no one else dared to dream. When he created Apple in 1976 with partner Steve Wozniak, he sought to create an attractive, simple, inexpensive computer marketed as the first home computer. Jobs micromanaged every detail of the computer’s creation from its unique operating software to the color of its casing.

Jobs was an influencer, using his indomitable will and charisma to convince himself and others of almost anything. He believed rules were meant to be broken, and in 1984, Apple did just that, introducing a truly revolutionary product, the Macintosh. It used graphics, icons, a mouse, and the point-and-click technology that is still standard. It was innovative and influential.

But Jobs wasn’t perfect. He could be confrontational, and this quality eventually resulted in him being booted out of his own company by Apple’s board of directors.

Jobs moved on, using his visionary skills and passion for perfection to create NeXT Computer, recognized as a great product that never caught on with consumers.

Undaunted, Jobs branched out into movie animation by acquiring Pixar Animation Studios, bringing his vision, passion, and influencing skills to a new industry. Under his leadership, Pixar revolutionized movie animation and made Jobs a multibillionaire.

His old company, Apple, hadn’t done so well. A decade after Jobs exited, Apple was nearly bankrupt. It decided to buy NeXT Computer and the services of Jobs as a consultant. But he would soon take over as CEO. His first move was to employ another of his strengths—focus. He took the two-dozen products Apple was producing—printers, computers, and software—and winnowed them down to only laptop and desktop computers for the professional and home consumer.

Jobs didn’t stop there. Over the next 14 years, he dreamt up the iPod, the iPad, and the iPhone. By combining creativity, technology, and feats of engineering, Apple produced new devices that consumers hadn’t even thought of or knew they needed. Jobs insisted these devices be intuitive and simple to use and oversaw every detail of design from creating specialized glass for the screens to the width of their metal casings.

In the end, Jobs’s vision revolutionized seven industries: personal computers, animated movies, music, telephones, tablet computing, digital publishing, and retail stores. When he returned to Apple in 1997, he personally created the company’s new ad campaign—“Think Different”—which was as much a statement of his own strengths as a leader as it was a mission statement for Apple.

After losing out on several possible projects, Lisa listened to the feedback of the clients when they said that what she was proposing was “too complicated.” Lisa brought in a marketing professional, Julie, to help her develop and pitch proposals to clients. Julie understands enough of the technical parts of Lisa’s work to be able to put it in easier-to-understand terms for potential clients. Julie is very strong in communication and social interactions, and Lisa is finding that by observing and working with Julie, she is learning to communicate more effectively with clients.

While making the most of our strengths is important for leaders, recognizing our weaknesses is also important in effective leadership. In the case of Lisa, she had to address her communication problems; there was no way around it. Working to improve on your weaknesses or using them as opportunities for others to contribute their strengths will improve your leadership.

Recognizing and Engaging the Strengths of Others In addition to employing their own strengths, leaders need to recognize and engage the strengths of their followers. They need to determine what followers are good at doing and help them to do it. Educators who study group dynamics and the roles individuals play in effective groups often say “people do what they do best.” What they mean by this is that individuals often become engaged and contribute positively to groups when they are allowed to do what they are good at and feel comfortable doing. People feel comfortable in groups when they can contribute to the group from their strengths.

How do leaders know what people are good at? Sometimes people are very up front and freely express their strengths. Mia, for example, often says when she joins a new work project, “I’m a good note taker, so you can plan on me to be the record keeper for our meetings.” Similarly, Josh often says on the first day of a roofing project, “I am pretty fast with the nail gun, so you might want me on the roof nailing shingles.” Clearly, sometimes followers openly inform leaders of their strengths. When this

occurs, it is important for leaders to acknowledge these individuals’ strengths if possible and assign them to roles in the work setting that capitalize on these strengths.

While recognizing strengths sounds simple, it is not uncommon for leaders to overlook followers’ strengths. Oftentimes, the strengths of followers are not evident to leaders or even to the followers themselves. This becomes a challenging situation, because leaders need to ascertain followers’ strengths from what they observe rather than what followers explicitly express to them. Cordelia was a struggling graduate student who was just plodding along, uncertain about her direction and goals. When she received an A++ on a challenging reaction paper, she became excited and was surprised to learn that her strength was creativity, particularly in writing. Cordelia and her instructor both became aware of her strengths in writing by the work she did on her assignment. Juan is good with solving computer glitches in the office, suggesting his strengths lie in the area of technology. When he was assisting a staff member who was having a problem downloading a file from the web, he found that he liked the challenge of solving these problems. Or consider Ashley, who is a good worker, always present, and never oppositional. She is a wonderful team member whose strengths are consistency, kindness, and being fun-loving. She fosters the esprit de corps in the athletic center where she works. In each of these examples, an effective leader tries to identify the followers’ strengths and then incorporate them into building a more productive team.

However, it is important to note that others’ strengths may not always be directly recognizable. Followers may have strengths that are not observable because their situations don’t allow for many facets of their overall abilities to emerge. Therefore, it is important to find opportunities outside followers’ normal realm of duties or activities that will allow their strengths to emerge. For example, Jeff works on an assembly line at a golf cart manufacturer attaching seats to the chassis of golf carts. The position is very repetitive and structured, and Jeff, like the other assembly line employees, spends most of his workday at his station with limited interaction with other workers. However, with the blessing of his supervisor, Jeff recently organized a softball team made up of other plant workers to play in a local league. Jeff has recruited team members, arranged all the practices, communicated practice and game schedules to the team, organized the purchase of team uniforms, and promoted the team’s games in the plant through flyers and the company newsletter. As a result, many individuals who work with Jeff have observed his strengths in organization, inclusion, and communication, which would not be observable through his day-to-day work on the assembly line.

As we discussed earlier in this chapter, high-performing teams and work groups possess strengths in four domains: executing, influencing, relationship building, and strategic thinking (see Table 3.2). When leaders become aware of their followers’ strengths as well as their own, they can use this information to design work groups that have individuals with strengths representing each of the domains. Knowing followers’ unique strengths allows leaders to make work assignments that maximize each individual’s contribution to the collective goals of the group (Rath & Conchie, 2008). If a leader is strong on executing and knows how to make new ideas come to fruition, but is not as strong in building relationships, the leader should identify followers with

strengths in that area. Or if a leader has strengths in connecting with people and taking command, the leader can identify others who are strong in executing and strategic thinking. Knowledge of followers’ strengths is a valuable tool to help leaders to build effective groups.

Leadership and Followership

Fostering a Positive Strengths-Based Environment A final way to practice strengths-based leadership is to create and promote a positive work environment in which people’s strengths play an integral role. Multiple studies by researchers in positive organizational scholarship indicate that companies and organizations that create positive work environments have a positive physiological impact on employees and, in turn, this has an advantageous impact on their performance (Cameron, 2012; Dutton & Ragins, 2007). Similarly, research suggests that when employees have the opportunity to engage their strengths, they are more productive and more loyal, and their companies experience less turnover (Clifton & Harter, 2003). In short, people feel better and work better when the climate in which they work is positive.

In his book Positive Leadership, Cameron (2012) argues that leaders who want to create a positive work environment should attend to four areas: climate, relationships, communication, and meaning. To create a positive climate, leaders should foster among their employees virtues such as compassion, forgiveness, and gratitude. When these qualities are present, people feel encouraged and are more productive. Leaders can also promote celebrating people’s strengths. Doing so helps people feel valued as individuals and respected for their contribution to the organization. To build positive relationships, leaders need to highlight individuals’ positive images and strengths rather than their negative images and weaknesses. Acknowledging and building on people’s strengths encourages others to do the same, and this results in the development of an environment where positive relationships flourish. To develop positive communication, leaders must be supportive, make more positive than negative statements, and be less negatively evaluative of others. Positive communication helps people feel connected and encourages them to capitalize on their strengths. Finally, leaders can foster positive meaning in their organizations by emphasizing the connection between employees’ values and the long-term impact of their work. Employees who find meaning in their work and see it as valuable are more engaged and productive.

A Positive Climate

Fostering a positive strengths-based organizational environment is embraced by a

multitude of organizations. For example, more than 500 colleges and universities have integrated dimensions of a strengths-based perspective into their student learning, faculty, and culture, including Baylor University, Texas A&M University, Azusa Pacific University, University of Arkansas, Texas Tech University, San Jose State University, and University of Minnesota. Among the many companies that have adopted strengths as a systematic program are Fortune 500 companies Pfizer, Hilton, Facebook, Chick-fil-A, Coca-Cola, Cisco, Microsoft, and Best Buy.

Summary Strengths-based leadership has been given much attention in recent years because researchers believe it can have a significant impact on the way leaders choose to lead and on the performance of followers. In this chapter, we explored people’s strengths and how leaders can make use of these strengths to become more effective leaders. Although we all have strengths, they often go unrecognized and unused. Understanding strengths can make one a better leader.

A strength is defined as an attribute or quality of an individual that accounts for successful performance. In simple terms, a strength is what we do when we are performing at our best. Strengths often begin with our inborn talents and can be further developed through knowledge, skills, and practice. The equation for developing a strength is talent times investment (Rath, 2007).

Strengths-based leadership has come to the forefront in recent years as a result of two research developments. First, spearheaded by Donald O. Clifton, the Gallup Organization interviewed millions of people about their strengths and what made them good at what they did. From interviews, Gallup extracted 34 themes that best explained excellent performance. Second, academic scholars created a new field called positive psychology that focused less on the disease model and more on the study of healthy people and what accounted for their well-being. Prominent in this new field is the study of people’s positive characteristics—their strengths. Taken together, research at Gallup and in positive psychology explains the rising popularity of strengths-based leadership.

People’s strengths have been measured in different ways. The benchmark is Gallup’s StrengthsFinder, which is a 177-item questionnaire that identifies an individual’s five strongest talents across four domains (i.e., executing, influencing, relationship building, and strategic thinking). Strengths can also be measured using the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths, which provides an individual’s top five character strengths as well as a rank order of his or her scores on 24 virtue-derived character strengths. A third measure, the R2 Strengths Profiler, assesses 60 strengths in relationship to an individual’s energy, performance, and use, and provides feedback on an individual’s realized strengths, unrealized strengths, learned behaviors, and weaknesses.

Although there are no established theories about the practice of strengths-based leadership, there are several straightforward ways for individuals to incorporate

strengths into their leadership. First, leaders need to discover their own strengths. They can do this through completing questionnaires and other self-assessment activities. The goal is to develop a definitive list of one’s strengths. Second, leaders need to be prepared to acknowledge their strengths and reveal them to others. Although we may feel inhibited about disclosing our strengths to others, it is essential for making others aware of our capabilities. We need to make ourselves transparent to others and lead from our strengths. Third, leaders must make a concerted effort to recognize and engage the strengths of others. Because “people do what they do best,” leaders have an obligation to help uncover others’ strengths and then integrate these strengths into building more productive teams. Finally, leaders can practice strengths-based leadership by fostering work environments in which people’s strengths play an integral role. Leaders can do this by creating for their followers a positive climate, positive relationships, positive communication, and positive meaning (Cameron, 2012). Research shows that people feel better and work better when the climate in which they work is positive.

To summarize, strengths-based leadership is a new area of research that offers a unique approach to becoming a more effective leader. Not a panacea, strengths concepts provide an innovative and valuable perspective to add to our leadership toolbox.

Glossary Terms Gallup Organization 49 learned behaviors 56 positive psychology 50 realized strengths 55 strengths 48 themes of human talent 51 unrealized strengths 55 weaknesses 56

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Application

3.1 Case Study: Ready to Be CEO?

Christine Jorgens was shocked when the board of Begin the Future Foundation, the nonprofit organization she worked for, asked her to apply for the position of CEO of the organization. For 40 years, Begin the Future Foundation had provided programs in a nine-county region to help children living in poverty in urban and rural areas succeed in school and life, and the CEO’s job was a big one.

Christine had never aspired to be a CEO. She had grown up on a small farm in a rural area, one of

seven children in a family that struggled financially. In high school, she worked at a local restaurant, first as a dishwasher and then as a waitress, continuing to work there while she attended college studying social work.

In her senior year of college, she landed an internship at Begin the Future Foundation overseeing an after-school program for middle school students. Christine ended up working for Begin the Future Foundation for 12 more years, with many of her colleagues joking that she was “the intern who never left.” Friendly and approachable, she eagerly took on whatever work the organization had for her to do. She worked as a receptionist, became a grant writer, helped out in public relations and marketing, and then was given a position developing and initiating new programs and working with donors to fund those programs.

She thrived at program development, finding ways to implement community resources that were often overlooked. Her program, Study Buddies, paired up volunteer tutors from a local college with children to meet three times a week for a half-hour of tutoring followed by a half-hour of recreation and games. Christine also initiated Girl Power, a program allowing middle school girls to spend an afternoon each week shadowing a local female professional or businesswoman who worked in a career that they were interested in pursuing.

Christine’s enthusiasm was contagious, especially with donors. Her programs were all successfully funded, and potential donors often approached Christine with ideas they had for new initiatives that they were willing to fund.

But despite all her successes, Christine wasn’t sure she was CEO material. She saw herself as a local girl who had lucked into some great opportunities. The board had been clear about what credentials a new CEO must have: strategic thinking, experience running a nonprofit organization, ability to work with people on all levels of society from the poorest to the richest, ability to manage people, and a commitment to the organization’s mission of helping kids escape poverty. Christine didn’t have direct experience overseeing a nonprofit and felt she needed more experience in the day-to-day management of the organization.

At the suggestion of the board members, she took a strengths assessment and learned her strengths were in strategic planning, relationship building, creativity, compassion, and influencing. In addition, the board members pointed out that she had a deep knowledge and commitment to the organization and the children they served. Despite Christine’s hesitancy, the board was convinced Christine was the right candidate.

Questions

1. Strengths are considered inborn traits that can be enhanced with experience. What experiences in Christine’s background helped her develop her strengths?

2. Of the strengths identified by the assessment, which were directly observable in Christine’s work? Were there any that were not?

3. Christine admitted having some weaknesses, especially in day-to-day management of the organization. Which of her strengths could she put into use to help her deal with that, and how?

4. What strengths should Christine seek from others that would complement her own and fill some gaps?

3.2 Leadership Strengths Questionnaire

Purpose

1. To develop an understanding of your leadership strengths 2. To rank your strengths in selected areas of performance

Directions

1. Please answer the statements below in terms of whether the statement describes what you are like.

2. For each of the statements, circle the number that indicates the degree to which you feel the statement is like you.

Scoring

1. Sum the responses on items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, and 26 (implementer score). 2. Sum the responses on items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, and 27 (innovator score). 3. Sum the responses on items 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and 28 (encourager score). 4. Sum the responses on items 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, and 29 (analytic score). 5. Sum the responses on items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 (mediator score).

Total Scores:

_________ _________ _________ _________ ___________

Implementer Innovator Encourager Analytic Mediator

Scoring Interpretation

The Leadership Strengths Questionnaire is designed to measure your strengths in the areas of implementation, innovation, encouragement, analysis, and mediation. By assessing the rank order of your scores, you can determine the areas in which you have the greatest strengths and the areas in which you are weaker. A high score in a certain area indicates where you are strong; a low score shows where you are weak. As discussed in this chapter, every person has multiple strengths. In addition to the strengths revealed by the Leadership Strengths Questionnaire, you may wish to complete other strengths assessments to obtain a more complete picture of all of your strengths.

If your score is 26–30, you are in the very high range. If your score is 21–25, you are in the high range. If your score is 16–20, you are in the moderate range. If your score is 11–15, you are in the low range. If your score is 6–10, you are in the very low range.

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3.3 Observational Exercise

Strengths

Purpose

1. To learn to recognize people’s strengths 2. To gain an understanding of the role of strengths in the leadership process

Directions

1. In this exercise, your task is to observe a leader in action. The leader can be a teacher, a supervisor, a coach, a manager, or anyone who has a position that involves leadership.

2. Based on your observations of the leader in action, identify areas in which the leader has strengths and areas in which the followers have strengths.

Questions

1. Based on the virtue-based strengths listed in Table 3.3, identify two strengths you observed the leader exhibit. How did these strengths affect his or her followers?

2. Discuss what strengths group members appeared to exhibit and how these strengths may complement or distract from the leader’s leadership.

3. Do you think the followers in this situation would feel comfortable expressing their own strengths to others? Discuss.

4. If you were coaching the leader in this situation, what specific things could she or he do to create a positive environment where the expression of people’s strengths was welcomed?

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3.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

Strengths

Reflection

1. For this exercise, you are being asked to interview several people you know about your strengths. Instructions:

First, identify three people (e.g., friends, coworkers, colleagues, family members) from whom you feel comfortable asking for feedback about yourself.

Second, ask each of these individuals to do the following: 1. Think of a time or situation when they saw you at your best 2. Tell a brief story about what you were doing 3. Describe why they thought you were performing well in this situation 4. Based on this story, describe what unique benefits you offered others in this

situation Third, from the answers the individuals gave, identify two or three recurring themes. These themes represent your strengths.

2. What is your reaction to what others (in Step 1) have identified as your strengths? Are the strengths others identified about you consistent with your own perceptions of your strengths? In what way are they consistent with your scores on the Leadership Strengths Questionnaire?

3. This chapter suggests that it is important for leaders to reveal their strengths to others. As a leader, how do you feel about disclosing your strengths to others? How do you react when others express their strengths to you?

Action

1. Based on the questionnaire in this chapter and your own insights, create a business card for yourself that lists your five signature strengths.

2. Of the four domains of leadership strengths (see Table 3.2), which are your strongest? Describe how you could solicit support from followers to complement these areas of strength.

3. Imagine you are the leader of a classroom group required to do a semester-long service learning project. Identify and discuss specific things you could do to create a positive climate, positive relationships, positive communication, and positive meaning.

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Buckingham, M., & Clifton, D. (2001). Now, discover your strengths. New York, NY: Free Press.

Cameron, K. S. (2012). Positive leadership: Strategies for extraordinary performance (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

Cameron, K. S., Dutton, J. E., & Quinn, R. E. (2003). Foundations of positive organizational scholarship. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 3–14). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

Clifton, D. O., & Harter, J. K. (2003). Investing in strengths. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 111–121). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

Dutton, J. E., & Ragins, B. R. (2007). Exploring positive relationships at work. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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Gardner, H. (1997). Extraordinary minds: Portraits of exceptional individuals and an examination of our extraordinariness. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Kaplan, R. E., & Kaiser, R. B. (2010). Toward a positive psychology for leaders. In P. A. Linley, S. A. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 107–117). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

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Linley, A. (2008). Average to A+: Realising strengths in yourself and others. Coventry, UK: CAPP Press.

Linley, A., & Dovey, H. (2012). Technical manual and statistical properties for Realise2. Coventry, UK: CAPP Press.

Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2002). Authentic leadership development. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 241–258). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

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Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 14–28). San Francisco, CA: Berrett- Koehler.

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Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14.

4 Understanding Philosophy and Styles

Introduction What is your philosophy of leadership? Are you an in-charge type of leader who closely monitors followers? Or are you a laid-back type of leader who gives followers a lot of rein? Whether you are one or the other or somewhere in between, it is important to recognize your personal philosophy of leadership. This philosophy affects how others respond to you, how they respond to their work, and, in the end, how effective you are as a leader.

What Does “Philosophy of Leadership” Mean?

In this chapter, we will discuss how a person’s view of people, work, and human nature forms a personal philosophy of leadership. In addition, this chapter will examine how that philosophy is demonstrated in three of the most commonly observed styles of personal leadership: the authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire styles. We will discuss the nature of these styles and the implications each has for effective leadership performance.

Leadership Philosophy Explained Each of us approaches leadership with a unique set of beliefs and attitudes about the nature of people and the nature of work. This is the basis for our philosophy of leadership. For example, some think people are basically good and will happily work if given the chance. Others think people are prone to be a bit lazy and need to be nudged to complete their work. These beliefs about people and work have a significant impact on an individual’s leadership style and probably come into play in every aspect of a person’s leadership.

Understanding Leadership Philosophy

Do you think people like work, or do you think people find work unpleasant? This was one of the central questions addressed by Douglas McGregor in his famous book The Human Side of Enterprise (1960). McGregor believed that managers need to understand their core assumptions about human nature and assess how these assumptions relate to their managerial practice.

In particular, McGregor was interested in how managers view the motivations of workers and their attitudes toward work. He believed that understanding these motivations was central to knowing how to become an effective manager. To explain the ways that managers approach workers, McGregor proposed two general theories— Theory X and Theory Y. McGregor believed that by exploring the major assumptions of each of these theories people could develop a better understanding of their own

viewpoints on human behavior and the relationship of these viewpoints to their leadership style. Below is a description of both theories. As you read, ask yourself if the assumptions of the theory are consistent or inconsistent with your own attitudes and philosophy of leadership.

Theory X Theory X is made up of three assumptions about human nature and human behavior (see Table 4.1). Taken together, these assumptions represent a philosophy of leadership that many leaders exhibit to one degree or another.

Assumption #1. The average person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible. This assumption argues that people do not like work; they view it as unpleasant, distasteful, or simply a necessary evil. According to this assumption, if given the chance, people would choose not to work. An example of this assumption is the worker who says, “I only go to work to be P-A-I-D. If I didn’t need to pay my bills, I would never work.” People with this philosophy would avoid work if they could.

Table 4.1

Theory X

Assumption #2. People need to be direct and controlled. This assumption is derived directly from the first assumption. Since people naturally do not like work, management needs to set up a system of incentives and rewards regarding work that needs to be accomplished because workers are often unwilling or unable to motivate themselves. This assumption says that without external direction and incentives people would be unmotivated to work. An example of this is the high school teacher who persuades students to hand in homework assignments by threatening them with bad grades. The teacher forces students to perform because the teacher thinks that the students are unwilling to do it or incapable of doing it without that force being applied. From the perspective of Theory X, leaders play a significant role in encouraging others to accomplish their work.

Assumption #3. People want security, not responsibility. The picture this assumption paints is of workers who want their leaders to take care of them, protect them, and make them feel safe. Because it is too difficult to set their own goals, workers want management to do it for them. This can only happen when managers establish the guidelines for workers. An example of this assumption can be observed at a fast-food restaurant where the employees only have to focus on completing the specific tasks set before them (e.g., cleaning the shake machines or making fries) and are not required to take initiative on their own. In general, many fast-food restaurant workers are not required to accept many challenging responsibilities. Instead, they are told what to do, and how and when to do it. Consistent with this assumption, this example highlights how some workers are not ambitious but want job security above everything else.

So what does it mean if a person’s personal leadership style or philosophy is similar to Theory X? It means these leaders have a tendency to view workers as lazy and uninterested in work because they do not value work. As a result, Theory X leaders tend to be directive and controlling. They supervise followers closely and are quick to both praise and criticize them as they see fit. At times, these leaders remind workers of their goal (e.g., to be P-A-I-D) or threaten them with punishment to persuade them to accomplish tasks. As the person in charge, a Theory X leader sees his or her leadership role as instrumental in getting the job done. Theory X leaders also believe it is their role to motivate followers because these workers have little self-motivation. Because of this belief, these leaders take on the responsibility for their followers’ actions. From the Theory X perspective, it is clear that followers have a need for leadership.

Theory Y Like Theory X, Theory Y is based on several specific assumptions about human nature and behavior (see Table 4.2). Taken together, the assumptions of Theory Y present a distinctly different perspective from the ideas set forth in Theory X. It is a perspective that can be observed to a degree in many leaders today.

Theory X and Theory Y

Assumption #1. The average person does not inherently dislike work. Doing work is as natural as play. Rather than viewing work as a burden or bad, this assumption suggests people see work as satisfying and not as a punishment. It is a natural activity for them. In fact, given the chance, people are happy to work. An example of this can be seen in what former president Jimmy Carter has done in his retirement. He has devoted much of his time and energy to constructing homes throughout the United States and around the

world with Habitat for Humanity. Certainly, the former president does not need to work: He does so because work is natural for him. All his life, Carter has been used to making a contribution to the well-being of others. Working with Habitat for Humanity is another opportunity for him to contribute. Some people view work as a natural part of their lives.

Assumption #2. People will show responsibility and self- control toward goals to which they are committed. As opposed to Theory X, which suggests that people need to be supervised and controlled, Theory Y suggests that people can and will make a conscious choice to work on their own.

Table 4.2

People can be committed to the objectives of their work. Consider some examples from the sports world. Successful athletes are often highly committed to their goals and usually do not need to be controlled or supervised closely. Coaches design training plans for these athletes, but the athletes do the work themselves. A successful long- distance runner does not need to be pushed to run 60 training miles a week in preparation for a marathon because the runner is already motivated to run long distances. Similarly, an Olympic swimmer does not need to be forced to do daily 3- mile pool workouts at 5:00 A.M. because the swimmer chooses to do this independently of any coach’s urging. These athletes are self-directed because they are committed to their goals. This is the point of Theory Y. When people can find commitment in their work, they will work without needing leaders to motivate or cajole them. Put another way, when people have a passion for their work, they will do it even without outside direction.

Assumption #3. In the proper environment, the average person learns to accept and seek responsibility. While Theory X argues that people lack ambition, prefer to be directed, and want security, Theory Y assumes that the average person is inherently resourceful and, if given the chance, will seek to take responsibility. If given the chance, people have the capacity to engage in a wide range of goal-setting and creative problem-solving activities. Theory Y argues that, given the opportunity, people will act independently and be productive.

100

For example, two university students working in the main stacks section of the library were required to complete a checklist whenever they worked to be sure that they correctly carried out various sorting and shelving activities. The checklist was long, cumbersome, and repetitious, however. Frustrated by the checklist, the students took it upon themselves to design an entirely new, streamlined checklist. The new checklist for sorting and shelving was very clear and concise, and was playful in appearance. After reviewing the checklist and giving it a short trial period, management at the library adopted the new checklist and required that it be implemented throughout the entire library. In this example, library management provided an environment where students felt comfortable suggesting a rather major change in how their work was to be completed. In addition, management was willing to accept and adopt a student- initiated work change. It is not unrealistic to imagine that these students will be more confident initiating ideas or taking on new challenges in other work settings in the future.

So if a leader’s philosophy of leadership is similar to Theory Y, what does it mean? It means that the leader views people as capable and interested in working. Even though Theory Y leaders may define work requirements, they do not try to control workers. To these leaders, followers are not lazy; on the contrary, they naturally want to work. In addition, these leaders do not think they need to try to motivate followers or make them work since workers are capable of motivating themselves. Using coercion or external reinforcement schemes is not a part of their leadership repertoire. Theory Y leaders are very attuned to helping followers find their passion for what they want to do. These leaders know that when followers are committed to their work, they are more motivated to do the job. Allowing followers to seek and accept responsibilities on their own comes easily for Theory Y leaders. In short, Theory Y leadership means supporting followers without the need to direct or control them.

In the late 1970s and 1980s, a new leadership theory tangentially related to Theory X and Theory Y was developed by William Ouchi (1981). Ouchi contrasted the collectivistic culture of Japanese companies—which had begun to dominate markets, especially in automobiles and electronics—with the individualism stressed in American organizations and developed an approach that was a hybrid of the two called Theory Z. A Theory Z organization is one that emphasizes common cultural values, beliefs, and objectives among its members with a focus on communication, collaboration, and consensual decision making. At the same time, some of the individualistic values of American organizations are also incorporated. Theory Z organizations still maintain formal authority structures and an emphasis on individual contributions and recognizing individual achievements. However, the individual decision making of the leader that is found in both Theory X and Theory Y is not a characteristic of a Theory Z organization.

Leadership in Challenging Times

In summary, all of us maintain certain basic beliefs and assumptions about human

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nature and work that form our leadership philosophy. The next section discusses how that philosophy impacts your behaviors as a leader, or your leadership style. Whether a person’s philosophy is similar to Theory X or similar to Theory Y, it affects his or her style of leadership. The challenge is to understand the philosophical underpinnings of your own leadership style.

Leadership Styles Explained What behaviors do you exhibit as a leader? Do you like to be in control and keep up on the activities of your followers? Or do you believe in a more hands-off approach in leading others, letting them make decisions on their own?

Whatever your behaviors are as a leader, they are indicative of your leadership style. Leadership style is defined as the behaviors of leaders, focusing on what leaders do and how they act. This includes leaders’ actions toward followers in a variety of contexts. As noted in the previous section, your leadership style is driven by your personal leadership philosophy. In the following section, we discuss the most commonly observed leadership styles associated with Theory X and Theory Y: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. While none of these styles emerges directly from Theory X or Theory Y, the authoritarian and democratic styles closely mirror the ideas set forth in these theories, respectively.

Styles of Leaders and Managers

The primary work on styles of leadership was by Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939), who analyzed the impact of various leadership styles on small group behavior. Using groups of 10-year-old boys who met after school to engage in hobby activities, the researchers analyzed what happened when their adult leaders used one of three styles: authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire. The groups of boys experienced each of the three styles of leadership for a six-week period.

The outcome of the study by Lewin and colleagues was a detailed description of the nature of the leadership behaviors used for each of the three styles (White & Lippitt, 1968). They also described the impact each of these three styles had on group members.

The following sections describe and elaborate on their findings and the implications of using each of these leadership styles. Be aware that these styles are not distinct entities (e.g., like personality traits). They overlap each other. That is, a leader can demonstrate more than one style in any given situation. For example, a leader may be authoritarian about some issues and democratic about others, or a leader may be authoritarian at some points during a project and democratic at others. As leaders, we may display aspects of all of these styles.

Authoritarian Leadership Style

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In many ways, the authoritarian leadership style is very similar to Theory X. For example, authoritarian leaders perceive followers as needing direction. The authoritarian leader needs to control followers and what they do. Authoritarian leaders emphasize that they are in charge, exerting influence and control over group members. They determine tasks and procedures for group members but may remain aloof from participating in group discussions. Authoritarian leaders do not encourage communication among group members; instead, they prefer that communication be directed to them. In evaluating others, authoritarian leaders give praise and criticism freely, but it is given based on their own personal standards rather than based on objective criticism.

Some have argued that authoritarian leadership represents a rather pessimistic, negative, and discouraging view of others. For example, an authoritarian leader might say something like “Because my workers are lazy, I need to tell them what to do.” Others would argue that authoritarian leadership is a much-needed form of leadership —it serves a positive purpose, particularly for people who seek security above responsibility. In many contexts, authoritarian leadership is used to give direction, set goals, and structure work. For example, when employees are just learning a new job, authoritarian leadership lets them know the rules and standards for what they are supposed to do. Authoritarian leaders are very efficient and successful in motivating others to accomplish work. In these contexts, authoritarian leadership is very useful.

The Authoritarian Leadership Style

What are the outcomes of authoritarian leadership? Authoritarian leadership has both pluses and minuses. On the positive side, it is efficient and productive. Authoritarian leaders give direction and clarity to people’s work and accomplish more in a shorter period. Furthermore, authoritarian leadership is useful in establishing goals and work standards. On the negative side, it fosters dependence, submissiveness, and a loss of individuality. The creativity and personal growth of followers may be hindered. It is possible that, over time, followers will lose interest in what they are doing and become dissatisfied with their work. If that occurs, authoritarian leadership can create discontent, hostility, and even aggression.

In addition, authoritarian leadership can become abusive leadership, where these leaders use their influence, power, and control for their personal interests or to coerce followers to engage in unethical or immoral activities. For example, a coach who withholds playing time from athletes who openly disagree with his play calls or a boss who requires salaried employees to work up to 20 hours of overtime each week or “be replaced with someone who will” are both examples of the dark side of authoritarian leadership.

While the negative aspects of authoritarian leadership appear to outweigh the positive, it is not difficult to imagine contexts where authoritarian leadership would be the preferred style of leadership. For example, in a busy hospital emergency room, it may

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be very appropriate for the leader in charge of triaging patients to be authoritarian with various types of emergencies. The same could be true in other contexts, such as the chaperone of a middle school canoe trip, or the coach of a high school team during the state finals basketball tournament. Despite the negatives of authoritarian leadership, this form of leadership is common and necessary in many situations.

Democratic Leadership Style The democratic leadership style strongly resembles the assumptions of Theory Y. Democratic leaders treat followers as fully capable of doing work on their own. Rather than controlling followers, democratic leaders work with followers, trying hard to treat everyone fairly, without putting themselves above followers. In essence, they see themselves as guides rather than as directors. They give suggestions to others, but never with any intention of changing them. Helping each follower reach personal goals is important to a democratic leader. Democratic leaders do not use “top-down” communication; instead, they speak on the same level as their followers. Making sure everyone is heard is a priority. They listen to followers in supportive ways and assist them in becoming self-directed. In addition, they promote communication between group members and in certain situations are careful to draw out the less-articulate members of the group. Democratic leaders provide information, guidance, and suggestions, but do so without giving orders and without applying pressure. In their evaluations of followers, democratic leaders give objective praise and criticism.

The Democratic Leadership Style

The outcomes of democratic leadership are mostly positive. First, democratic leadership results in greater group member satisfaction, commitment, and cohesiveness. Second, under democratic leadership there is more friendliness, mutual praise, and group mindedness. Followers tend to get along with each other and willingly participate in matters of the group, making more “we” statements and fewer “I” statements. Third, democratic leadership results in stronger worker motivation and greater creativity. People are motivated to pursue their own talents under the supportive structure of democratic leadership. Finally, under a democratic leader group members participate more and are more committed to group decisions. The downside of democratic leadership is that it takes more time and commitment from the leader. Work is accomplished, but not as efficiently as if the leader were authoritarian.

Laissez-Faire Leadership Style The laissez-faire leadership style is dissimilar to both Theory X and Theory Y. Laissez-faire leaders do not try to control followers as Theory X leaders do, and they do not try to nurture and guide followers as Theory Y leaders do. Laissez-faire stands alone as a style of leadership; some have labeled it nonleadership. The laissez-faire leader is a nominal leader who engages in minimal influence. As the French phrase implies, laissez-faire leadership means the leader takes a “hands-off, let it ride”

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attitude toward followers. These leaders recognize followers but are very laid back and make no attempt to influence their activities. Under laissez-faire leadership, followers have freedom to do pretty much what they want to do whenever they want to do it. Laissez-faire leaders make no attempt to appraise or regulate the progress of followers.

Destructive Laissez-Faire Leadership

Given that laissez-faire leadership involves nominal influence, what are the effects of laissez-faire leadership? Laissez-faire leadership tends to produce primarily negative outcomes. The major effect is that very little is accomplished under a laissez-faire leader. Because people are directionless and at a loss to know what to do, they tend to do nothing. Giving complete freedom results in an atmosphere that most followers find chaotic. Followers prefer some direction; left completely on their own, they become frustrated. Without a sense of purpose and direction, group members have difficulty finding meaning in their work; they become unmotivated and disheartened. As a result, productivity goes down.

The Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

However, there are situations where the laissez-faire style is successful. People who are self-starters, who excel at individualized tasks and don’t require ongoing feedback, may prefer working under laissez-faire leaders.

For example, Angela is the president of a website development company who uses independent contractors from across the globe. In certain respects, you could describe her leadership style as laissez-faire. The programmers who develop the websites’ code are in Poland, the designer is in India, the content writer is in the United Kingdom, and Angela is in the United States. When developing a site, Angela maps out and communicates the basic framework for the website and then relies on all of the individual contractors to determine the tasks they need to do for the site’s development. Because their tasks can be dependent upon another’s—for example, the designer needs the programmers to write the code to make the page display graphics and images in a certain way—they do communicate with one another, but because of time zone differences, this is mostly done by email. As their leader, Angela is kept apprised of issues and developments through an electronic project management system they share, but because all of the contractors are experts at what they do and trust the other team members to do what they do best, she lets them problem-solve issues and concerns with one another and rarely gets involved.

While there are a few situations where laissez-faire leadership is effective, in a majority of situations, it proves to be unsuccessful and unproductive.

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Leadership Snapshot: Victoria Ransom, Chief Executive, Wildfire

“I don’t believe in hierarchy or creating hierarchy. I believe in earning respect.”

That comes from Victoria Ransom, cofounder of social media software company Wildfire Interactive, which grew from an idea to a company with 400 employees and 21,000 clients. The company, which Ransom cofounded with Alain Chuard in 2008, helps companies reach customers over social networks, and was acquired in 2012 by Google for $350 million.

Wildfire’s success is largely due to the leadership style and philosophy of Ransom, who serves as the company’s chief executive. Ransom grew up in Scotts Ferry, a rural village in New Zealand

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where her father was an asparagus farmer and her mother was an office manager for a farming equipment company. Ransom worked in the fields, and it was there that she learned the values of hard work, leading by example, and humility that she brings to Wildfire.

Wildfire was actually an afterthought, created to solve a problem that Ransom and Chuard had encountered in running the first company they had formed, Access Trips. Access Trips was an adventure travel company that took small groups of travelers, ages 20–45, to remote destinations, and Ransom and Chuard were looking for a way to promote Access Trips online by giving away a trip on Facebook. They discovered, however, that no software existed to do what they wanted, so they developed their own software to design sweepstakes, contests, or other promotions that could run on Facebook.

The software, and Wildfire, was profitable within a year. Clients soon ranged from two-person catering businesses to Sony and Unilever (Coster, 2012).

The company grew very quickly, which put Ransom’s values-based culture to the test.

“I’ve learned as the company grows, you’re only as good as the leaders you have underneath you,” she says. “You might think that because you’re projecting our values, then the rest of the company is experiencing the values. . . . [D]irect supervisors become the most important influence on people in the company. Therefore, a big part of leading becomes your ability to pick and guide the right people” (Bryant, 2013).

In order to find those right people, it was critical that Wildfire spell out its values and company culture to employees from the outset. To do so, Ransom and Chuard identified what they valued in the people at Wildfire and then met with all the employees in small groups to get their feedback on these values. What resulted was a list of values that the company instilled and demonstrated: passion, team player, humility, and integrity. Also on the list were having the courage to speak up and curiosity.

“We really encourage people to constantly question, to stay on top of what’s happening in our industry, to learn what other people in the company are doing. The hope was to break down these walls of ‘them versus us,’” Ransom says (Bryant, 2013).

Ransom says a final value they identified was to “do good, and do right by each other” (Bryant, 2013).

The values a company purports to have, however, are not so readily maintained. Values and culture have to be universally embraced, or they will crumble.

“I think the best way to undermine a company’s values is to put people in leadership positions who are not adhering to the values,” Ransom says, noting that others begin to lose faith in the values. “Until you take action and move those people out, and then everyone gets faith in the values again” (Bryant, 2013).

Ransom says one way the company showed its values was when it would let employees go who didn’t live up to the values. Making these hard decisions about people, even if they were good performers, showed employees that “yeah, this company actually puts its money where its mouth is” (Bryant, 2013).

Leadership Styles in Practice Each leader has a unique style of leadership. Some are very demanding and assertive while others are more open and participative. Similarly, some leaders could be called micromanagers, while others could be labeled nondirective leaders. Whatever the case, it is useful and instructive to characterize your leadership regarding the degree to

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which you are authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire.

Leadership and Collaboration

It is important to note that these styles of leadership are not distinct entities; it is best to think of them as occurring along a continuum, from high leader influence to low leader influence (see Figure 4.1). Leaders who exhibit higher amounts of influence are more authoritarian. Leaders who show a moderate amount of influence are democratic. Those who exhibit little to no influence are laissez-faire. Although we tend to exhibit primarily one style over the others, our personal leadership styles are not fixed and may vary depending on the circumstances.

Figure 4.1 Styles of Leadership

Consider what your results of the Leadership Styles Questionnaire on page 95 tell you about your leadership style. What is your main style? Are you most comfortable with authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire leadership? If you are the kind of leader who likes to structure work, likes to lay out the ground rules for others, likes to closely supervise your followers, thinks it is your responsibility to make sure followers do their work, wants to be “in charge” or to know what others are doing, and believes strongly that rewarding and punishing followers is necessary, then you are authoritarian. If you are the kind of leader who seldom gives orders or ultimatums to followers, instead trying to work with followers and help them figure out how they want to approach a task or complete their work, then you are primarily democratic. Helping each follower reach his or her own personal goals is important to a democratic leader.

In some rare circumstances, you may find you are showing laissez-faire leadership. Although not a preferred style, it is important to be aware when one is being laissez- faire. Laissez-faire leaders take a very low profile to leadership. What followers accomplish is up to them. If you believe that your followers will thrive on complete freedom, then the laissez-faire style may be the right style for you. However, in most situations, laissez-faire leadership hinders success and productivity.

Summary All of us have a philosophy of leadership that is based on our beliefs about human nature and work. Some leaders have a philosophy that resembles Theory X: They view

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workers as unmotivated and needing direction and control. Others have a philosophy similar to Theory Y: They approach workers as self-motivated and capable of working independently without strong direct influence from a leader.

Our philosophy of leadership is played out in our style of leadership. There are three commonly observed styles of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. Similar to Theory X, authoritarian leaders perceive followers as needing direction, so they exert strong influence and control. Resembling Theory Y, democratic leaders view followers as capable of self-direction, so they provide counsel and support. Laissez-faire leaders leave followers to function on their own, providing nominal influence and direction.

Effective leadership demands that we understand our philosophy of leadership and how it forms the foundations for our style of leadership. This understanding is the first step to becoming a more informed and competent leader.

Glossary Terms authoritarian leadership style 83 democratic leadership style 85 laissez-faire leadership style 85 leadership style 82 philosophy of leadership 78 Theory X 78 Theory Y 80 Theory Z 82

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Application

4.1 Case Study: Many Managers, Different Styles

Vanessa Mills was recently hired to work at a branch of Lakeshore Bank as a personal banker. The branch is very busy and has a large staff, including three on-site managers. As a new employee, Vanessa is trying to figure out how to succeed as a personal banker while meeting the expectations of her three very different managers.

Vanessa is paid a salary, but also receives a commission for activities including opening new accounts and selling new services to customers such as credit cards, lines of credit, loans, and stock accounts. Personal bankers are expected to open a certain number of accounts each month and build relationships with customers by exploring their various banking needs and offering services to meet those needs.

Marion Woods is one of the managers at Vanessa’s branch. She has worked for Lakeshore Bank for

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10 years and prides herself on the success of the branch. Marion openly talks about employees’ progress in terms of the number of accounts opened or relationships established, and then commends or scolds people depending on their productivity. Marion stresses to Vanessa the importance of following procedures and using the scripts that Marion provides to successfully convince customers to open new accounts or accept new services with the bank.

As a new banker, Vanessa has not opened many accounts and feels very uncertain about her competence. She is intimidated by Marion, believing that this manager is continually watching and evaluating her. Several times Marion has publically criticized Vanessa, commenting on her shortcomings as a personal banker. Vanessa tries hard to get her sales numbers up so she can keep Marion off her back.

Bruce Dexter, another manager at Vanessa’s branch, has been with Lakeshore Bank for 14 years. Bruce started out as a teller and worked his way up to branch manager. As a manager, Bruce is responsible for holding the bank staff’s Monday morning meetings. At these staff meetings, Bruce relays the current numbers for new accounts as well as the target number for new accounts. He also lists the number of new relationships the personal bankers have established. After the meetings, Bruce retreats back into his office where he sits hidden behind his computer monitor. He rarely interacts with others. Vanessa likes when Bruce retreats into his office because she does not have to worry about having her performance scrutinized. However, sometimes when Vanessa is trying to help customers with a problem that falls outside of her banking knowledge, she is stressed because Bruce does not provide her with any managerial support.

The third manager at the branch is Heather Atwood. Heather just started at Lakeshore Bank within the last year, but worked for nine years at another bank. Vanessa finds Heather to be very helpful. She often pops in when Vanessa is with a customer to introduce herself and make sure everything is going well. Heather also allows Vanessa to listen in when she calls disgruntled customers or customers with complicated requests, so Vanessa can learn how to manage these types of interactions. Heather trusts her staff and enjoys seeing them grow, encouraging them by organizing games to see who can open the most accounts and offering helpful feedback when customer interactions do not go as planned. Vanessa is grateful for the advice and support she receives from Heather, and looks up to her because she is competent and kind.

Vanessa is coming up on her three-month review and is very nervous that she might get fired based on her low sales record and the negative feedback she has received from Bruce and Marion regarding her performance. Vanessa decides to talk to Heather about her upcoming review and what to expect. Heather assures Vanessa that she is doing fine and shows promise even if her numbers have not reached that of a seasoned banker. Still, Vanessa is concerned about Bruce and Marion. She has hardly had more than two conversations with Bruce and feels intimidated by Marion who, she perceives, manages by running around barking numbers at people.

Questions

1. Based on the assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y, how would you describe each manager’s philosophy and style of leadership? In what way do their attitudes about Vanessa affect their leadership?

2. In this type of customer service setting, which leadership style would be most effective for the bank to meet its goals? From the bank’s perspective, which (if any) manager exhibits the most appropriate leadership? Discuss.

3. What advice would you give to each of the managers to enhance their leadership skills within the bank?

4. What do you think Vanessa can do to prepare herself for her three-month review?

4.2 Leadership Styles Questionnaire

Purpose

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1. To identify your style of leadership 2. To examine how your leadership style relates to other styles of leadership

Directions

1. For each of the statements below, circle the number that indicates the degree to which you agree or disagree.

2. Give your immediate impressions. There are no right or wrong answers.

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Scoring

1. Sum the responses on items 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, and 16 (authoritarian leadership). 2. Sum the responses on items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, and 17 (democratic leadership). 3. Sum the responses on items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 (laissez-faire leadership).

Total Scores

Authoritarian Leadership ________ Democratic Leadership _________ Laissez-Faire Leadership ________

Scoring Interpretation

This questionnaire is designed to measure three common styles of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. By comparing your scores, you can determine which styles are most

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dominant and least dominant in your own style of leadership.

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4.3 Observational Exercise

Leadership Styles

Purpose

1. To become aware of authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire styles of leadership 2. To compare and contrast these three styles

Directions

1. From all of the coaches, teachers, music directors, or managers you have had in the past 10 years, select one who was authoritarian, one who was democratic, and one who was laissez- faire.

Authoritarian leader (name) __________________________________________________ Democratic leader (name) __________________________________________________ Laissez-faire leader (name) __________________________________________________

2. On another sheet of paper, briefly describe the unique characteristics of each of these leaders.

Questions

1. What differences did you observe in how each leader tried to influence you? 2. How did the leaders differ in their use of rewards and punishment? 3. What did you observe about how others reacted to each leader? 4. Under which leader were you most productive? Why?

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4.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet

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Leadership Styles

Reflection

1. As you reflect on the assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y, how would you describe your own philosophy of leadership?

2. Of the three styles of leadership (authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire), what style comes easiest for you? Describe how people respond to you when you use this style.

3. One of the aspects of democratic leadership is to help followers take responsibility for themselves. How do you assess your own ability to help others help themselves?

Action

1. If you were to try to strengthen your philosophy of leadership, what kinds of changes would you have to make in your assumptions about human nature and work?

2. As you look at your results on the Leadership Styles Questionnaire, what scores would you like to change? What would you have to do to make those changes?

3. List three specific activities you could use to improve your leadership style. 4. If you make these changes, what impact will this have on others?

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References Bryant, A. (2013, January 26). If supervisors respect the values, so will everyone else.

The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/27/business/victoria-ransom-of-wildfire-on- instilling-a-companys-values.html?_r=0

Coster, H. (2012, October 19). Victoria Ransom’s wild ride. Fortune. Retrieved from http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2012/10/19/victoria-ransom-wildfire/

Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates.” Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271–299.

McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Ouchi, W. G. (1981). Theory Z: How American business can meet the Japanese challenge. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

White, R., & Lippitt, R. (1968). Leader behavior and member reaction in three “social climates.” In D. Cartwright & A. Zander (Eds.), Group dynamics (pp. 318–335).

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New York, NY: Harper & Row.

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5 Attending to Tasks and Relationships

Introduction Most people would agree that good doctors are experts at treating disease and, at the same time, care about their patients. Similarly, good teachers are informed about the subject matter and, at the same time, are sensitive to the personal lives of their students. In leadership, the same is true. Good leaders understand the work that needs to be done and, at the same time, can relate to the people who help them do the job.

When we look at what leaders do—that is, at their behaviors—we see that they do two major things: (1) They attend to tasks, and (2) they attend to their relationships with people. The degree to which leaders are successful is determined by how these two behaviors are exhibited. Situations may differ, but every leadership situation needs a degree of both task and relationship behaviors.

Which Behaviors Are Central to Leadership?

Through the years, many articles and books have been written on how leaders behave (Blake & McCanse, 1991; Kahn, 1956; Misumi, 1985; Stogdill, 1974). A review of these writings underscores the topic of this chapter: The essence of leadership behavior has two dimensions—task behaviors and relationship behaviors. Certain circumstances may call for strong task behavior, and other situations may demand strong relationship behavior, but some degree of each is required in every situation. Because these dimensions are inextricably tied together, it is the leader’s challenge to integrate and optimize the task and relationship dimensions in his or her leadership role.

Task and Relationship Theories

One way to explore our own task and relationship perspectives on leadership is to explore our personal styles in these two areas. All of us have developed unique habits regarding work and play, which have been ingrained over many years, probably beginning as far back as elementary school. Rooted in the past, these habits regarding work and play form a very real part of who we are as people and of how we function. Many of these early habits stay with us over the years and influence our current styles.

Analyzing Leadership Styles

In considering your personal style, it is helpful to describe in more detail your task- oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors. What is your inclination toward tasks and relationships? Are you more work oriented or people oriented in your personal

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life? Do you find more rewards in the process of “getting things done” or in the process of relating to people? We all have personal styles that incorporate some combination of work and play. Completing the Task and Relationship Questionnaire on page 113 can help you identify your personal style. Although these descriptions imply that individuals have either one style or the other, it is important to remember that each of us exhibits both behaviors to some degree.

Task and Relationship Styles Explained

Task Style Task-oriented people are goal oriented. They want to achieve. Their work is meaningful, and they like things such as to-do lists, calendars, and daily planners. Accomplishing things and doing things is the raison d’être for this type of person. That is, these individuals’ reason for being comes from doing. Their “in-box” is never empty. On vacations, they try to see and do as much as they possibly can. In all avenues of their lives, they find meaning in doing.

In his book titled Work and Love: The Crucial Balance (1980), psychiatrist Jay Rohrlich showed how work can help people organize, routinize, and structure their lives. Doing tasks gives people a sense of control and self-mastery. Achievement sharpens our self-image and helps us define ourselves. Reaching a goal, like running a race or completing a project, makes people feel good because it is a positive expression of who they are.

Some clear examples of task-oriented people include those who use color codes in their daily planners, who have sticky notes in every room of their house, or who, by 10:00 on Saturday morning, have washed the car, done the laundry, and cleaned the apartment. Task-oriented people also are likely to make a list for everything, from grocery shopping to the series of repetitions in their weight-lifting workouts. Common to all of these people is their interest in achieving the goal and accomplishing the work.

Relationship Style Relationship-oriented people differ from task-oriented people because they are not as goal directed. The relationship-oriented person finds meaning in being rather than in doing. Instead of seeking out tasks, relationship-oriented people want to connect with people. They like to celebrate relationships and the pleasures relationships bring.

Relationship Style

Furthermore, relationship-oriented people often have a strong orientation in the present. They find meaning in the moment rather than in some future objective to be accomplished. In a group situation, sensing and feeling the company of others is

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appealing to these people. They have been described by some as “relationship junkies.” They are the people who are the last to turn off their cell phones as the airplane takes off and the first to turn the phones back on when the airplane lands. Basically, they are into connectedness.

In a work setting, the relationship-oriented person wants to connect or attach with others. For example, the relationship-oriented person would not be afraid to interrupt someone who was working hard on a task to talk about the weather, sports, or just about anything. When working out a problem, relationship-oriented people like to talk to and be associated with others in addressing the problem. They receive satisfaction from being connected to other people. A task-oriented friend described a relationship- oriented person perfectly when he said, “He is the kind of person who stands and talks to you, coffee mug in hand, when you’re trying to do something like mow the lawn or cover the boat.” The meaning in “doing” is just not paramount in the relationship- oriented person’s style.

Leadership Snapshot: Mick Wilz, Director of Enterprise Excellence, Sur-Seal

Innovation is key to survival in manufacturing, and Mick Wilz has the accolades to prove it. As the director of enterprise excellence at Sur-Seal in Cincinnati, Ohio, Wilz made changes to the manufacturing process that led to the company receiving the Excellence Award from the Association for Manufacturing Excellence in 2012. Working within an industry where task and routine are absolutely critical, it was actually Wilz’s unique relationship-oriented approach to those tasks that made the most difference.

Wilz is dyslexic and finds reading, writing, and spelling to be very difficult. Not a lot was known about this condition when he was growing up during the late 1950s and 1960s, and Wilz says his

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childhood was lonely and hard. But his mother was very supportive, advocating for him with teachers and shifting him to five different grammar schools in order to find the best help.

After high school, Wilz began working in building maintenance at the family business, Sur-Seal, a manufacturer of rubber and plastic gaskets. In the 1990s he became the company’s head of operations, and in 2006 he took on the position of director of enterprise excellence charged with reaching peak efficiencies in the manufacturing process. One of his efforts was to initiate a redesign of the factory’s layout, moving