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Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination from Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology

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Se lf-de te rmination in human be havior is base d in autonomous motivation, which e ncompasse s both intrinsic

motivation and inte grate d e xtrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation involve s doing an activity without the

ne ce ssity of e xte rnal prompts or re wards be cause it is inte re sting and satisfie s the basic psychological ne e ds

for compe te nce , autonomy, and re late dne ss. Extrinsic motivation involve s doing an activity be cause it le ads to

some se parate outcome such as a re ward, approval from othe rs, or the avoidance of punishme nt. Intrinsic

motivation is invariantly autonomous, whe re as e xtrinsic motivation varie s in its de gre e of autonomy. Extrinsic

motivation be come s autonomous through the proce sse s of inte rnalization and inte gration. Both intrinsic

motivation and inte grate d e xtrinsic motivation are facilitate d in home , school, work, and clinical se ttings that are

inte rpe rsonally supportive , that is, whe re pe ople 's pe rspe ctive s are acknowle dge d and whe re pe ople are

e ncourage d to e xpe rime nt, allowe d to try the ir own solutions to proble ms, provide d with choice , and

re sponde d to whe n the y initiate . Unde r such supportive conditions, individuals are more e ngage d and

pe rsiste nt, pe rform more e ffe ctive ly, and display highe r le ve ls of psychological he alth and we ll-be ing.

GLO SSARY

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aut onomy

s upport

A qualit y of a person's int erpersonal environment in which ot hers acknowledge

t he person's perspect ive, provide choice, encourage init iat ive, and minimize t he

use of pressure and cont rol.

cont rolling

environment s

Environment s in which people in posit ions of aut horit y, expert ise, or power

pressure ot hers t o t hink, f eel, or behave in specif ic ways; it is t he ant it hesis of

aut onomy support .

ext rins ic

mot ivat ion

Doing a behavior because it will lead t o some separat e out come such as a

reward, approval f rom ot hers, or t he avoidance of punishment .

int egrat ion The f ullest t ype of int ernalizat ion in which people t ake in an ext rinsic mot ivat ion,

ident if y wit h it , and int egrat e it int o t heir sense of self .

int erpers onal

cont ext

The ambience or “climat e” of a part icular set t ing t hat can vary f rom support ing

people's aut onomy t o cont rolling t heir behavior.

int rins ic

mot ivat ion

Doing an opt imally challenging act ivit y t hat is int erest ing, has an int ernal perceived

locus of causalit y, and is energized by t he basic psychological needs f or

compet ence, aut onomy, and relat edness; such an act ivit y does not require a

cont ingent out come t hat is separat e f rom t he act ivit y it self .

int roject ion

A f orm of int ernalizat ion in which people t ake in an ext ernal cont rol wit hout ever

really accept ing it as t heir own and t hen use it t o pressure and cont rol

t hemselves.

INTRODUCTION T he de light of discove ry and the joy of le isure pursuits are e xpe rie nce s known to most e ve ryone . T he y are

stimulating, satisfying, and sustaining of the be haviors that promote the m. Within the fie ld of motivation, the se

e xpe rie nce s and the psychological proce sse s that unde rlie the m are e ncompasse d by the conce pt of intrinsic

motivation, which was introduce d to the fie ld by Harlow in 1950 and be gan re ce iving e mpirical atte ntion two

de cade s late r. T he conce pt has be come pivotal in our unde rstanding of human motivation and has provide d

important insights e ve n about pe ople 's motivation for life 's mundane activitie s such as studying uninte re sting

topics and doing boring work.

Intrinsic motivation is re adily obse rvable in young childre n; inde e d, play is the “busine ss of the ir live s.” T he y

happily turn random obje cts into toys, the y role -play othe rs such as the ir pare nts, and the y inve nt all kinds of

game s. Intrinsic motivation is also appare nt in olde r individuals, although pe rhaps not so ubiquitously. Le isure

activitie s such as playing golf, looking at paintings, and pursuing a bargain on a ne w dre ss are ofte n intrinsically

motivate d (i.e ., done for the spontane ous satisfaction provide d by the activitie s the mse lve s), and some pe ople

are fortunate e nough to be intrinsically motivate d for the ir jobs.

Psychologists be gan to tre at the e xpe rie nce of de light and joy (i.e ., of inte re st and e njoyme nt) as an important

motivator following from the re alization that a fulle r unde rstanding of human motivation re quire d distinguishing

among type s of motivation rathe r than just focusing on the amount of motivation. State d diffe re ntly, most

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the orie s of motivation or be havioral control, be ginning with be havioral the orie s such as that of Hull and

continuing through the cognitive the orie s of Bandura and Se ligman, tre ate d motivation as if it diffe re d only in

amount and not in type . Pe ople who we re more motivate d for a particular activity (or class of activitie s) we re

e xpe cte d to do the activity more ofte n and to do it more e ffe ctive ly than we re pe ople with le ss motivation. It

was the amount of motivation that was conside re d critical.

T he ide a that the re are diffe re nt type s of motivation implie s that if two pe ople have the same amount of

motivation for a particular activity but the type s of motivation are diffe re nt, the quality of the ir e ngage me nt in

and pe rsiste nce at the activity will also be diffe re nt. For e xample , the re are time s whe n e mploye e s may be

highly motivate d to do an activity at work be cause the y are fe arful that the y will be punishe d if the y do not do it,

and the re are othe r time s whe n e mploye e s are e qually highly motivate d for such an activity be cause the y find it

inte re sting and pe rsonally important. Any individuals who can re late to this probably re cognize s that the se

diffe re nt type s of motivation, e ve n if the amounts are the same , can have a major e ffe ct on the quality of the ir

e ngage me nt with the activitie s and pe rhaps e ve n on the ir fe e lings about the mse lve s.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION VERSUS INTRINSIC MOTIVATION T he first important diffe re ntiation of motivation into type s distinguishe d be twe e n e xtrinsic motivation and

intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation re fe rs to doing a be havior be cause it will le ad to some se parate

outcome such as a re ward, approval from othe rs, or the avoidance of punishme nt. T he conce pt of e xtrinsic

motivators is linke d to be haviorist the orie s that we re promine nt in psychology during the 194 0s and 1950s,

although those the orie s did not use the te rm “e xtrinsic motivation.” Be havior modification, for e xample , was

base d sole ly on e xtrinsic motivators — do a de sire d be havior and ge t a re ward (which be haviorists te rme d a

re inforce me nt). Be havior modification was in wide spre ad use in e ducation, the rapy, and job training during the

1970s, and the n its use gradually tape re d off.

Ext rinsic Mot ivat ion and Behaviorism

T he two primary strands of be haviorism, Hullian drive the ory and Skinne rian ope rant the ory, both we re built

around the conce pt of re inforce me nt. In both the orie s, pe ople le arn be haviors whe n the y are re inforce d.

Howe ve r, the two the ore tical approache s de fine the conce pt of re inforce me nt ve ry diffe re ntly.

In drive the ory, re inforce rs are e ve nts that re duce basic physiological drive s such as hunge r and thirst. For

e xample , food re inforce s be haviors that le ad to it while the hunge r drive is ope rative . In contrast, within ope rant

the ory, re inforce rs are de fine d as any se parable conse que nce (e .g., a food pe lle t, a dollar bill) that incre ase s

the like lihood of a particular re sponse be ing e mitte d. In ope rant the ory, re inforce rs are not tie d to unde rlying

drive s.

In ope rant the ory, anything is a re inforce r if it incre ase s the rate of a particular be havior, whe re as in drive

the ory, only those things that re duce drive s are calle d primary re inforce rs. Howe ve r, drive the ory include s a

conce pt of se condary re inforce rs, which are othe r things (e .g., mone tary re wards, smile s) that take on

re inforcing value by be ing paire d with primary re inforce rs. For e xample , mone y can re inforce be cause it

be come s associate d with e ating and/or drinking.

Int rinsic Mot ivat ion

Intrinsic motivation is base d in pe ople 's inhe re nt te nde ncy to be proactive , to inte ract with the world in an

atte mpt to have an e ffe ct, and to fe e l a se nse of accomplishme nt. Inde e d, whe n pe ople are at the ir he althie st,

the y are curious, e age r to take on challe nge s, partial to nove lty, e ngage d with inte re sting tasks or stimuli, and

re ady to le arn. All of the se are manife stations of intrinsic motivation, and the y are critical for optimal

de ve lopme nt across the life span.

T he conce pt of intrinsic motivation arose , in part, in re sponse to proble ms that be came appare nt within e ach

strand of be haviorism. Accordingly, the re we re initially two diffe re nt characte rizations of the conce pt. T he first

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sugge ste d that not all be haviors are de rive d from the basic drive s such as thirst, hunge r, and se x. For e xample ,

childre n ofte n forgo e ating, e ve n if the y have not e ate n for a long time , so as to continue playing a game the y

find to be fun. Accordingly, White asse rte d that, just as pe ople have biological ne e ds — the so-calle d drive s —

that must be satisfie d for the m to re main he althy, pe ople also have psychological ne e ds that must also be

satisfie d for the m to thrive . White spe cifie d the ne e d for compe te nce as be ing important. Subse que ntly, De ci

and Ryan maintaine d that the re are thre e fundame ntal psychological ne e ds — the ne e ds for compe te nce ,

autonomy, and re late dne ss — that are ope rative for all humans and must be satisfie d for the m to de ve lop and

function optimally.

T he othe r approach to de fining intrinsic motivation sugge ste d that intrinsically motivate d be haviors are those

for which the be haviors the mse lve s are re warding and, thus, do not re quire se parable conse que nce s. T his, of

course , stands in contrast to the Skinne rian pe rspe ctive that sugge sts that all be haviors are controlle d by

re inforcing conse que nce s that are se parate from the be haviors the mse lve s.

Whe n the two characte rizations of intrinsic motivation are conside re d toge the r, the conclusion is that not all

be haviors are controlle d by re inforce me nts and that inhe re nt psychological ne e ds for compe te nce , autonomy,

and re late dne ss unde rlie those be haviors. Othe r discussions of intrinsic motivation have he lpe d to fle sh out the

de finition. De Charms use d attribution the ory to sugge st that e xtrinsic motivation is ope rative whe n pe ople

pe rce ive the locus of causality for the ir be havior to be e xte rnal to the mse lve s, whe re as intrinsic motivation is

ope rative whe n pe ople pe rce ive the locus of causality to be inte rnal or within the mse lve s. For e xample , whe n

pe ople are doing an activity to ge t a re ward, the y would like ly se e the re ward as the cause of the ir be havior;

thus, the pe rce ive d locus of causality (PLOC) would be e xte rnal. Whe n pe ople are doing an activity be cause

the y find it inte re sting and fun, the y would like ly se e the e njoyme nt as the cause of the be havior, and so the

PLOC would be inte rnal. T he ide a of PLOC re late s to the ne e d for autonomy in that pe ople will be satisfying

the ir ne e d for autonomy to the e xte nt that the PLOC for a be havior is inte rnal.

Anothe r characte rization that has be e n wide ly use d in discussions of intrinsic motivation is that be ing intrinsically

motivate d for an activity involve s doing an activity be cause pe ople find the activity inte re sting. T he ide a is that

pe ople do not ne e d a re inforce me nt or re ward if the activity itse lf inte re sts the m. T hus, the conce pt of

“inte re st” has be e n conside re d ce ntral to intrinsic motivation. Using the conce pt of inte re st highlights that

intrinsic motivation e xists in the re lation be twe e n individuals and activitie s. T hat is, a pe rson is intrinsically

motivate d for some activitie s and not for othe rs, and not e ve ryone is intrinsically motivate d for any particular

activity. Rathe r, an individual is intrinsically motivate d for a task to the de gre e that he or she finds the task

inte re sting, and pe ople diffe r in the e xte nt to which the y find any particular task inte re sting.

A final important pie ce of the ove rall characte rization of intrinsic motivation state s that optimal challe nge is

ce ntral to intrinsic motivation. T hat is, pe ople are intrinsically motivate d to take on optimal challe nge s be cause

those are the activitie s that are most inte re sting, facilitate compe te nce , and promote de ve lopme nt.

In sum, intrinsic motivation involve s doing an optimally challe nging activity that is inte re sting, has an inte rnal

PLOC, and is e ne rgize d by the basic psychological ne e ds for compe te nce , autonomy, and re late dne ss. Such an

activity doe s not re quire a continge nt outcome that is se parate from the activity itse lf.

THE INTERACTION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AND INTRINSIC

MOTIVATION Whe n e xtrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation we re ide ntifie d and de fine d, re se arche rs be gan to wonde r

whe the r the two might inte ract. Are the se two type s of motivation additive , such that the amount of one 's

intrinsic motivation and the amount of one 's e xtrinsic motivation for a particular activity can be summe d to yie ld

one 's total motivation for the activity? State d diffe re ntly, would anything happe n to pe ople 's intrinsic motivation

for an activity if pe ople be gan to re ce ive e xtrinsic induce me nts for doing it? Would intrinsic motivation itse lf be

e nhance d, unchange d, or diminishe d? If the answe r is anything othe r than “unchange d,” this implie s that the

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diffe re nt type s of motivation are not simply additive and, thus, that e nvironme ntal conditions, such as re ward

continge ncie s and de adline s, could affe ct pe ople 's intrinsic motivation whe n the y are ope rating within those

e nvironme ntal conditions.

Reward Ef f ect s

T he first studie s of intrinsic motivation in humans, publishe d in 1971 by De ci, e xamine d the e ffe cts of mone tary

re wards on the intrinsic motivation of colle ge stude nts. In subse que nt studie s that include d participants from

pre school and high school, the e ffe cts of othe r tangible re wards, such as prize s and good playe r ce rtificate s,

we re also e xamine d. T he studie s consiste ntly re ve ale d that tangible e xtrinsic re wards, whe the r payme nts or

prize s, unde rmine d intrinsic motivation. Spe cifically, the unde rmining occurre d whe n the activity was initially

inte re sting, the re wards we re salie nt, and the re wards we re continge nt on and e xpe cte d while doing the

activity. De ci inte rpre te d the se re sults as indicating that the e xtrinsic re wards te nd to le ave pe ople fe e ling

controlle d by the re wards (rathe r than fe e ling autonomous). Accordingly, the ir PLOC te nds to be come more

e xte rnal.

T he ge ne ral finding that tangible re wards te nd to unde rmine intrinsic motivation has be e n re plicate d nume rous

time s, but the finding has re maine d controve rsial for thre e de cade s. Be cause re wards are the e asie st

motivators to use , some pe ople re sist re cognizing the ir pote ntially de trime ntal e ffe cts. None the le ss, in 1999,

De ci and colle ague s publishe d a me ta-analysis involving 128 e xpe rime nts on re ward e ffe cts and showe d

de finitive ly that tangible e xtrinsic re wards do re liably and cle arly unde rmine intrinsic motivation for the re warde d

activity.

Ot her Ext ernal Event s

Additional re se arch has shown that othe r e xte rnal e ve nts, such as thre ats of punishme nt, de adline s, dire ctive s,

and compe tition, also unde rmine intrinsic motivation, pre sumably be cause pe ople e xpe rie nce the m as controls.

On the othe r hand, the opportunity to make choice s about what to do and how to do it was found to e nhance

intrinsic motivation by facilitating a gre ate r e xpe rie nce of autonomy and a more inte rnal PLOC.

T he e ffe cts of all the se studie s we re inte rpre te d in accord with the postulate that pe ople have a basic ne e d for

autonomy. Accordingly, factors that support pe ople 's autonomy and e xpe rie nce of an inte rnal PLOC (e .g.,

choice , acknowle dgme nt) te nd to e nhance intrinsic motivation, whe re as those that le ave pe ople fe e ling

controlle d with an e xte rnal PLOC (e .g., tangible re wards, de adline s, pre ssure s) te nd to diminish intrinsic

motivation.

Perf ormance Feedback

Othe r re se arch re late s to the basic psychological ne e d for compe te nce . Studie s have shown that positive

pe rformance fe e dback (which is some time s re fe rre d to as ve rbal re wards) e nhance s intrinsic motivation, that

ne gative fe e dback diminishe s it, and that pe rce ive d compe te nce me diate s the se e ffe cts. T he re is also

e vide nce , howe ve r, that the e nhance me nt of intrinsic motivation following praise is le ss like ly to occur for

childre n than for colle ge stude nts. Furthe rmore , studie s have found that incre ase s in pe rce ive d compe te nce

must be accompanie d by fe e lings of autonomy for the pe rce ive d compe te nce to e nhance intrinsic motivation. If

pe ople fe e l force d to pe rform we ll, the ir good pe rformance and the positive fe e dback that might follow it are

unlike ly to e nhance the ir intrinsic motivation.

Int erpersonal Cont ext s

A final se t of studie s has shown that the ambie nce or “climate ” of a particular se tting (i.e ., the ge ne ral fe e ling of

the se tting) has an e ffe ct on pe ople 's intrinsic motivation. T his factor is fre que ntly re fe rre d to as the

inte rpe rsonal conte xt, and the critical issue is whe the r the inte rpe rsonal conte xt te nds to support pe ople 's

autonomy or to control the ir be havior. For e xample , the coaching climate of some sporting te ams te nds to

e ncourage athle te s to take initiative and e xpe rime nt, whe re as the climate surrounding othe r te ams conve ys

that athle te s must do what the coach te lls the m to do. Studie s show that if the inte rpe rsonal conte xt te nds to be

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autonomy supportive , pe ople within it will be more intrinsically motivate d, whe re as if it te nds to be controlling,

pe ople will be le ss intrinsically motivate d. For e xample , if te ache rs use a lot of controlling language — de mands

and impe rative s as we ll as words such as “should,” “must,” and “have to” — the ir stude nts te nd to be le ss

intrinsically motivate d. In fact, this issue has be e n studie d in the laboratory, and it se e ms that if e nvironme ntal

factors such as re wards are administe re d in re lative ly autonomy-supportive ways, the y are le ss like ly to

unde rmine intrinsic motivation. Furthe rmore , if factors such as positive fe e dback are administe re d in re lative ly

controlling ways, the y are le ss like ly to e nhance intrinsic motivation.

Summary

Re se arch has shown that intrinsic motivation and e xtrinsic motivation are not additive ; inste ad, the y are

inte ractive . T hat is, the addition of e xtrinsic motivators may e ithe r diminish or e nhance intrinsic motivation. As

such, the social e nvironme nts within which pe ople ope rate will significantly affe ct the de gre e to which the y are

intrinsically motivate d for the targe t activity. Conte xtual factors that allowe d satisfaction of the basic

psychological ne e ds for compe te nce and autonomy we re found to e nhance intrinsic motivation, whe re as those

that thwarte d satisfaction of the se basic ne e ds we re found to unde rmine intrinsic motivation (T able I).

TABLE I. Summary of t he Ef f ect s of Ext ernal Mot ivat ors on People's Int rinsic

Mot ivat ion

Monet ary rewards Tend t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Ot her t angible rewards Tend t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Deadlines Tend t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Threat s of punishment Tend t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Compet it ion against ot hers Tends t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Direct ives and evaluat ions Tend t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Negat ive f eedback Tends t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Cont rolling int erpersonal climat es Tend t o decrease int rinsic mot ivat ion

Choice Tends t o increase int rinsic mot ivat ion

Acknowledgment Tends t o increase int rinsic mot ivat ion

Encouragement f or self - init iat ion Tends t o increase int rinsic mot ivat ion

Posit ive f eedback Tends t o increase int rinsic mot ivat ion

Aut onomy- support ive int erpersonal climat es Tend t o increase int rinsic mot ivat ion

Int rinsic Mot ivat ion and Out comes

Nume rous studie s have shown that intrinsic motivation was associate d with be tte r conce ptual le arning, gre ate r

cre ativity, more cognitive fle xibility, gre ate r be havioral pe rsiste nce , and more e nhance d we ll-be ing than was

e xtrinsic motivation. For e xample , e xpe rime nts showe d that autonomy-supportive e nvironme nts le d both

e le me ntary school and colle ge stude nts to le arn be tte r than did controlling e nvironme nts, e spe cially whe n the

mate rial was comple x and re quire d conce ptual unde rstanding.

Othe r re se arch conducte d in re al-world se ttings such as home s, sport te ams, and work groups has re ve ale d

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that an autonomy-supportive e nvironme nt catalyze s not only intrinsic motivation but also pe rformance , le ve l of

satisfaction, and ge ne ral we ll-be ing. Inde e d, many studie s have shown strong positive re lations be twe e n be ing

intrinsically motivate d and having a highe r le ve l of psychological he alth and we ll-be ing. Such re se arch make s

cle ar why the diffe re ntiation of type s of motivation is so important and confirms that the distinction be twe e n

intrinsic motivation and e xtrinsic motivation is an e mpirically use ful one .

It is critical to re me mbe r that intrinsic motivation is ope rative only for activitie s that hold intrinsic inte re st for

individuals, for e xample , those that are nove l and challe nging. For activitie s that are not inte re sting, intrinsic

motivation doe s not re pre se nt a pote nt motivator. Still, the re are many activitie s that pare nts, te ache rs,

manage rs, coache s, and physicians be lie ve are important for pe ople , e ve n if the activitie s are not inte re sting.

T o unde rstand the motivation for the se activitie s, one must e xamine the dynamics of e xtrinsic motivation.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION As it turns out, many of the activitie s pe ople do are not intrinsically motivate d, e spe cially from the time the y

move out of e arly childhood and face incre asing de mands to assume social role s and acce pt re sponsibilitie s.

Childre n must be gin to inte ract conge nially with playmate s, the n to do schoolwork that the y do not find

inte re sting, and e ve ntually (as adults) to hold gainful e mployme nt and function within the laws of socie ty.

Evide nce shows, for e xample , that e ve n during childre n's ye ars in e le me ntary school, the ir intrinsic motivation

te nds to be come we ake r with e ach passing ye ar.

Re call that e xtrinsic motivation is ope rative whe n pe ople do an activity to attain some se parable outcome such

as a pat on the back or a mone tary bonus. Whe n childre n are not intrinsically motivate d for an important activity,

pare nts or te ache rs must re ly on the induce me nt of e xtrinsic motivators. Although e xtrinsic motivators have

typically be e n found to be controlling rathe r than supportive of autonomy, the re is still the important que stion of

whe the r it is possible for pe ople to be autonomous or se lf-de te rmine d whe n doing a task that is uninte re sting

and, the re fore , was e xtrinsically prompte d. T he re ason this que stion is so critical is that if it we re possible for

pe ople to be autonomous while doing an activity for e xtrinsic or instrume ntal re asons, pe rhaps some of the

pe rformance and adjustme nt advantage s that have be e n found for intrinsic motivation might also accrue whe n

pe ople are autonomously e xtrinsically motivate d.

De ci and Ryan's se lf-de te rmination the ory (SDT ) propose d that intrinsic motivation is invariantly se lf-

de te rmination but that e xtrinsic motivation can vary gre atly in the de gre e to which it is se lf-de te rmination. For

e xample , a boy who take s out the garbage only be cause he knows that his mothe r will praise him for doing so

is e xtrinsically motivate d be cause the be havior is instrume ntal to the se parate conse que nce . A girl who take s

out the garbage be cause she pe rsonally value s family harmony and be lie ve s that he r participation in doing this

task will he lp to maintain that harmony is also e xtrinsically motivate d. T he se cond instance , although still

e xtrinsic, is characte rize d by a gre ate r se nse of pe rsonal e ndorse me nt and choice than is the first instance ,

which involve s compliance with the control that has be e n e xplicitly or implicitly cre ate d by the boy's mothe r.

T he se two case s of e xtrinsically motivate d be havior vary in the de gre e to which the y are re lative ly

autonomous.

Int ernalizat ion of Ext rinsic Mot ivat ion

Within SDT , e xtrinsically motivate d be haviors can be come more autonomous through a proce ss in which

pe ople inte rnalize the value s and re gulations associate d with the be haviors. Inte rnalization is the proce ss of

taking in a value or re gulation and making it one 's own. Whe n the proce ss functions optimally, individuals will

have transforme d an e xte rnally re gulate d e xtrinsic motivation into an inte rnally re gulate d e xtrinsic motivation by

inte grating the re gulation and its value into the ir se nse of se lf.

Inte rnalization has long be e n an important conce pt in many psychological the orie s. T he ide a is that the

challe nge of be coming se lf-re gulating of activitie s that are important for pe ople but are not the mse lve s

pe rsonally compe lling can be me t through the proce ss of inte rnalization. T o be se lf-re gulating, pe ople must

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make inte rnal what was initially e xte rnal. T he thing that make s SDT s conce ptualization of inte rnalization

diffe re nt from most othe rs is that it include s diffe re nt type s or de gre e s of inte rnalization. In othe r words, SDT

propose s that re gulations can be inte rnalize d more or le ss fully, such that pe ople will, to diffe ring de gre e s,

acce pt the re gulations as pe rsonally important for the mse lve s and, thus, be more or le ss autonomous in

e nacting the m. As such, the re will be diffe re nce s in the e xte nt to which pe ople do a be havior be cause the y

want to rathe r than be cause the y be lie ve that the y have to, and this will re fle ct the de gre e to which the

re gulation has be e n inte rnalize d.

T hus, SDT vie ws inte rnalization in te rms of a continuum that de scribe s how fully the pe rson has transforme d an

e xte rnal prompt into an inte rnal re gulation that will allow volitional or “choice ful” be havior. T his continuum,

the re fore , illustrate s how instrume ntal (i.e ., e xtrinsic) motivation for a be havior can range from passive

compliance to active pe rsonal commitme nt.

One re ason why this re lative autonomy continuum is so important is that it addre sse s an important proble m

about inte rnal re gulation of be havior. Spe cifically, the re are be haviors that pe ople force the mse lve s to do

be cause the y think the y should do the m and know the y will fe e l guilty if the y do not. T he re gulation of the se

be haviors is ce rtainly inte rnal to the se pe ople , but it doe s not e xhibit the qualitie s of volition or autonomy that,

for e xample , are so e vide nt in intrinsic motivation. SDT use s the conce pt of introje ction to re fe r to the type of

inte rnalization that le ads to this inte rnally pre ssure d re gulation. In contrast, the re are be haviors that pe ople do

not find inte re sting but that have be come me aningful and important for the ir own se lf-se le cte d goals and

pe rsonal life plans. As such, pe ople do the se be haviors quite autonomously, e ve n though the be haviors

the mse lve s are not inhe re ntly satisfying. In SDT , this is said to occur as pe ople ide ntify with the importance of

the activitie s for the mse lve s and the n inte grate that ide ntification with othe r aspe cts of the mse lve s. Whe n this

has occurre d, pe ople will fe e l fully autonomous as the y e nact an e xtrinsically motivate d be havior be cause it

would the n e manate from the ir inte grate d se nse of se lf.

T he forme r e xample , of introje ction, is about controlling one se lf, and the proce ss be ars conside rable similarity

to be ing controlle d by othe r pe ople . T he latte r e xample , in contrast, is more about making a choice to do the

activity be cause , all things conside re d, doing so fe e ls de sirable and right. T hus, in the latte r case , pe ople

e xpe rie nce a truly inte rnal PLOC, e ve n though the be havior is still instrume ntal, that is, done for re asons othe r

than the e njoyme nt of the activity itse lf. T his important contrast, be twe e n what might be thought of as se lf-

control and se lf-re gulation, is highlighte d in the SDT mode l of e xtrinsic motivation.

More spe cifically, the the ory state s that the re are various forms of e xtrinsic motivation: one whe re the

re gulation is e xte rnal to the pe rson, one whe re the re gulation has be e n me re ly introje cte d and so must be

buttre sse d by inte rnal re ward or punishme nt (e .g., guilt) continge ncie s, one whe re the pe rson has ide ntifie d with

the importance of the be havior for himse lf or he rse lf, and one whe re the re gulation has be e n fully inte grate d

with othe r aspe cts of the pe rson's se lf. Although the latte r thre e of the se all re pre se nt inte rnal motivation, the y

vary in the de gre e to which the be haviors the y motivate are autonomous. Inte grate d re gulation re pre se nts a

re lative ly full se nse of volition and pe rsonal commitme nt, with introje ction re pre se nting a re lative lack of the se

qualitie s (Fig. 1).

Intrinsic motivation and fully inte grate d e xtrinsic motivation are the two base s for autonomous or se lf-

de te rmine d be haviors. More than thre e de cade s of re se arch have now shown that the quality of pe ople 's

e xpe rie nce and pe rformance vary as a function of the de gre e to which a be havior is autonomous or se lf-

de te rmine d. T hus, whe n pe ople have ide ntifie d with and inte grate d the re gulation of an e xtrinsically motivate d

be havior, the be havior share s many of the qualitie s of be haviors that are intrinsically motivate d. Not only do

pe ople fe e l a se nse of choice and e xpe rie nce an inte rnal PLOC, but more importantly, autonomous e xtrinsic

motivation, like intrinsic motivation, is positive ly re late d to psychological we ll-be ing as we ll as to le arning

outcome s and e ffe ctive pe rformance , e spe cially on activitie s that re quire a de e pe r or fulle r e ngage me nt with

the activity.

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FIGURE 1. Types of extrinsic motivation based on the degree to which a regulation and its underlying value have been

internalized. They range from external regulation (least autonomous) to integrated regulation (most autonomous).

Int ernalizat ion in Social Cont ext s

Various studie s have e xamine d how the social conditions within which a re gulation is inte rnalize d affe ct how

fully it is inte rnalize d and, thus, how autonomous the subse que nt be havior will be . One factor that affe cts how

se lf-de te rmine d pe ople will be come for be haviors that we re initially e xte rnally prompte d is whe the r the

be haviors we re cle arly value d by othe rs to whom the y fe e l conne cte d. T his sugge sts, for e xample , that the

starting point for facilitating inte rnalization in childre n, stude nts, or e mploye e s is providing the m with a se nse of

pe rsonal re late dne ss, that is, the fe e ling of be ing care d about. In othe r words, it is the basic psychological ne e d

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for re late dne ss that le ads pe ople to be willing to take on the re gulation of be haviors that are value d by

significant othe rs or re le vant re fe re nce groups.

In addition, pe ople must fe e l sufficie ntly compe te nt at the focal be havior to do it satisfactorily; that is, pe ople will

be more like ly to inte rnalize a goal if the y have the re le vant skills and unde rstanding to be come succe ssful at it.

T hus, supporting compe te nce by offe ring optimal challe nge s and providing e ffe ctance -re le vant fe e dback will

also facilitate inte rnalization. Finally, for pe ople to be come autonomous with re spe ct to a be havior, the y must

grasp its pe rsonal me aning for the mse lve s; that is, the y must have the ir own pe rspe ctive acknowle dge d and

must fe e l a se nse of choice about doing the be havior. T his sugge sts that whe re as pe ople may at le ast partially

inte rnalize a be havioral re gulation if the y fe e l a se nse of (or de sire for) re late dne ss to a re le vant othe r or

group and if the y fe e l e ffe ctive in doing the be havior, the y are unlike ly to fully inte grate the re gulation unle ss

the re le vant othe rs in the ir social world provide autonomy support with re spe ct to that be havior. Notably, the n,

whe re as supports for autonomy and compe te nce are particularly important for maintaining intrinsic motivation

for an activity, supports for re late dne ss are also important for inte rnalization. In short, whe n pe ople fe e l

supports for re late dne ss, compe te nce , and autonomy with re spe ct to an e xtrinsically motivate d be havior, the y

are like ly to inte rnalize its value and re gulation quite fully.

In sum, se lf-de te rmination, which is base d in intrinsic motivation and inte grate d e xtrinsic motivation, has be e n

associate d with a varie ty of positive pe rformance and adjustme nt outcome s and has be e n found to de pe nd on

inte rpe rsonal supports for re late dne ss, compe te nce , and autonomy. In the se re gards, the n, one can now se e

how the study of joy and de light provide d a starting point for an e xamination of how to facilitate optimal

motivation for e ve n the mundane tasks that are e ncounte re d e ach day in pe ople 's live s. By providing the kinds

of supports that he lp to maintain intrinsic motivation, one can also facilitate inte rnalization and inte gration that

will e nhance the quality of motivation and e ngage me nt with the more mundane activitie s as we ll as the more

inte re sting one s.

APPLICATION OF RESEARCH ON SELF-DETERMINATION In various domains of life , the re are pe ople who have re sponsibility for motivating othe rs — the ir childre n, the ir

stude nts, subordinate s, patie nts, athle te s, and the like . T his can be a daunting challe nge . Be cause re se arch has

shown that autonomous motivation, base d in intrinsic motivation and inte grate d e xtrinsic motivation, is

une quivocally linke d to supe rior conce ptual le arning, gre ate r cre ativity, more fle xible proble m solving, and

be tte r psychological he alth and we ll-be ing, it se e ms cle ar that working to facilitate autonomous motivation,

rathe r than taking the e asie r route of re lying on controls, is inde e d important.

Nume rous studie s have e xamine d the e ffe cts of supporting autonomy ve rsus controlling be havior in a varie ty

of re al-world domains. We now turn to a brie f conside ration of a fe w of the se studie s in some of the more

important domains of life .

Aut onomy Support in Parent ing

Supporting autonomous motivation and promoting he althy de ve lopme nt be gin in the home . Pare nts have the

task of providing a conte xt that will allow the ir childre n to e xpe rie nce a se nse of autonomy, compe te nce , and

re late dne ss, and it is those conte xts that foste r autonomous motivation, inte rnalization of value s, and

psychological we ll-be ing.

Pare nts, of course , are ge nuine ly conce rne d about the ir childre n acquiring the skills and value s that are

ne ce ssary for functioning e ffe ctive ly in school, on the playground, and in the ir subse que nt care e rs and

pe rsonal de ve lopme nt. Pare nts are also hope ful that the ir childre n will be have appropriate ly in a varie ty of

e ve ryday se ttings so as not to bring re je ction or e mbarrassme nt on the mse lve s and the ir familie s. At time s,

pare nts' conce rns and de sire s can prompt conflict be cause the ir e xpe ctations can conflict with the inte re sts and

de sire s of the childre n. Childre n are not always e age r to do the ir home work, take out the garbage , or atte nd

the re ligious se rvice s in which the ir pare nts are inve ste d. T his re sistance may prompt an urge in pare nts to

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apply pre ssure in an atte mpt to e nsure that the ir childre n do the be haviors that the pare nts be lie ve are in the

childre n's be st inte re sts. Re se arch make s cle ar, howe ve r, that the childre n pay a cost in te rms of the ir

motivation and se lf-re liance to the e xte nt that pare nts' motivational strate gie s involve pre ssure and control.

Whe the r the controls are blatant or subtle , and whe the r the y are coe rcive or se ductive , the y se e m to have

some ne gative psychological conse que nce s for childre n.

One common approach to motivation and discipline use d by many pare nts is conditional re gard, that is,

providing more atte ntion and affe ction whe n childre n do what the pare nts value and withdrawing affe ction and

re gard whe n the childre n do not. T his pare nting strate gy turns out to be quite controlling, howe ve r, and

re se arch has shown that it le ads childre n to me re ly introje ct be havioral re gulations rathe r than inte grate the m.

In othe r words, childre n will te nd to do the be haviors on which affe ction and re gard we re made continge nt, but

the y will e xpe rie nce a se nse of inne r compulsion and anxie ty about the be haviors rathe r than a se nse of

choice and de sire . Furthe rmore , this pre ssure d form of re gulation is associate d with poore r we ll-be ing — with

lowe r and more fragile se lf-e ste e m, gre ate r fe e lings of guilt and shame , and the like . In addition, to the e xte nt

that pare nts use conditional re gard as a socializing strate gy, the ir childre n still harbor re se ntme nt toward the

pare nts many ye ars late r. Othe r more ove rtly coe rcive forms of control have be e n found to have e ve n more

ne gative e ffe cts.

T he alte rnative to pre ssure and control, of course , is autonomy support, which has be e n found to e nhance

motivation, pe rformance , and we ll-be ing. In one inte rvie w study, for e xample , Grolnick and Ryan we nt into the

home s of late e le me ntary school-age d childre n. T he re se arche rs conducte d se parate inte rvie ws with mothe rs

and fathe rs of the childre n re garding how the pare nts motivate the childre n to do schoolwork and to carry out

chore s around the house . Re sults of the study made cle ar that whe n pare nts we re autonomy supportive —

whe n the y took the ir childre n's pe rspe ctive into conside ration, e ncourage d initiative , and provide d choice —

the childre n we re more autonomously motivate d, fe lt be tte r about the mse lve s, and we re rate d by te ache rs as

be ing more e ngage d in the ir schoolwork and more compe te nt.

Autonomy support re pre se nts a challe nge for pare nts. T o try to unde rstand childre n's be havior from the ir

pe rspe ctive s can be a formidable unde rtaking whe n pare nts have the ir own pe rspe ctive s and de sire s. T o allow

and support childre n's choice s whe n it is e asie r to impose pare nts' own choice s is asking a lot of pare nts,

e spe cially if the y are stre sse d or tire d from de aling with de mands in othe r domains of the ir live s. Ye t the

e vide nce is cle ar that it is only through autonomy support that childre n will come to the point of acce pting

re sponsibility for the be haviors that are in the ir be st inte re sts. In othe r words, pre ssure and control can prompt

compliance in the imme diate situation (although it some time s prompts re be llion), but e ve n whe n it prompts

compliance , it is a re lative ly ine ffe ctive socializing strate gy be cause the be havior te nds not to pe rsist ove r the

long te rm. Autonomy support, in contrast, promote s inte rnalization and inte gration of the be haviors so that the y

be come part of the childre n's own value s and se nse of se lf and, thus, are more like ly to be maintaine d ove r

time .

It is ve ry important to re cognize that autonomy support is not the same thing as pe rmissive ne ss. T o be

autonomy supportive doe s not me an to allow childre n to do anything the y want. Rathe r, autonomy support

involve s the use of limits and discussions about the re asons why ce rtain be haviors are important. T he important

thing, howe ve r, is the style in which that is done . Whe n pare nts de mand that the ir childre n acce pt limits and

punish the m for not acce pting the se limits, the pare nts are cre ating a powe r struggle that is doome d to fail. For

limits to work e ffe ctive ly, it is important to acknowle dge the childre n's point of vie w, for e xample , re cognizing

that the y might not want to be have in the way that is be ing discusse d. It is also important to provide a

me aningful rationale for doing the be haviors and to re frain from using inte rpe rsonal pre ssure . It is the pre ssure ,

rathe r than the limits, that cre ate s the proble m. As such, autonomy support me ans be ing ne ithe r pre ssuring nor

pe rmissive ; inste ad, it involve s working with childre n to support the ir acce ptance of the value s and be haviors

that are important for the ir own de ve lopme nt and we ll-be ing.

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Aut onomy Support in Educat ion

Se ve ral studie s, using que stionnaire s, obse rvational me thods, and e xpe rime ntal de signs, have e xamine d the

facilitation of motivation and pe rformance in stude nts. Studie s have shown that the re is substantial variability in

public school classrooms re garding the de gre e to which te ache rs te nd to support stude nts' autonomy ve rsus

control the ir be havior. Furthe rmore , e vide nce from re se arch in e le me ntary school classrooms indicate s that

whe n te ache rs are more supportive of stude nts' autonomy — whe n te ache rs provide me aningful e xplanations

for why ce rtain be haviors are important, allow stude nts to e xpe rime nt with alte rnative ways of doing things, and

e ncourage stude nts to take initiative and try solving the ir own proble ms — stude nts display highe r le ve ls of

intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and de sire for challe nge and also are more like ly to inte rnalize e xtrinsic motivation

in a re lative ly full way. One study showe d that within 2 months in classrooms, stude nts had made an

accommodation to the te ache rs' style s such that stude nts of re lative ly controlling te ache rs had be come le ss

intrinsically motivate d. Be cause controlling me thods have be e n re late d to poore r conce ptual le arning, poore r

pe rformance on proble m-solving tasks, le ss cre ativity, and lowe r fe e lings of se lf-worth, the e vide nce is

compe lling that more autonomy-supportive approache s in classrooms have substantial advantage s for le arning,

pe rformance , and de ve lopme nt.

During re ce nt ye ars, the re have be e n some e fforts to include the conce pt of supporting stude nts' and

te ache rs' autonomy within school re form approache s, and initial e vide nce sugge sts that this is an important

e le me nt of e ffe ctive re form. For e xample , the Institute for Re se arch and Re form in Education has carrie d out

districtwide re form programs that have the conce pt of autonomy support as a ce ntral e le me nt, and the se

e fforts have re sulte d in a varie ty of positive e ducational outcome s, including de cre ase d dropout rate s,

e nhance d e ngage me nt in classroom activitie s and home work, and improve d pe rformance on standardize d

te sts.

At the colle ge and me dical school e ducational le ve ls, comparable re sults have be e n re porte d. For e xample , in

a study of unde rgraduate s le arning organic che mistry, re sults indicate d that whe n instructors we re pe rce ive d as

more autonomy supportive , stude nts be came more autonomously motivate d ove r the se me ste r, re sulting in

be tte r pe rformance on a standardize d course e xam. Studie s of me dical stude nts similarly showe d that

instructors who we re more autonomy supportive had stude nts who we re more like ly to maintain inte re st,

inte rnalize important value s associate d with the course , fe e l more compe te nt, and pe rform be tte r in the

practical application of course mate rial.

Aut onomy Support in t he Workplace

Work groups, like classrooms, ofte n vary in the ir climate or ambie nce . Some manage rs te nd to e ncourage

subordinate s to participate in goal se tting, pe rformance e valuation, and othe r important de cisions that are

re le vant to the subordinate s' work live s, whe re as othe r manage rs pre fe r to make the de cisions by the mse lve s

and the n te ll the subordinate s what ne e ds to be done . T he forme r approach te nds to inte grate the planning

and doing of the work, with subordinate s be ing involve d in both, whe re as the se cond te nds to se parate the m,

with the manage rs planning and the subordinate s doing.

Re se arch has shown that whe n manage rs have a more autonomy-supportive orie ntation toward the ir

e mploye e s, the e mploye e s are more motivate d, satisfie d, and trusting and also pe rform more e ffe ctive ly than

whe n manage rs have a more controlling orie ntation. In one study, re se arche rs de ve lope d an inte rve ntion in

which a change age nt worke d with manage rs in a major corporation to train the manage rs how to be more

autonomy supportive in the ir inte ractions with subordinate s. Re sults of the study indicate d that ove r the pe riod

of the study, manage rs did be come more autonomy supportive . More importantly, howe ve r, the subordinate s of

those manage rs who had be e n involve d in the training be came more motivate d and more satisfie d with the ir

work than did comparable e mploye e s who worke d for manage rs who had not re ce ive d the training. It appe ars

that whe n manage rs be come more autonomy supportive , the change in the ir orie ntation and be havior radiate s

to the ir subordinate s, re sulting in improve d e ngage me nt and e ffe ctive ne ss of the organizational unit.

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In othe r re se arch, De ci and colle ague s studie d manage rs and the ir subordinate s in Bulgaria and the Unite d

State s to confirm whe the r the positive e ffe cts of autonomy support would appe ar in a colle ctivist totalitarian

socie ty (Bulgaria) as we ll as in an individualistic de mocratic socie ty (Unite d State s). Re sults showe d that whe n

manage rs we re autonomy supportive , the ir subordinate s e xpe rie nce d gre ate r satisfaction of the basic ne e ds

for compe te nce , autonomy, and re late dne ss, le ading to gre ate r e ngage me nt in work and be tte r psychological

he alth. T hus, autonomy support se e ms to be important in the workplace re gardle ss of cultural value s or the

e conomic and political syste ms that are ope rative in the culture .

Aut onomy Support in Healt h Care

T he importance of supporting autonomy ve rsus controlling be havior for the promotion of maintaine d he alth

be havior change has also be e n de monstrate d in se ve ral studie s. Spe cifically, re se arch has shown that he alth

care practitione rs who are more autonomy supportive are more succe ssful in promoting he althy be havior

among the ir patie nts. Be cause unhe althy be haviors — tobacco use , poor die ts, lack of e xe rcise , and the like —

are re sponsible for we ll ove r half a million Ame rican de aths e ach ye ar, facilitating change toward he althie r

be having is cle arly a critical issue .

Williams and colle ague s have e xamine d practitione r autonomy support with re spe ct to a varie ty of he alth

be haviors. For e xample , provide r autonomy support has consiste ntly be e n found to promote more autonomous

motivation for he althie r living and gre ate r fe e lings of compe te nce about making succe ssful maintaine d change .

In one study, the se e nhance d e xpe rie nce s of autonomy and compe te nce among patie nts with diabe te s

re sulte d in physiologically inde xe d improve me nt in glucose control ove r a ye ar-long tre atme nt pe riod. In

anothe r study, the e nhance me nt of patie nts' autonomous motivation by autonomy-supportive physicians le d

patie nts to be more adhe re nt to long-te rm me dication pre scriptions. Be cause only approximate ly half of all

pre scriptions writte n by physicians in the Unite d State s are followe d to a de gre e ne ce ssary for the me dications

to be e ffe ctive , promotion of adhe re nce is an important issue for he alth care . It se e ms that whe n provide rs

e ngage patie nts as partne rs in the he alth care proce ss by e ncouraging the m to be more active in the ir own

care , the patie nts be come more autonomously motivate d and are more succe ssful in carrying out the se difficult

he alth-re le vant be haviors.

Anothe r study e xamine d the autonomy support of provide rs in a we ight loss program whe re morbidly obe se

individuals we re on a me dically supe rvise d, ve ry low-calorie die t. Re sults indicate d that the de gre e of provide r

autonomy support made a significant diffe re nce . Spe cifically, patie nts who e xpe rie nce d the staff as more

autonomy supportive re porte d more autonomous motivation for participating in the program, atte nde d we e kly

program me e tings more re gularly, and lost more we ight during the program. Furthe rmore , at a 2-ye ar follow-up,

the y we re e xe rcising more re gularly and we re more e ffe ctive in maintaining the we ight loss.

In one study, autonomy-supportive principle s we re use d as the ce ntral e le me nt in de ve loping a me dically base d

counse ling inte rve ntion for smoke rs. Using more than 1000 smoke rs whose e ducations and income s we re

significantly be low those of the urban county whe re the y live d, the study e valuate d the ne w counse ling

inte rve ntion re lative to the usual care for tre ating tobacco de pe nde nce that is available in the community.

Re sults indicate d that the ne w inte rve ntion was substantially more e ffe ctive than typical community care and

that it also linke d provide r autonomy support dire ctly to patie nts' autonomous motivation for smoking ce ssation.

T his, in turn, was a significant pre dictor of the patie nts' 6- and 18-month bioche mically validate d smoking

ce ssation.

Aut onomy Support in At hlet ics

Fie ld studie s have also shown the importance of supporting autonomy and compe te nce for e nhancing

autonomous motivation in the domain of sport and e xe rcise . T he re is a popular image of coache s as tyrants

who care only about winning and who pre ssure the ir playe rs to work hard and win. Although that might not be

the norm, the re doe s appe ar to be a te nde ncy toward pre ssure and control in sports. Many pare nts put strong

pre ssure on the ir young childre n to win at Little Le ague base ball, for e xample , and colle ge athle tics has

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be come some thing of a profe ssional e nde avor, at le ast in some circle s. Profe ssional athle tics, of course , is

incre asingly tie d into huge salarie s, e ndorse me nt contracts, and inte nse pre ssure to win. Studie s of compe tition

and motivation in athle tics indicate that this may be counte rproductive , howe ve r, both for pe rformance and for

the he alth and we ll-be ing of athle te s. For e xample , the re is e vide nce that pre ssuring athle te s to win de cre ase s

the ir intrinsic motivation for the sport, and athle tic scholarships to colle ge football playe rs have be e n found to

have a ne gative motivational impact.

An inte re sting study by Pe lle tie r and colle ague s showe d that whe n coache s of compe titive swimme rs we re

autonomy supportive , the athle te s te nde d to be autonomously motivate d and, in turn, pe rsiste d at the sport

ove r a 22-month pe riod. On the othe r hand, whe n coache s we re controlling, the athle te s te nde d to be e ithe r

e xte rnal or introje cte d in the ir motivation. Exte rnally motivate d swimme rs had a high rate of dropout from the

sport by the time of a 10-month follow-up, and those who we re introje cte d in the ir motivation te nde d to pe rsist

through the 10-month follow-up but e vide nce d a high rate of dropout by the 22-month asse ssme nt point. It

se e ms cle ar, the n, that although controlling approache s to motivation can bring about some be havior change ,

that change is unlike ly to pe rsist ove r the long te rm, whe re as autonomy-supportive approache s are much more

like ly to promote maintaine d long-te rm change .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Autonomous motivation, which is the basis for se lf-de te rmination in human be havior, consists of intrinsic

motivation (i.e ., doing an activity be cause it is inte re sting and doe s not re quire a se parable re ward) and

inte grate d e xtrinsic motivation (i.e ., doing an activity be cause it has be come pe rsonally important for the

pe rson's se lf-se le cte d value s and goals). Both intrinsic motivation and inte grate d e xtrinsic motivation are

facilitate d in situations that are inte rpe rsonally supportive , that is, whe re pare nts, te ache rs, manage rs, he alth

care provide rs, and coache s unde rstand and acknowle dge the pe rspe ctive s of the ir childre n, stude nts,

e mploye e s, patie nts, and athle te s, re spe ctive ly, and e ncourage the m to e xpe rime nt, allow the m to try the ir own

solutions to proble ms, provide the m with choice s, and re spond to the ir initiations.

Unde r conditions that are supportive of individuals' autonomy, those individuals are more e ngage d with the task

and pe rsist longe r, pe rform more e ffe ctive ly (e spe cially on tasks that re quire gre ate r cre ativity, fle xibility, and

conce ptual unde rstanding), and display highe r le ve ls of psychological he alth and we ll-be ing.