Topic: Autobiographical Psychosocial History
tutorthammy
Intelligence_McAlhaney.pptIntelligence
Psy 150
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The assessment of human abilities dates back nearly 4000 years when China used written tests to rate applicants for civil service. Two-thousand years later, during the Hans Dynasty, civil service type exams were used in the areas of law, military, agriculture, and geography. In the early 1800s British diplomats observed the Chinese assessments and modified them for use in Britain and eventually the United States for use in civil service placement.
Sir Francis Galton is a key figure in modern intelligence testing. As the first cousin of Charles Darwin, he attempted to apply Darwin's evolutionary theory to the study of human abilities. He postulate that intelligence was quantifiable and normally distributed. In other words, he believed that we could assign a score to intelligence where the majority of people fall in the average range and the percentage of the population decreases the farther from the middle their score gets.
Intelligence is not something we can see or hear, or taste. We can see the results of intelligence...sometimes. Many argue that quantifying intelligence correctly is impossible and all that modern IQ tests do is test our knowledge and abilities. While it is true that a person can learn to improve his or her score, this can only occur if correct responses are taught to the person, which is highly unethical. We have also found that our individual IQ score remains quite consistent as we get older. Some argue, however, that modern IQ tests are prejudiced against certain ethnicities and cultures and tend to result in higher scores for others. Where this leaves us, however, is uncertain. As of today, these IQ tests are the best we have in our attempt to quantify the construct known as intelligence.
Intelligence
- Refers to the abilities involved in learning and adaptive behavior
- Intelligence tests
- Designed to measure a person’s general mental abilities
- Exactly what makes up intelligence is a matter of debate
Theories of Intelligence
Early Theories of Intelligence
- Charles Spearman
- Believed intelligence is general
- People who are bright in one area are usually bright in other areas as well
- L. L. Thurstone
- Believed that intelligence is made up of seven distinct, independent abilities
- Spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, and reasoning
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British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities." The abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension
Reasoning
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Word fluency
Associative memory
Spatial visualization
Early Theories of Intelligence
- R. B. Cattell
- Identified two clusters of mental abilities
- Crystallized intelligence includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal skills
- Fluid intelligence includes skills such as spatial and visual imagery, rote memory, and the ability to notice visual details
- While education can increase crystallized intelligence, it was not thought to have any effect on fluid intelligence
Another theorist, Raymond Cattell, described intelligence as having two distinct factors. The first he called Crystallized Intelligence, representing acquired knowledge, and second, Fluid Intelligence, or our ability to use this knowledge.
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Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
- Robert Sternberg
- Triarchic theory of intelligence posits three types of intelligence
- Analytical intelligence includes the ability to learn how to do things, solve problems, and acquire new knowledge
- Creative intelligence includes the ability adjust to new tasks, use new concepts, and respond well in new situations
- Practical intelligence includes the ability to select contexts in which you can excel and solve practical problems
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities." The abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension
Reasoning
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Word fluency
Associative memory
Spatial visualization
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Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
- Logical-mathematical
- Linguistic
- Spatial
- Musical
- Bodily-kinesthetic
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
- Naturalistic
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:
Visual-spatial Intelligence
Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Intra personal Intelligence
Naturalistic Intelligence
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgP3Q4YFNpY
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Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
- Daniel Goleman
- Proposed theory of emotional Intelligence
- Emotional intelligence has five components
- Knowing one’s own emotions
- Managing one’s own emotions
- Using emotions to motivate oneself
- Recognizing the emotions of other people
- Managing relationships
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Intelligence Test
Intelligence has been an important and controversial topic throughout psychology's history. In addition to questions of exactly how to define intelligence, the debate continues today about whether it can be accurately measured. While psychologists often disagree about the definition and causes of intelligence, research on intelligence plays an important role in many areas including policy decisions regarding how much funding should be given to educational programs, the use of testing to screen job applicants and the use of testing to identify children who need additional academic assistance.
The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first coined in the early twentieth century by a German psychologist named William Stern. Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool that has led to the development of many other tests of skill and aptitude. However, it continues to spur debate and controversy over the use of intelligence tests, cultural biases, influences on intelligence and even the very way we define intelligence.
In order to gain a deeper understanding of intelligence and the tests that have been developed in an attempt to measure this concept, it is important to understand the history of intelligence testing, the scientific research that has been conducted and the findings that have emerged.
Major questions about intelligence and IQ testing:
Is intelligence a single ability, or does it involve an assortment of multiple skills and abilities?
Is intelligence inherited, or does the environment play a larger role?
Are intelligence tests biased?
What do intelligence scores predict, if anything?
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Intelligence Tests
- Binet-Simon scale
- First test of intelligence, developed to identify children who might have difficulty in school
- Binet developed the concept of mental age in children
- Stanford-Binet scale
- L. M. Terman’s adaptation of the Binet-Simon scale
- Terman introduced the I.Q. score
- A score of 100 is considered average
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The first workable intelligence test was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet. He and his partner, Theodore Simon, were commissioned by the French government to improve the teaching methods for developmentally disabled children. They believed that intelligence was the key to effective teaching, and developed a strategy whereby a mental age (MA) was determined and divided by the child's chronological age (CA). This formula, stated as "MA/CA X 100."
Alfred Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon devised this general test of mental ability in 1905, and it was revised in 1908 and 1911. The test yielded scores in terms of mental age. Mental age is the chronological age that typically corresponds to a particular level of performance.
Example: A ten-year-old child whose score indicates a mental age of twelve performed like a typical twelve-year-old.
In 1916, Lewis Terman and his colleagues at Stanford University created the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale by expanding and revising the Binet-Simon scale. The Stanford-Binet yielded scores in terms of intelligence quotients. The intelligence quotient (IQ) is the mental age divided by the chronological age and multiplied by 100. IQ scores allowed children of different ages to be compared.
Example: A ten-year-old whose performance resembles that of a typical twelve-year-old has an IQ of 120 (12 divided by 10 times 100).
There are two problems with the intelligence quotient approach:
The score necessary to be in the top range of a particular age group varies, depending on age.
The scoring system had no meaning for adults. For example, a fifty-year-old man who scores like a thirty-year-old can’t accurately be said to have low intelligence.
Intelligence Tests
- Stanford-Binet measures four kinds of mental abilities
- Verbal reasoning
- Abstract/visual reasoning
- Quantitative reasoning
- Short-term memory
Intelligence Tests
- The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
- The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Third Edition is the most commonly used test of intelligence for adults
- WAIS-III is divided into to parts, one that focuses on verbal abilities and one that focuses on performance skills
- Also a version for children, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Third Edition
David Wechsler published the first test for assessing intelligence in adults in 1939. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale contains many items that assess nonverbal reasoning ability and therefore depends less on verbal ability that does the Stanford-Binet. It also provides separate scores of verbal intelligence and nonverbal or performance intelligence, as well as a score that indicates overall intelligence.
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Intelligence Tests
- Group Tests
- Intelligence tests that can be given to large groups
- Advantages
- Quick scoring
- No examiner bias
- Easier to establish norms
- Disadvantages
- Less likely to detect someone who is ill or confused
- Might make people nervous
- Learning disabled children often perform worse
Individual intelligence tests can be given only by specially trained psychologists. Such tests are expensive and time-consuming to administer, and so educational institutions often use tests that can be given to a group of people at the same time. Commonly used group intelligence tests include the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test and the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test.
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Intelligence Tests
- Performance tests
- Tests that minimize the use of language
- Used to test very young children or people with retardation
- Also can be used to test those unfamiliar with English
- Culture-fair tests
- Tests designed to reduce cultural bias
- Minimize skills and values that vary from one culture to another
What Makes a Good Test?
- Reliability
- Ability of a test to provide consistent and stable scores
- Can measure reliability in two ways
- Test-retest reliability – give the same test twice and compare scores
- Split-half reliability – divide one test into two parts and compare the scores on each part
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Most intelligence tests have good reliability. Reliability is a test’s ability to yield the same results when the test is administered at different times to the same group of people.
What Makes a Good Test?
- Validity
- Ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure
- Content validity
- The extent to which test items represent the knowledge or skills being measured
- Criterion-related validity
- Relationship between scores on a test and an independent measure of what the test is supposed to measure
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.
Validity isn’t determined by a single statistic, but by a body of research that demonstrates the relationship between the test and the behavior it is intended to measure. There are three types of validity, but with intelligence, we will focus on the following two:
1. Content Validity
When a test has content validity, the items on the test represent the entire range of possible items the test should cover. Individual test questions may be drawn from a large pool of items that cover a broad range of topics.
In some instances where a test measures a trait that is difficult to define, an expert judge may rate each item’s relevance. Because each judge is basing their rating on opinion, two independent judges rate the test separately. Items that are rated as strongly relevant by both judges will be included in the final test.
2. Criterion-related Validity
A test is said to have criterion-related validity when the test has demonstrated its effectiveness in predicting criterion or indicators of a construct. There are two different types of criterion validity:
Concurrent Validity occurs when the criterion measures are obtained at the same time as the test scores. This indicates the extent to which the test scores accurately estimate an individual’s current state with regards to the criterion. For example, on a test that measures levels of depression, the test would be said to have concurrent validity if it measured the current levels of depression experienced by the test taker.
Predictive Validity occurs when the criterion measures are obtained at a time after the test. Examples of test with predictive validity are career or aptitude tests, which are helpful in determining who is likely to succeed or fail in certain subjects or occupations.
A test has construct validity if it demonstrates an association between the test scores and the prediction of a theoretical trait. Intelligence tests are one example of measurement instruments that should have construct validity.
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Criticisms of IQ Tests
- Test content and scores
- Critics argue that IQ test measure a narrow set of skills
- Some feel that the tests merely measure test taking ability
- Tests may discriminate against minorities
- Use of intelligence tests
- Could result in permanent labeling
- IQ and success
- Relationship does exist, but may be the result of a self-fulfilling prophecy
What determines Intelligence?
- The debate focuses on one of the major questions in psychology.
- Which is more important - nature or nurture?
Question: What Factors Determine Intelligence?
Well, in addition to disagreements about the basic nature of intelligence, psychologists have spent a great amount of time and energy debating the various influences on individual intelligence. The debate focuses on one of the major questions in psychology: Which is more important - nature or nurture?
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What Determines Intelligence?
- Heredity
- To what extent is intelligence inherited from parents?
- Evidence from twin and adoption studies points to a genetic component for intelligence
Evidence of genetic influences:
Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ's are more similar than those of fraternal twins (Promin & Spinath, 2004).
Siblings reared together in the same home have IQ's that are more similar than those of adopted children raised together in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).
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What Determines Intelligence?
- Environment
- The environment in which one is raised can strongly effect intelligence
- This can include proper nutrition and access to quality education as well as an enriching environment
Evidence of environmental influences:
Identical twins reared apart have IQ's that are less similar than identical twins reared in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).
School attendance has an impact on IQ scores (Ceci, 2001).
Children who are breastfed during the first three to five months of life score higher on IQ tests at age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed (Reinberg, 2008).
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Heredity vs. Environment:
Which is More Important?
- There is general agreement that both heredity and environment affect IQ scores
- Debate centers around the relative contribution of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) to the development of intelligence
Today, nearly all psychologists recognize that both genetics and the environment play a role in determining intelligence. It now becomes matter of determining exactly how much of an influence each factor has.
As we noted, it is important to note that genetics and the environment interact to determine exactly how inherited genes are expressed. For example, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the individual will also grow to be tall. However, the exact height the person reaches can be influenced by environmental factors such as nutrition and disease.
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Mental Abilities and
Human Diversity
- Gender
- Overall, men and women do not differ significantly in general intelligence
- Women may show slight advantage in mathematical computation skills
- Men show an advantage in spatial ability
- Men are more likely to fall in the extremes of intelligence range
Mental Abilities and
Human Diversity
- Culture
- Difference in academic performance between American and Asian students are found from first grade through high school in mathematics and reading
- May be related to a difference in cultural attitudes toward ability and effort
The Influence of Culture
Many psychologists believe that cultural bias can affect intelligence tests, for the following reasons:
Tests that are constructed primarily by white, middle-class researchers may not be equally relevant to people of all ethnic groups and economic classes.
Cultural values and experiences can affect factors such as attitude toward exams, degree of comfort in the test setting, motivation, competitiveness, rapport with the test administrator, and comfort with problem solving independently rather than as part of a team effort.
Cultural stereotypes can affect the motivation to perform well on tests.
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Extremes of Intelligence
- Mental retardation
- Refers to a wide variety of mental deficits
- Defined as significantly sub-average general intelligence functioning that is accompanied by significant limitations in adaptive functioning
- Some people with retardation show savant performance on particular skills
Mental Retardation
| Level of Retardation | IQ Range |
| Mild | Low 50s-70s |
| Moderate | Mid 30s-low 50s |
| Severe | Low 20s-mid 30s |
| Profound | Below 20 or 25 |
Extremes of Intelligence
- Giftedness
- Refers to superior IQ combined with ability in academics, creativity, and leadership
- Giftedness is often in specific areas
- “Globally” gifted people are rare
Creativity
- Creativity can be defined as the ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects
- Creativity and intelligence
- Intelligence and creativity are related, but only up to a certain threshold
- Above about 110 IQ they are virtually unrelated
- Creative people are often perceived as intelligent
Creativity
- Creativity tests
- Open-ended questions are used
- Scoring is based upon the number and originality of a person’s answers
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.
The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.
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Problem Solving Steps
- Problem representation
- Interpreting or defining the problem
- Deciding what category a problem belongs to
- Selecting a solution strategy
- Evaluating progress toward goal
Possible Solution Strategies
- Trial and error
- Works best with limited number of choices
- Information retrieval
- Retrieve from memory information about how such a problem has been solved in the past
- Algorithms
- Step-by-step methods that guarantees a solution
- Math problems are an example of the type best solved using an algorithm
- Heuristics
- Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem, but do not guarantee a solution
In mathematics, an algorithm is a defined set of step-by-step procedures that provides the correct answer to a particular problem. By following the instructions correctly, you are guaranteed to arrive at the right answer.
An algorithm is often expressed in the form of a graph, where each step is represented by a square. Arrows then branch off from each step to point to possible directions that you may take to solve the problem.
In psychology, algorithms are frequently contrasted with heuristics. A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to quickly make judgments and solve problems. However, heuristics are really more of a rule-of-thumb; they don't always guarantee a correct solution.
When problem-solving, deciding which method to use depends on the need for either accuracy or speed. If complete accuracy is required, it is best to use an algorithm. On the other hand, if time is an issue, then it may be best to use a heuristic.
A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently. These rule-of-thumb strategies shorten decision-making time and allow people to function without constantly stopping to think about their next course of action. While heuristics are helpful in many situations, they can also lead to biases.
Heuristics play important roles in both problem-solving and decision-making. When we are trying to solve a problem or make a decision, we often turn to these mental shortcuts when we need a quick solution.
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Obstacles to Solving Problems
- Motivation
- Desire to solve a problem
- Mental sets
- Tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways
- Functional fixedness
- Tendency to see only a limited number of uses for an object
Creative Problem Solving
- Brainstorming
- Produces many ideas
- Very popular in business
- Ideas are not judged when generated
- The creative process
- People often become more creative when exposed to creative peers
Becoming a More Skillful Problem Solver
- Eliminate poor choices
- Visualize a solution
- Develop expertise
- Think flexibly
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Decision Making
- Decision making is a special case of problem solving in which possible solutions or choices are already known
- Logical decision making
- Compensatory model
- Rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria
- Example: buying a car
- Good when issues are well-defined
Framing
- How information is presented (or framed) can have an effect on the outcome of decision-making
- Research has demonstrated that framing can have very dramatic effects on decision-making
Decisions Under Pressure
- When decisions are required quickly, experience plays a key role
- With increased pressure in an emergency situation, decision making often deteriorates and can end in panic
Explaining Our Decisions
- Hindsight bias
- Tendency to view the outcomes of decisions as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome
- Counterfactual thinking
- Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened
- Often takes the form of “If only…” constructions dealing with causes and consequences
