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M. D. Roblyer Nova Southeastern University

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Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching

Seventh edition

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Vice President and Editorial Director: Jeffery Johnston Executive Editor & Publisher: Meredith Fossel Editorial Assistant: Maria Feliberty Marketing Managers: Christopher Barry and Krista Clark Senior Content Editor: Maxine Effenson Chuck Program Manager: Maren Beckman Project Manager: Karen Mason Manufacturing Buyer: Deidra Skahill Full-Service Project Management: MPS North America LLC Compositor: Jouve Rights and Permissions Research Project Manager: Tania Zamora Manager, Cover Visual Research & Permissions: Diane Lorenzo Cover Image Credits: Courtesy of the Author and W. Wiencke Printer/Binder: Courier Kendallville, Inc.

Photo Credits: Appear on the page with the image. Design credits: Technology Integration in Action header: Vs148/Shutterstock; Big Ideas icon: Floral_set/Fotolia; Footer watermark: Venimo/Fotolia; Open Source Options header: Scyther5/Shutterstock; Media callout screen: Rawpixel/Fotolia; Technology Integration Example image: Ra2 studio/Fotolia; Hot Topic Debate icon: Arcady/Fotolia; Hot Topic Debate header: Photo Lux/Shutterstock; Adapting for Special Needs icon: Zentilia/Fotolia; Adapting for Special needs background: Alphaspirit/Shutterstock; Summary watermark: Alexey Boldin/ Shutterstock; Collaborate, Discuss, Reflect header background: Artant/Fotolia

Text Credits: Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permis- sion, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text.

Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010, by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be ob- tained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or trans- mission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Between the time website information is gathered and then published, it is not unusual for some sites to have closed. Also, the transcription of URLs can result in typographical errors. The publisher would appreciate notification where these errors occur so that they may be corrected in subsequent editions.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Roblyer, M. D. Integrating educational technology into teaching / M.D. Roblyer. – Seventh edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-379279-9 – ISBN 0-13-379279-X 1. Educational technology–United States. 2. Computer-assisted instruction–United States. 3. Curriculum planning–United States. I. Title. LB1028.3.R595 2016 371.33—dc23 2014043396

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-379279-X ISBN-13: 978-0-13-379279-9

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For Bill and Paige Wiencke, whose love is, as Arthur Clarke said of advanced technology,

indistinguishable from magic. —MDR

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AbouT ThE AuThor

M. D. Roblyer has been a technology-using professor and contributor to the field of educational technology for over 30 years and has authored or coauthored hundreds of books, monographs, articles, columns, and papers on educational technology research and practice. Her other books for Pearson Education include Starting Out on the Internet: A Learning Journey for Teachers; Technology Tools for Teachers: A Microsoft Office Tutorial (with Steven C. Mills); Educational Technol- ogy in Action: Problem-Based Exercises for Technology Integration; and the most recent text, Introduction to Instructional Design for Traditional, Online, and Blended Environments (2015).

She began her exploration of technology’s benefits for teaching in 1971 as a graduate student at one of the country’s first successful instructional computer training sites, Pennsylvania State University, where she helped write tutorial literacy lessons in the Coursewriter II authoring language on an IBM 1500 dedicated instructional mainframe computer. While obtaining a PhD in instructional systems at Florida State University, she worked on several major courseware development and training projects with Control Data Corporation’s PLATO system. In 1981–1982, she designed one of the early microcomputer software series, Grammar Problems for Practice, in conjunction with the Milliken Publishing Company.

Currently, Dr. Roblyer is Adjunct Professor of Instructional Technology and Distance Education (ITDE) at Nova Southeastern University, chairing dissertations for ITDE doctoral students. She serves on editorial boards of various technology and research journals and is past-president of two AERA special interest groups. She is married to fellow FSU PhD William R. Wiencke and is the mother of a daughter, Paige.

Photo courtesy Paige Wiencke

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PART 1 Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

1 educational technology in Context: the Big Picture 1 2 theory into Practice: Foundations for effective technology integration 31

PART 2 Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching

3 instructional Software for 21st Century teaching 72 4 technology tools for 21st Century teaching: the Basic Suite 106 5 technology tools for 21st Century teaching: Beyond the Basics 138

PART 3 Linking to Learn: Technology Tools and Strategies

6 online tools, Uses, and Web-Based development 170 7 introduction to distance education: online and Blended environments 203 8 online Models, Courses, and Programs 231

PART 4 Integrating Technology Across the Curriculum

9 teaching and Learning with technology in english and Language Arts 258 10 teaching and Learning with technology for Foreign and Second

Languages 284

11 teaching and Learning with technology in Mathematics and Science 305 12 teaching and Learning with technology in Social Studies 333 13 teaching and Learning with technology in Music and Art 352 14 teaching and Learning with technology in health and Physical education 378 15 teaching and Learning with technology in Special education 400

brIEf ConTEnTs

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ConTEnTs

PReFACe xx

PART 1 Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

educational technology in Context: the Big Picture 1 Learning OutcOmes 1

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: Then and now 2

intrOductiOn: the “Big Picture” On technOLOgy in educatiOn 3

Why We Need the “Big Picture” 3

Perspectives That Define Educational Technology 3

How This Textbook Defines Technology in Education 5

yesterday’s educatiOnaL technOLOgy: hOw the Past has shaPed the Present 6

Era 1: The Pre-Microcomputer Era 7

Era 2: The Microcomputer Era 7

Era 3: The Internet Era 8

Era 4: The Mobile Technologies, Social Media, and Open Access Era 8

What We Have Learned from the Past 9

tOday’s educatiOnaL technOLOgy resOurces: systems and aPPLicatiOns 10

An Overview of Digital Technology Tools 10

Technology Facilities: Hardware and Configurations for Teaching 10

Types of Software Applications in Schools 12

tOday’s educatiOnaL technOLOgy issues: cOnditiOns that shaPe Practice 12

Social Issues 12

Educational Issues 15

Cultural and Equity Issues 15

Legal and Ethical Issues 16

tOday’s educatiOnaL technOLOgy skiLLs: standards, assessments, and teaching cOmPetencies 17

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 17

ISTE Standards for Teachers, Students, and Administrators 18

The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) for Students and Teachers 18

The ICT Competency Framework for Teachers 18

The Tech-PACK Framework 19

Demonstrating Technology Skills: Portfolio Options and Tech-PACK 20

tOday’s educatiOnaL technOLOgy uses: deveLOPing a sOund ratiOnaLe 21

What Does Research on Technology in Education Tell Us? 22

A Technology-Use Rationale Based on Problem Solving 22

tOmOrrOw’s educatiOnaL technOLOgy: emerging trends in tOOLs and aPPLicatiOns 25

Trends in Hardware, Software, and System Development 25

Trends in Educational Applications 26

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CONTENTS | vii

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 28

summary 28

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 30

theory into Practice: Foundations for effective technology integration 31 Learning OutcOmes 31

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: The Role of ConTexT 32

Overview Of factOrs in successfuL technOLOgy integratiOn 33

Learning Theory Foundations 33

Technology Integration Planning (TIP) Model 33

Essential Conditions for Effective Technology Integration 33

Overview Of twO PersPectives On technOLOgy integratiOn 34

Two Perspectives on Effective Instruction 34

Where Did the Perspectives Come From? 34

Learning theOry fOundatiOns Of directed integratiOn mOdeLs 36

Behaviorist Theories 37

Information-Processing Theories 37

Cognitive-Behaviorist Theory 38

Systems Approaches: Instructional Design Models 39

Objectivist Theory Foundations for Directed Methods 40

Learning theOry: fOundatiOns Of cOnstructivist integratiOn mOdeLs 41

Social Activism Theory 42

Social Cognitive Theory 42

Scaffolding Theories 43

Child Development Theory 43

Discovery Learning 44

Multiple Intelligences Theory 44

Constructivist Theory Foundations for Inquiry-Based Methods 46

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies Based On directed and cOnstructivist theOries 48

Future Directions for Merging Directed and Constructivist Approaches 48

Technology Integration Strategies Useful for Either Model 50

Technology Integration Strategies Based on Directed Models 52

Technology Integration Strategies Based on Constructivist Models 53

a technOLOgy integratiOn PLanning (tiP) mOdeL fOr teachers 54

Phase 1: Analysis of Learning and Teaching Needs 55

Phase 2: Design of an Integration Framework 58

Phase 3: Post-Instruction Analysis and Revisions 62

when technOLOgy wOrks Best: essentiaL cOnditiOns fOr technOLOgy integratiOn 64

Essential Condition: A Shared Vision for Technology Integration 65

Essential Condition: Standards and Curriculum Support 65

Essential Condition: Required Policies 65

Essential Condition: Access to Hardware, Software, and Other Resources 66

Essential Condition: Skilled Personnel 67

Essential Condition: Technical Assistance 68

Essential Condition: Appropriate Teaching and Assessment Models 68

Essential Condition: Engaged Community 69

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viii | CONTENTS

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 70

summary 70

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 71

PART 2 Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching

instructional Software for 21st Century teaching 72 Learning OutcOmes 72

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: MaTh by design 73

an intrOductiOn tO instructiOnaL sOftware 75

Basic Information about Instructional Software 75

Teaching Roles for Instructional Software 77

driLL-and-Practice teaching functiOns 79

Selecting Good Drill-and-Practice Software 80

Benefits of Drill and Practice 80

Limitations and Problems Related to Drill and Practice 81

Using Drill and Practice in Teaching 83

tutOriaL teaching functiOns 83

Selecting Good Tutorial Software 84

Benefits of Tutorials 84

Limitations and Problems Related to Tutorials 85

Using Tutorials in Teaching 86

simuLatiOn teaching functiOns 87

Simulations That Teach About Something 87

Simulations That Teach How to Do Something 88

Selecting Good Simulation Software 88

Benefits of Simulations 88

Limitations and Problems Related to Simulations 90

How to Use Simulations in Teaching: Integration Strategies and Guidelines 92

instructiOnaL game teaching functiOns 92

Selecting Good Instructional Games 93

Benefits of Instructional Games 94

Limitations and Problems Related to Instructional Games 94

Using Instructional Games in Teaching 95

PrOBLem-sOLving teaching functiOns 97

Selecting Good Problem-Solving Software 97

Benefits of Problem-Solving Software 97

Limitations and Problems Related to Problem-Solving Software 99

Using Problem-Solving Software in Teaching 100

PersOnaLized Learning systems 101

Selecting PLSs 101

Benefits of PLSs 102

Limitations and Problems Related to PLSs 102

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 103

summary 103

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 105

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CONTENTS | ix

technology tools for 21st Century teaching: the Basic Suite 106 Learning OutcOmes 106

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: Can you affoRd youR dReaM CaR? 107

intrOductiOn tO the Basic sOftware tOOL suite 109

Why Use Software Tools? 109

Overview of Uses for the “Basic Three” Software Tools 109

Recent Developments in Software Tools 111

using wOrd PrOcessing sOftware in teaching and Learning 112

The Impact of Word Processing in Education 112

Word Processing in the Classroom: Productivity and Teaching Strategies 117

Teaching Word Processing Skills: Recommended Skills and Activities 118

using sPreadsheet sOftware in teaching and Learning 121

The Impact of Spreadsheets in Education 121

Spreadsheets in the Classroom: Productivity and Teaching Strategies 123

Teaching Spreadsheet Skills: Recommended Skills and Activities 125

using PresentatiOn sOftware in teaching and Learning 125

The Impact of Presentation Software in Education 127

Presentation Software in the Classroom: Productivity and Teaching Strategies 129

Teaching Presentation Software Skills: Recommended Skills and Activities 133

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 135

summary 136

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 137

technology tools for 21st Century teaching: Beyond the Basics 138 Learning OutcOmes 138

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: shaRing a Passion foR PoeTRy 139

intrOductiOn tO Other sOftware suPPOrt tOOLs 141

Types of Software Support Tools 141

Recent Developments in Software Support Tools 141

using materiaLs generatOrs 143

Desktop Publishing Software 144

Web Design Software 146

Interactive Whiteboard Activity Software 146

Worksheet and Puzzle Generators 147

Individualized Education Program (IEP) Generators 147

Graphic Document Makers 148

PDF and Forms Makers 148

using data cOLLectiOn and anaLysis tOOLs 149

Database Software 149

Statistical Software Packages 151

Online Survey Tools 151

Student Information Systems 153

Student Response Systems (Clickers) 153

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using testing and grading tOOLs 154

Electronic Gradebooks 155

Test Generators and Rubric Generators 155

Computer-Based Testing Systems 156

using graPhics tOOLs 156

Draw/Paint Programs 157

Image Editing Tools 157

Charting and Graphing Tools 158

Clip Art, Photo, Animation, Sound, Video, and Font Collections 158

Word Cloud Generators 159

using PLanning and Organizing tOOLs 160

Outlining Tools and Concept Mapping Software 160

Lesson Planning Software 161

Scheduling, Calendar, and Time Management Tools 161

using research and reference tOOLs 162

Online Encyclopedias 162

Digital Atlases and Mapping Tools 162

Digital Dictionaries (Word Atlases) 163

using tOOLs tO suPPOrt sPecific cOntent areas 163

CAD and 3-D Modeling/Animation Systems 163

Music Editors, Sequencers, and MIDI Tools 164

Reading Tools 164

Microcomputer-Based Labs (Probeware) 165

Calculators, Graphing Calculators and Calculator-Based Labs 165

Geographic Information Systems and Global Positioning Systems 166

Online Foreign Language Dictionaries and Language Translators (Machine Translation) 166

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 167

summary 167

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 168

PART 3 Linking to Learn: Technology Tools and Strategies

online tools, Uses, and Web-Based development 170 Learning OutcOmes 170

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: a ReseaRCh PaPeR 171

digitaL citizenshiP issues and needs fOr the OnLine envirOnment 173

How “Online” Emerged: A Brief History 173

Online Safety and Security Issues 174

Online Ethical and Legal Issues 176

Rules and Guidelines for Online Behavior: Digital Citizenship, Netiquette, and More 177

navigatiOn OPtiOns 179

Using Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) 179

Four Methods for Navigating the Net 180

Bookmarks, Favorites, and Online Organizers 181

Basic Internet Troubleshooting 181

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CONTENTS | xi

searching and stOring OPtiOns 182

Types of Search Engines 183

Search Tools and Strategies 183

cOmmunicatiOns OPtiOns 184

Email and Listservs 184

Instant Messaging and Text Messaging 184

Videoconferencing in Online and Blended Environments 185

sOciaL netwOrking and cOLLaBOrating OPtiOns 185

Blogs and Microblogs 186

Chatrooms 188

Wikis and Crowdsourcing Sites 188

Video- and Photo-Sharing Communities 189

Social Networking Sites 190

aPPLying aPPs in educatiOn 191

Locating Apps 191

Using Apps in Education 191

weB Page and weBsite authOring skiLLs and resOurces 191

Web Development Skills 191

Hypermedia Resources for Web Page and Website Development 192

Web Authoring Tools 192

Downloading Images, Programs, and Plug-Ins 195

weB Page and weBsite authOring stePs and criteria 196

Recommended Sequence for Authoring Web Pages and Sites 196

Criteria for Evaluating Website Information and Design 199

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 200

summary 200

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 202

introduction to distance education: online and Blended environments 203 Learning OutcOmes 203

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: fliPPing foR PRe-algebRa MasTeRy 204

Overview Of distance educatiOn 206

Distance Learning Models 206

Current Issues in Distance Learning 207

Distance Learning Research 208

BLended Learning envirOnments 211

Blended Learning Models 212

Implementing a Flipped Classroom Model 212

OnLine audiO and videO strategies in BLended envirOnments 214

Background on Podcasts and Vodcasts 215

Audio and Video Development 215

Audio and Video Lesson Integration Strategies 215

tyPes Of weB-Based LessOns in BLended mOdeLs 219

Types of Web-Based Lessons and Projects 219

Social Action Projects 221

Integration Strategies for Web-Based Activities 222

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imPLementing weB-Based LessOns in BLended envirOnments 225

Support Sites for Web-Based Activities 226

Evaluating Quality of Web-Based Lessons and Student Products from Lessons 227

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 228

summary 228

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 230

online Models, Courses, and Programs 231 Learning OutcOmes 231

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: ViRTual healTh 232

deveLOPing OnLine cOurses: mOdeLs 234

The Noninteractive Online Model 234

The Interactive, Asynchronous Online Model 234

The Interactive Online Model with Synchronous Events 235

The MOOC Model 235

deveLOPing OnLine cOurses: cOntent management systems (cms) and Other required infrastructure 236

Content Management Systems (CMS) 236

Course Support Tools 237

Technical Support 237

Support for Students with Special Needs 237

Resources to Monitor Course Outcomes 237

Resources and Strategies to Ensure Academic Integrity 238

deveLOPing OnLine cOurses: PrOcedures 238

Step 1: Select the Online Model 238

Step 2: Design and Document Learning Activities 239

Step 3: Create Course Space Structure 239

Step 4: Create Assignment Materials 241

Step 5: Create Assessment Materials 241

Step 6: Create Content Presentation Materials 241

Step 7: Create Small-Group Activities 241

Step 8: Create Resource Links and Other Materials 242

Step 9: Decide On and Signal the Course Path 243

Step 10: Determine and Document Course Logistics and Requirements 243

Best Practices fOr effective OnLine cOurses 243

Best Practices for Teaching Online Programs 243

Best Practices for Managing Online Small-group Work 244

Best Practices for Assessing Quality of Online Courses 245

virtuaL schOOLs 245

Background on Virtual Schools 245

Virtual School Issues 248

Virtual School Research 249

virtuaL reaLity envirOnments 251

Types of Virtual Reality Environments 251

Integration Strategies for Virtual Environments 253

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 254

summary 254

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 257

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CONTENTS | xiii

PART 4 Integrating Technology Across the Curriculum

teaching and Learning with technology in english and Language Arts 258 Learning OutcOmes 258

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: My side of The sToRy: TeaChing digiTal liTeRaCies wiTh a MulTiMedia sToRyTelling PRojeCT 259

issues and chaLLenges in engLish and Language arts 261

Teachers’ Changing Responsibilities for the “New Literacies” 261

New Instructional Strategies to Address New Needs 263

Challenges of Working with Diverse Learners 266

Challenges of Motivating Students to Read and Write 266

Teachers’ Growth as Literacy Professionals and Leaders 267

QWERTY Keyboarding: To Teach or Not to Teach? 268

The Cursive Writing Controversy 269

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr engLish and Language arts 269

Strategies to Support for Word Fluency and Vocabulary Development 271

Strategies to Support Reading Comprehension and Literacy Development 272

Strategies to Support Teaching the Writing Process 273

Strategies to Support Literature Learning 277

Enabling Multimodal Communication and Digital Publishing 278

teaching engLish and Language arts teachers tO integrate technOLOgy 279

Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in English and Language Arts Technology Integration 279

Learning the Issues and Applications 281

cOLLaBOrate, refLect, discuss 281

summary 282

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 283

teaching and Learning with technology for Foreign and Second Languages 284 Learning OutcOmes 284

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: wRiTing in blogs en fRanÇais 285

issues and chaLLenges in fOreign and secOnd Language Learning 287

ELL Issue #1: Demands on Content Area Teachers 287

ELL Issue #2: Academic and Language Prerequisites for ELLs 288

ELL Issue #3: The Need to Differentiate Instruction 288

ELL Issue #4: Challenges of Integrating the Students’ Native Languages 290

FL Issue #1: The Need for Authentic Materials and Perspectives 291

FL Issue #2: The Need for Creating Audience and Purpose 291

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr eLL and fL instructiOn 292

Support for Authentic Oral Language Practice and Assessment 293

Virtual Collaborations 294

Virtual Field Trips for Modified Language Immersion Experience 295

Teletandem Experiences for Modified Language Immersion 296

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Support for Practice in Language Subskills 296

Presentation Aids 297

Support for Text Production 297

Use of Apps to Support Language Learning and Use 298

Productivity and Lesson Design Support for Teachers 299

teaching fOreign Language and secOnd Language teachers tO integrate technOLOgy 300

Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in Foreign and Second Language Technology Integration 300

Learning the Issues and Applications 300

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 302

summary 303

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 303

teaching and Learning with technology in Mathematics and Science 305 Learning OutcOmes 305

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: hoT and Cold daTa 306

issues and chaLLenges in mathematics instructiOn 308

Accountability for Standards in Mathematics 308

Challenges in Implementing the Common Core State Standards for School Mathematics 310

Directed versus Social-Constructivist Teaching Strategies: Ongoing “Math Wars” 311

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr mathematics instructiOn 311

Bridging the Gap Between Abstract and Concrete with Virtual Manipulatives 313

Allowing Representation of Mathematical Principles 313

Supporting Mathematical Problem Solving 315

Implementing Data-Driven Curricula 317

Supporting Math-Related Communications 317

Motivating Skill Building and Practice 317

issues and chaLLenges in science instructiOn 318

Accountability for Standards in Science 318

The Narrowing Pipeline of Scientific Talent 319

Increasing Need for Scientific Literacy 320

Difficulties in Teaching K–8 Science 320

Objections to Virtual Science Labs 320

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr science instructiOn 321

Involving Students in Scientific Inquiry Through Authentic Online Projects 323

Support for Specific Processes in Scientific Inquiry 323

Supporting Science Skills and Concept Learning 325

Engaging Students in Engineering Topics through Robotics 325

Accessing Science Information and Tools 326

teaching mathematics and science teachers tO integrate technOLOgy 327

Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in Mathematics and Science Technology Integration 327

Learning the Issues and Applications 327

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 330

summary 330

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 332

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CONTENTS | xv

teaching and Learning with technology in Social Studies 333 Learning OutcOmes 333

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: i wiTness aCCounTs – suRViVoR Videos 334

issues and chaLLenges in sOciaL studies instructiOn 336

Meeting Standards Across Social Studies Areas 336

Challenges in Teaching Social Studies 338

The “History Wars” and Other Debates on the Content and Focus of Social Studies 339

Perils of the Information Explosion 339

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr sOciaL studies 340

Using Simulations and Problem-Solving Environments 340

Accessing Primary Sources 341

Digital Information Critiques 341

Electronic Research Strategies 341

Information Visualization Strategies 343

Virtual Field Trips 343

Adventure Learning (AL) 344

Digital Storytelling 344

Geospatial Analysis Strategies 346

teaching sOciaL studies teachers tO integrate technOLOgy 348

Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in Social Studies Technology Integration 348

Learning the Issues and Applications 348

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 350

summary 350

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 351

teaching and Learning with technology in Music and Art 352 Learning OutcOmes 352

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: The fine aRT of eleCTRoniC PoRTfolios 353

a ratiOnaLe fOr incLuding technOLOgy in the arts 355

issues and chaLLenges in music instructiOn 356

A Changing Definition for Music Literacy 356

Training Teachers to Meet Music Standards 356

Downloading of Music Illegally 357

The Intersection of Popular Music, Technology, and Music Instruction 357

The Music Director as Small Business Administrator 358

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr music instructiOn 358

Support for Music Composition and Production 360

Support for Music Performance 362

Support for Self-Paced Learning and Practice 363

Support for Teaching Music History 364

Support for Interdisciplinary Strategies 365

issues and chaLLenges in art instructiOn 365

Funding for Art Instruction 365

Ethical Issues Associated with the Use of Images and Other Materials 366

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xvi | CONTENTS

Accessing Images Used in Art Instruction 366

The Challenge of Meeting Standards in Arts Instruction 366

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr art instructiOn 367

Accessing Art Examples for Classroom Use 367

Using Teaching Examples and Materials 367

Producing and Manipulating Digitized Images 367

Supporting Graphic Design and 3-D Modeling 369

Supporting Student Development of Publications 370

Virtual Field Trips to Art Museums 370

Creating Movies as an Art Form 370

Sharing Students’ Creative and Research Works 371

teaching music and art teachers tO integrate technOLOgy 371

Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in Music and Art Technology Integration 371

Learning the Issues and Applications 374

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 375

summary 375

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 376

teaching and Learning with technology in health and Physical education 378 Learning OutcOmes 378

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: deVeloPing a PeRsonal fiTness and nuTRiTion Plan 379

issues and chaLLenges in PhysicaL and heaLth educatiOn 381

Instructional Time and Quality Physical Education Programs 382

The Link Between Physical Inactivity and Obesity 382

Accuracy of Internet Information on Health and Physical Education 383

Addressing Physical Education and Health Standards 383

Handling Controversial Health Issues 384

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies fOr heaLth and PhysicaL educatiOn 384

Supporting Improved Physical Fitness 387

Developing and Improving Motor Skill Performance 388

Assessing Student Learning in the Context of Teaching 390

Supporting Students’ Work in Dance 391

Shaping Students’ Beliefs and Interactions Related to Physical Activity 391

Helping Students Obtain Valid Health Information 392

Influencing Health Behaviors 393

Supporting Interdisciplinary Instruction 394

Offering Online Health and Physical Education 394

teaching heaLth and PhysicaL educatiOn teachers tO integrate technOLOgy 395

Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in Health and Physical Education Technology Integration 395

Learning the Issues and Applications 397

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 397

summary 398

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 398

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CONTENTS | xvii

teaching and Learning with technology in Special education 400 Learning OutcOmes 400

technOLOgy integratiOn in actiOn: Co-TeaChing To MeeT diVeRse needs 401

intrOductiOn tO sPeciaL educatiOn 403

issues and chaLLenges in sPeciaL educatiOn 403

Special Education and Inclusion Requirements 404

Policy Drivers of Technology Use in Special Education 405

Educational Reform and Accountability in Special Education 406

Trends in the Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) 407

technOLOgy integratiOn strategies tO meet sPeciaL needs 407

Foundations of Integration Strategies for Special Education 407

Strategies for Students with Cognitive Disabilities 410

Strategies for Students with Physical Disabilities 412

Strategies for Students with Sensory Disabilities 413

Strategies for Students with ASD 414

Strategies for Students with Gifts and Talents 415

teaching teachers tO integrate technOLOgy fOr students with sPeciaL needs 416

Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in Special Education Technology Integration 416

Learning the Issues and Applications 416

cOLLaBOrate, discuss, refLect 419

summary 419

technOLOgy integratiOn wOrkshOP 420

GLoSSARY 421

ReFeReNCeS 429

NAMe INDex 442

SUBjeCT INDex 445

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xviii

spECIAl fEATurEs

HoT TopICS for DEBATE

Multitasking with Social Networking as Distraction? 14

What Are “Best Practices” in Technology Integration? 35

Should Students Play Video Games in School? 95

Is PowerPoint Really Evil? 129

Do Classrooms Need Interactive Whiteboards? 147

Does Social Networking Promote Cyberbullying? 175

Can Students Learn as Well Online as Face-to-Face? 210

Are Virtual Schools Widening the Digital Divide? 251

Should Word Processing Replace Cursive Writing? 269

What is the Role of Online (Machine) Translators When Learning a Foreign Language? 291

Do Calculators Mean the End of Memorizing Math Facts? 311

Should Wikipedia Be Forbidden in Students’ Social Studies Research? 342

Can an Electronic Music Ensemble Supplant a Traditional One? 356

Should Exergaming be Included in Physical Education Programs? 388

Does Online Learning Discriminate Against Students with Disabilities? 406

ADApTIng for SpECIAL nEEDS

Assistive Technologies and Universal Design Resources 16

Universal Design for Learning 63

Instructional Apps, Software, and Web Resources 77

Word Processing and Other Basic Software Tools 110

Software Tools 149

Online Teaching and Learning: Web-Based Tools, Uses, and Development 195

Online Teaching and Learning: Blended Environments 216

Online Teaching and Learning: Online-Only Environments 237

Reading and Writing Tools 267

English as a Second Language Learning 292

Problem-Solving Aids, Simulations, and Games for Mathematics and Science 315

Social Studies 339

Music and the Arts 364

Physical Education and Health Education 389

Top TEn (pop-Up fEATUrE)

Issues Shaping Today’s Technology Uses in Education 17

Integration Strategies for Instructional Software 79

Integration Strategies for the Basic Tool Software 111

Integration Strategies for Interactive Whiteboards 147

Sites for Locating Apps in Education 191

Strategies for Integrating the Internet into the Curriculum 222

Virtual Education Environments 251

Top TEn mUST-HAvE AppS (pop-Up fEATUrE)

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for English and Language Arts 263

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for ELL/FL 298

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for Science and Mathematics 326

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for Social Studies 340

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for Music 356

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for Art 367

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for Health and Physical Education 391

Top Ten Must-Have Apps for Special Education 407

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SPECIAL FEATURES | xix

opEn SoUrCE opTIonS

Electronic Portfolios 21

Assessment Tools for Teachers 60

Instructional Software Sites 76

Software Tools from the Basic Suite 111

Software Tools Beyond the Basics 143

Web Development Tools 187

Web-Hosting Sites 225

Online Content 236

English and Language Arts 275

ELL and FL Classrooms 295

Mathematics and Science Classrooms 316

Software in Social Studies Classrooms 338

Software in Art and Music Classrooms 362

Health and Physical Education 390

Special Education 418

TECHnoLogy InTEgrATIon ExAmpLES

2.1 Phase 1: Analyzing Learning and Teaching Needs 55

2.2 Phase 2: Design of an Integration Framework 59

2.3 Phase 3: Post-Instruction Analysis and Revisions 63

3.1 Using Ratios 83

3.2 Minds on Physics 87

3.3 Crisis at Fort Sumter 92

3.4 Do I Have a Right? 96

3.5 Wait for a Date: Calculating Probability with Geometer’s Sketchpad 100

4.1 Mystery Writers! 118

4.2 The Language of Jazz—An Integral Part of American History and Culture 119

4.3 How the Electoral College Works—A Visual Demonstration 124

4.4 Comparing the Weather in Two Locations 125

4.5 Talking Books Enhance Literacy for Kids with Special Needs 132

4.6 Cave Drawings 133

4.7 Here’s My Hero 133

5.1 The Road to Revolution 148

5.2 Polling the Class Prior to a Statewide Vote 152

5.3 Fraction to Decimal Jeopardy 154

5.4 Bringing the Planets Closer to Home 158

5.5 Engaging Special Education Students in Math Concepts 159

5.6 Writing Our Own Fairy Tales 161

5.7 Car Lab Project 165

6.1 Online Safety: What Would You Do? 178

6.2 Wiki Tales 189

7.1 Student-Generated Flipped Review Exercises 214

7.2 Webcams Bring Weather to Life 217

7.3 Students as Feature Filmmakers 218

7.4 Webquest—Introducing the English Language! 221

7.5 Connecting Science Students with NASA Resources 222

7.6 Fractured Fairy Tales 222

7.7 Westward Expansion 223

7.8 OF2—Our Footprints, Our Future 224

7.9 Writing with Scientists 224

7.10 Comparing Local Histories 225

8.1 Immerse Yourself in the Smithsonian 253

9.1 “My Pet is Special” Blog 275

9.2 Important Moments: A Narration 279

10.1 My Favorite Museum! 296

10.2 The ABCs of Learning (Language Name)! 298

11.1 Virtual Manipulatives Help Teach Platonic Solids 314

11.2 Think Before You Drink! 324

12.1 Using QR Codes to Tell Our Digital Histories 346

12.2 Are We There Yet? 347

13.1 Why is Downloading Music Illegal? 358

13.2 Organize and Create Music 361

13.3 Visual Biography 369

14.1 Interdisciplinary Activities for Physical Education Concepts 386

14.2 What’s the Buzz? Exploring Concepts About Caffeine 392

15.1 Kurzweil 3000-firefly 411

15.2 Collecting and Analyzing Data 413

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prEfACE

After a three-year gestation, the first edition of this textbook emerged in 1996—and what a time to be born! Digital technology in education too, was an infant, on the threshold of becom- ing a very capable, very unpredictable child. It appeared to have potential, as any youngster does, but how could we have known how far it would go and how thoroughly and unexpectedly its transformation would transform us? This book has grown along with it, chronicling its ad- vances and our responses to them over the years. In those early days of the Digital Age, educa- tors, like the rest of the planet, were taking their fledgling first steps onto the World Wide Web; the first edition of this text was also the first to predict that the Internet would become a major distance education technology. Since then, the tools have become more capable, diverse, and ubiquitous, and societal interest in digital technologies has segued into obsession. But the great- est challenge remains as constant as a compass: deciding how best to make use of technology’s prodigious possibilities. As Richard Florida (2013) said when describing the rise of robots in the workplace, it is not our technology that defines us. Rather it is how we choose to fit it to our needs.

In this seventh edition of Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching, as in past ones, I seek to go beyond describing the technical features and capabilities of 21st century technology tools to focus ever more on the teaching and learning strategies they can support. What have we learned so far that enables an enlightened view of technology in education? The following are some clearly defined guidelines on what works best when it comes to matching the needs of the educational community with technology’s capabilities:

• Good pedagogy comes first—Advancements in distance education in the late 1990s and in knowledge sharing in the years afterward gave renewed support to those who predicted, as did their predecessors in the 1960s, that technology would decrease or eliminate the need for teachers. However, our experience with these very capable technologies has shown more clearly than ever that the interaction between teachers and students remains an essential quality of effective education. This textbook proposes that technologies are, above all, channels for helping teachers communicate better with students—ways of making their relationships more meaningful and productive. It can make good teaching even better; it cannot make bad teaching good. Consequently, technology-using teachers can never be a force for improved education unless they are first and foremost informed, knowledgeable shapers of their craft. Before integrating technology into their teaching, educators must know a great deal, for example, about why there are different views on appropriate teaching strategies, how societal factors and learning theories have shaped these views, and how each strategy can address differing needs.

• Technology is us—Rather than seeing technology as some foreign invader here to confuse and complicate the simple life of the past, we can recognize that technology is very much our own response to overcoming obstacles that stand in the way of a better, more productive way of life. As Walt Kelly’s “profound ᾿possum” Pogo said, “We have met the enemy, and he is us.” Technology is the tools we fashion and the ways we choose to use them to solve problems in our environment. Turmoil will accompany the transitions as we adapt to the new environment we ourselves have created. But technology is, by definition, intended to be part of our path to a better life, rather than an obstacle in its way.

• We control how technology is used in education—Finally, we must recognize the truth of Peter Drucker’s statement: “The best way to predict the future is to create it.” Both indi- vidual teachers and teaching organizations must see themselves as enlightened shapers of our future. Each teacher must help to articulate the vision for what the future of education should look like; each should acquire skills that will help realize that vision.

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PREFACE | xxi

whaT’s new in The seVenTh ediTion Best known for its technology integration strategies grounded in strong research, the seventh edition of Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching offers a total technology integration package across all content areas that gives your students practice with technology tools as they learn how to incorporate technology into the curriculum to support and shape learning. This edition includes a number of additions that reflect changes in the field of educational technology.

• new! Chapter 1 has new coverage of issues that affect technology integration such as the need for digital literacy and digital citizenship, as well as information on new methods and technology formats such as Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), and expanded uses of access tools such as tablets.

• new! Chapter 2 has expanded coverage of each of the relevant behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist learning theories that underlie technology integration strategies.

• new! Chapters 6 through 8 have been re-organized to emphasize the rapidly expanding role of online tools and strategies. New coverage includes methods to teach digital literacy and digital citizenship, new uses of social media, and design and use of online and blended learning formats such as flipped classrooms.

• new! Chapters 9 through 15 each offer strategies and a content-specific rubric that teachers can use to direct and self-assess their growth in technology integration.

• uPdaTed! All chapters have updated research and examples for tools and/or strategies.

• uPdaTed! Each chapter has been updated and new content has been added to document and illustrate major changes and trends in the field, such as the new emphasis on: • Blended learning (e.g., the flipped classroom) • Social media and networking • Virtual courses and virtual schools

• new inTeRaCTiVe eTexT feaTuRes! An all-new Pearson eText version in- cludes the following interactive features in each chapter: • Author-recorded BIG IDEAS OVERVIEWS (BIO) on main chapter concepts and

points to guide reading. • Top Ten (in Chapters 1 and 3–8) features highlight and describe the best software

features, uses, and strategies for teachers to apply. • Top Ten Must-Have Apps (in Chapters 9–15) have been recommended by experts

in the content area and present apps that are widely used in society; examples help educators see the role these tools are beginning to play in education.

• Links to video illustrations and commentaries from practitioners in the field. • Interactive Technology Learning Checks (TLCs) at the end of each major section

are matched to each chapter learning outcome. These help readers apply the concepts and ensure that they master each chapter outcome.

• End-of-chapter Technology Integration Workshops now include links to a Technol- ogy Application Activities and a Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist that teachers can use to select most effective integration strategies.

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xxii | PREFACE

CoRe PRinCiPles aT The CenTeR of This TexT The purpose of this book is to show how we are challenged to shape the future of technology in education. How we respond to this challenge is guided by how we see it helping us accomplish our own informed vision of what teaching and learning should be. Our approach to accom- plishing this rests on four premises:

1. Instructional technology methods should be based in both learning theory and teach- ing practice—There is no shortage of innovative ideas in the field of instructional technol- ogy; new and interesting methods come forth about as often as new and improved gadgets. Those who would build on the knowledge of the past should know why they do what they do, as well as how to do it. Thus, various technology-based integration strategies are linked to well-researched theories of learning, and we have illustrated them with examples of suc- cessful practices based on these theories.

2. Uses of technology should match specific teaching and learning needs—Technology has the power to improve teaching and learning, but it can also make a teacher’s life more complicated. Therefore, each resource should be examined for its unique qualities and its potential benefits for teachers and students. Teachers should not use a tool simply because it is new and available; each integration strategy should be matched to a recognized need. Do not oppose experimentation, but do advocate informed use.

3. Old integration strategies are not necessarily bad; new strategies are not necessarily good—As technologies change and evolve at lightning speed, there is a tendency to throw out older teaching methods with the older machines. Sometimes this is a good idea; some- times it would be a shame. Each of the integration strategies recommended in this book is based on methods with proven usefulness to teachers and students. Some of the strategies are based on directed methods that have been used for some time; other strategies are based on the newer, constructivist learning models. Each is recommended on the basis of its use- fulness rather than its age.

4. A combination of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge is necessary— This textbook maintains that that teachers not only need to know the content they are teaching and good pedagogical strategies for connecting students with content, but must also recognize how to integrate technology into pedagogy to achieve greatest impact on de- sired outcomes. In other words, teachers need what the field now refers to as a combination of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge or Tech-PACK.

The goal of this edition is for teachers to see more clearly their role in shaping the future of technology in education. This book illustrates that great education means employing technolo- gies to fulfill the vision they make possible: a worldwide social network and a global community that learns and grows together.

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Introduces Your Students to Technology Integration

PHASE 1 ANALYSIS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING NEEDS Step 1: Determine relative advantage. Mr. Lipe is a �fth grade teacher who has great dif�culty getting his young students to share his passion for poetry. He tried vari- ous teaching approaches, but many students remained indifferent, and few are interested enough to read or write poems after the unit is over. When he taught mathematics activities, he had found that using his interactive whiteboard made it easier to engage students, especially if they played a part in illustrating and practicing con- cepts. He felt that with the right kinds of activities, he might also engage them in learning about and writing poetry. From a blog for teachers, he learned about some online materials to help teach poetry, some of which could be used with interactive whiteboards and allowed students to publish their work online. After reviewing the materials, he decided to restructure his poetry unit around these activities. He would display the online “poetry engine” on the white- board to illustrate several types of poems that kids can write, and it would also allow students some initial practice in writing poems. After more practice in pairs and small groups, each would have to write one poem of each kind, with or without the poetry engine, and each would be allowed to publish one poem on the website.

Step 2: Assess required resources and skills. Mr. Lipe felt he knew a great deal about writing poetry, since he had had good instructors in his under graduate program and was a poet himself. But after three years of unsuccessful efforts to engage his students in poetry writing, he felt less con�dent in his ability to motivate young people on this topic. To improve his instructional approaches, he read through a variety of blogs and online materials looking for ideas on how to teach poetry better. After reading these materials and blogging with colleagues who gave him good leads, he felt more con�dent that the new approach would be much more motivating to students.

PHASE 2 PLANNING FOR INTEGRATION Step 3: Decide on objectives and assessments. To help him see if students were achieving what he hoped in the poetry unit, Mr. Lipe created objectives and assessments to measure students’ progress in poetry skills, as well as their attitudes toward poetry. The outcomes, objectives, and assessments were:

Outcome: Write three different poems re�ecting three different poetry genres. Objective: After participating in the practice activities, each student writes three poems in correct format, using either a poetry engine or writing on the word processor, and provides an illustration for at least one. Assessment: A rubric of criteria and points.

Outcome: Feel more positively about poetry. Objective: At least 80% of students express interest in reading or writing additional poems, as re�ected in comments to the teacher or poems they offer. Assessment: Teacher observation.

Step 4: Design integration strategies. Mr. Lipe knew that the initial activities would be group based, followed up by individual ones. He designed the following sequence of activities to be done in one hour each day for one week:

Day 1: Introduce the unit. Begin by reading two short poems from a book of popular poems for young people (e.g., Shel Silverstein’s Where the Sidewalk Ends), while displaying on the whiteboard an image for each poem from the book. Ask students to close their eyes while a poem is read; ask if the poem brought

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION SHARING A PASSION FOR POETRY GRADE LEVEL: Grades 4– 5 • CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts, poetry • LENGTH OF TIME: An hour each day for 6 days

CHAPTER 5 | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching—Beyond the Basics | 139

ZouZou/Shutterstock

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210 | PART II | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching

and Koppel (2010) suggest that meeting students face-to-face for the �rst class meeting helps establish a rapport that can lead to better interaction throughout the course.

• Support during the course. Many studies show that students value and pro�t from teacher and other support, both technical and logistical, during their course experiences, from registration through course activities and evaluation. DiPietro (2010) observed that supportive interactions help establish a sense of community among learners, resulting in both increased engagement and motivation. McBrien, Cheng, and Jones (2009) �nd that feelings of isolation or disconnectedness from the teacher and classmates, as well as frustra- tion with technology problems, can also negatively a�ect course satisfaction.

• Minimal technical problems. Consistent evidence exists that technical problems can doom the best- planned course (Ko & Rosen, 2010; McBrien et al., 2009). Successful courses are those that minimize technical problems so that the student can focus on the learning rather than on computer and technical issues. Not having to mediate technology prob- lems also frees the teacher to spend more time on instruction and accommodating student needs.

Characteristics of successful distance learners. Some researchers have tried to identify student capabilities or other factors that could predict whether a student might drop out, be less satis�ed, or not perform as well in an online activity. A study conducted by Patterson and McFadden (2009) concluded that there is no single theory that can fully explain student attrition in distance learning; students likely drop out due to a combination of variables. Hypothesized characteristics of successful distance learners include self- motivation and ability to structure one’s own learning (Robinson & Sebba, 2010), previous experience with technology (Johnson, Gueutal, & Falbe, 2009), good attitude toward course subject matter (Hung, Chou, Chen, & Own, 2010), and internal locus of control, or a personality characteristic of believing that one can control events that a�ect them (Vandewaetere & Clarebout, 2011). A study con- ducted by Damianov et al. (2009) suggested that spending more time online can predict whether students will be successful in online learning environments. Some studies that support a cor- relation between increased computer self- e�cacy and improved outcomes in online courses. For example, Alshare, Freeze, Lane, and Wen (2011) found that students level of comfort with online learning and their “Web self- e�cacy” (p. 437), or belief that they were good at using the Internet, could predict their satisfaction in online courses.

Characteristics of successful distance instructors. Fish and Wickersham (2009) found that distance learning instructors need di�erent skills than instructors for

Take a position for or against (based either on your own position or one assigned to you) on the following controversial statement. Discuss it in class or on an online discussion board, blog, or wiki, as assigned by your instructor. When the discussion is complete, write a summary of the main pros and cons that you and your classmates have stated, and put the summary document in your Teacher Portfolio.

One of the biggest debates and discussions in distance educa- tion is whether learning online is as effective as face-to-face (FTF). There have been decades of media comparison studies in which student outcomes were compared in classrooms using and

not using various technologies. Similar studies have been done comparing distance learning and traditional learning (Bernard

However, we also know that the dropout rate is higher in distance learning. Many recent studies report the quality and experiences of online student learning are impacted by issues ranging from the amount of interaction with the instructor to the type of media used. If researchers are correct that the learning medium or dis- tance format makes no difference in learning outcomes, why is the dropout rate so high? Can you cite evidence to support or refute the position that all students are able to learn well online?

Hot Topic Debate Can Students Learn as Well Online as Face-to-Face?

TaT ke a positit on fof r or aga ag inst (b( ase

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CHAPTER 5 | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching—Beyond the Basics | 149

collect information from students, parents, or faculty or to implement surveys as part of research projects. Formatting even the simplest form can be time consuming on a word processor. �ese so�ware tools structure the process and make the design simple to accomplish. As teachers create these forms, they can store them as templates for later use, perhaps with revisions.

As students enter middle school, the demands of changing class- rooms and teachers each hour challenge the organizational abilities of even the best students. Suddenly, they have to do assignments in many different subjects and must have books and folders to keep track of each subject. Fortunately, most middle schools have a school- wide system (e.g., assignment notebooks, folders, homework- help Web pages) to help students get organized and keep track of all that they are supposed to know and do. However, by October each year some students are “organizationally failing,”

While staying organized and keeping track of important details -

age and retrieval is a fundamental characteristic of many individuals with learning disabilities. As a result, it is important to help these

effective for them. Many of the following organizational tools have

- tion and planning. Teachers and parents must commit to monitor the use of the tools and teaching new strategies to that the student can maximize the power of the tool.

• Evernote (at the Evernote website)—Encourages users to make artifacts (a note, image, or URL) of things they have to do, which are then indexed and made searchable.

• PocketMod (at the Pocketmod website)—Provides a way of creating a pocket guide of things to do and remember.

• Remember the Milk (at the Remember the Milk website)— Helps users create a system of reminders of tasks to do.

• Things 2 (at the Cultured Code website)—Lets users create an agenda and daily/weekly/monthly to-do lists.

• Toodledo (at the Toodledo website)—Helps users organize tasks they have to do into folders and subtasks.

• Todoist (at the To Do List website)—An online task manager to help users keep organized.

• Vitalist (at the Vitalist website)—A personal organization and productivity system.

• Voo2Do (at the Voo2do website)—An online system that helps users track priority, due dates, and time estimates for a number of different tasks.

—Contributed by Dave Edyburn

Adapting for Special Needs Software Tools

TECHNOLOGY LEARNING CHECK Complete TLC 5.2 to review what you have learned from reading this section about materials generator features and uses.

USING DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS TOOLS

Data collection and analysis tools include database so�ware, statistical so�ware packages, online survey sites, student information systems, online and computer- based testing systems, and stu- dent response systems, or clickers. A summary of these tools, with sample products and class- room uses, is shown in Table 5.3.

Database Software Databases are computer programs that allow users to store, organize, and manipulate informa- tion, including both text and numerical data. Database so�ware can perform some calculations, but its real power lies in allowing people to locate information through keyword searches. A database program is most o�en compared to a �le cabinet or a Rolodex card �le. Like these precomputer devices, the purpose of a database is to store important information in a way that makes it easy to locate later. �is capability has become increasingly important as society’s store of essential information grows in volume and complexity.

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◀ Technology Integration in Action examples, located at the beginning of Chapters 2 through 15, are classroom-based scenarios that provide a classroom context for chapter content by focusing on the selection and use of specific technology within a classroom environment. Each walks the reader through the steps of the Technology Integration Lesson Planning exercise (TIP) Model and is tied to chapter objectives.

▼ Hot Topics for Debate help teachers address social issues that may present obstacles to effective technology integration.

Adapting for Special Needs ▶ features give your students

alternative software and technology suggestions to

consider for use in supporting students with special needs.

feaTuRes of This TexT For the seventh edition, the author maintains a cohesive, comprehensive technology integration framework that builds on strong research and numerous integration strategies. This Technology Integration Framework achieves the following goals:

PREFACE | xxiii

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Helps Your Students Plan for Effective Technology Integration

148 | PART II | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching

serve as blueprints for each special student’s instructional activities, and teachers must pro- vide documentation that such a plan is on �le and that it governs classroom activities. IEP generator so�ware assists teachers in preparing IEPs (Wilson, Michaels, & Margolis, 2005). Like test and worksheet generators, IEP generators provide on-screen prompts that remind users of the required components in the plan. When a teacher �nishes entering all the nec- essary information, the program prints out the IEP in a standard format. Some IEP genera- tion programs also accept data updates on each student’s progress. See also the Adapting for Special Needs feature.

Graphic Document Makers Graphic document makers are so�ware tools that simplify the activity of making highly graphic materials, such as awards certi�cates and greeting cards. �ey o�er sets of clip art and predesigned templates to which teachers and students can add their own content. For example, teachers have found certi�cates to be a useful kind of recognition. Certi�cates congratulate stu- dents for accomplishments, and the students can take them home and share them with parents and friends. Most certi�cate makers include numerous templates for various kinds of achieve- ments, a feature that makes teachers prefer them over word processing so�ware for these kinds of tasks. You can select the template that is appropriate for the kind of recognition intended (e.g., completing an activity, being a �rst- place winner) and enter the personal information for each recipient. Also, students frequently �nd it motivating to use these packages to design their own certi�cates, cards, and �yers. �e most popular of these document makers is Printshop (Broderbund). �is and similar so�ware tools are listed in Table 5.2. �ough graphic docu - ment makers are still being used, word processing and drawing so�ware packages now o�er many of the same advantages, including a variety of templates for various awards.

PDF and Forms Makers Portable Document Format (PDF) �le so�ware, created by Adobe, permits the viewing and sending of documents as images. Since they are viewed as images, the PDF document displays all of the formatting and design elements (e.g., margins, graphics) of the original document without requiring access to the so�ware used to create it. Adobe Acrobat Pro or a similar program is used to create these �les, but Adobe also provides free so�ware to read documents saved in PDF for- mat (Adobe Reader). PDF so�ware is o�en used in conjunction with forms makers such as PDF Maker Pilot, a so�ware tool that creates documents and Web pages with forms that can be �lled in on-screen. Teachers �nd forms makers useful because they make it easier to create forms to

Example 5.1

TITLE: The Road to Revolution

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social studies, history

GRADE LEVELS: 9– 12

NETS FOR STUDENTS: Standard 1—Creativity and Innovation; Standard 2—Communication and Collaboration; Standard 6— Technology Operations and Concepts

CCSS: CCSS. ELA -LITERACY.RH.9-10.2, CSS. ELA -LITERACY. RH.9-10.3, CCSS. ELA -LITERACY.RH.11-12.6

NCSS THEMES: Thematic Standards: 1- Culture and Diversity; 3 - People, Places, and Environments; 6- Power, Authority, and

Governance; Disciplinary Standards: 1 - History

DESCRIPTION: Students listen to scenarios of events leading up to the Revolutionary War as the teacher displays information about the events on the whiteboard. As a whole group, students choose what they would do in response to each event. Each choice leads them to the next event where they see results of their choices. In the end, they reach the point where Britain closes Boston Harbor, and students must decide whether they identi�ed most with Loyalists, Patriots, or Neutralists.

SOURCE: Based on a concept from the Smart Exchange lesson “The Road to Revolution” at http:// exchange.smarttech.com.

T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E G R A T I O N

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CHAPTER 5 | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching—Beyond the Basics | 143

USING MATERIALS GENERATORS Materials generators include desktop publishing so�ware, Web page editors, whiteboard activity so�ware, worksheet and puzzle generators, IEP generators, graphic document makers, and PDF and forms makers. A summary of these, with sample products and classroom uses, is shown in Table 5.2. Also see here a summary of free so�ware tools in Open Source Options.

M i

for Tool Software Sites

TYPES FREE SOURCES

Materials generators

Scribus: scribus.net NVu Web design software: nvu.com Puzzle maker: discoveryeducation.com/ free- puzzlemaker/

PDFforge PDF maker: pdfforge.org PageBreeze forms maker: formbreeze.com

Data collection and analysis tools

Listing of free statistical software: freestatistics.info/en

Testing and grading tools

Gradebook (Engrade): engrade.com Test generator: mytest.vocabtest.com Rubric maker—RubiStar (use program to create a rubric or use pre- made rubrics): rubistar.4teachers.org

Graphics tools Inkscape graphics editor: inkscape.org Tux Paint drawing software for kids: tuxpaint.org Gimp image editing software: gimp.org Charting/graphing tools: educational- freeware.com

Sounds/ Sourceforge font collections: sourceforge.net/projects/worldfonts Open font library: launchpad.net/openfontlibrary Free animations: free- animations.co.uk

Planning and organizing tools

OpenSIS student information system: opensis.com SchoolForge SIS: schoolforge.net Parent– teacher conference scheduler: ptcfast.com

Research and reference tools

GoldenDict: goldendict.org/ Lingoes: lingoes.net/ Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org

Content- area tools Archimedes CAD system: archimedes.codeplex.com Audacity sound editor software: audacity.sourceforge.net Music Editor Free: music- editor.net Free online readability calculators: readabilityformulas.com/ free- readability- calculators.php Online graphing calculator: coolmath.com/graphit GPS education resources: gpseducationresource.com

maps- data/data/ tiger.html

translate.google.com/

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The following questions may be used either for in-class, small- group discussions or may initiate

discussions in blogs or online discussion boards:

1. Visit the Common Sense Media website and review its Digital Citizenship Curriculum (under the Education menu button). How could a grasp of these skills and attitudes help young people in learning and in their social contacts with other students?

2. In his 2012 editorial “Will MOOCs Destroy Academia?” from the Communications of the ACM, Vardi the very value of college education is

being seriously questioned” (p. 5). What evidence can you cite to support or refute the idea that MOOCs will threaten education as we know it? Will it have any impact on K– 12 schools?

3. Gene Glass, originator of meta- analysis techniques, said, “Experienced education leaders worry that only

a fool believes everything that can be gained from face-to-face teaching and learning also can be acquired online” (2010, p. 34). Give examples from research and practice to support or refute Glass’s analysis.

4. Go to Edutopia’s website and do the following two activities:

technology- based strategies and of using technology to teach your subject.

b. Also at the Edutopia website, click on the Video tab to access the video collection. In the Search by Topic window, use the menu to browse videos by topic, and select Technology Integration. Watch one of the videos. (i) Which of the perspectives that shaped educational technology is evident in the video? (ii) Refer to Figure 1.7 in the text, and list elements that show which reasons the technology in the video is being used.

5. Educational technology historian Paul Saettler (1990) said, “Computer information systems are not just objective recording devices. They also re�ect concepts, hopes, beliefs, attitudes” (p. 539). Contrast the concepts, hopes, beliefs, and attitudes that our past versus current uses of technology in education re�ect.

6. Richard Clark’s now- famous comment about the impact of computers on learning was that the best current evidence is that media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not in�uence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes change in our nutrition (Clark, 1983, p. 445). Why has this statement had such a dramatic (and, in some cases, emotional) impact on educational technology practitioners? What evidence could you cite to respond to it?

7. In their study of students’ reasons for online plagiarism, Comas- Forgas and Sureda- Negre (2010) found that some students say it “is easier, simpler and more comfortable than doing the work yourself” (p. 223). Can you suggest arguments that would help persuade students that online plagiarism, while easy and quick, is not in their best interests?

Summary The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter.

1. Introduction: The “Big Picture” on Technology in Education • -

to the future.

• - cations media (originally represented by AECT); educational technology as instructional systems and instructional design (originally represented by ISPI); educational technology as vocational training

1Chapter

28 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

COLLABORATE, DISCUSS, REFLECT

Monkey Business/Fotolia

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◀ Summaries at the end of each chapter tie back to the learning outcomes and act as study aids by summarizing and reviewing critical chapter content.

▲ Open Source Options are free resources that help teachers stretch their limited budgets for educational materials.

Technology Integration Examples (TIEs) ▶ located in Chapters 3 through 15 offer numerous

technology lesson ideas that can be incorporated into lesson planning across the curriculum. Each

lesson suggestion is correlated to the ISTE National Educational Technology Standards for Students (ISTE

Standards•S) and Common Core State Standards.

xxiv | PREFACE

◀ Collaborate, Discuss, Reflect features provide students with questions they can use either for in- class, small-group discussions or to initiate discussions in blogs or online discussion boards.

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http://exchange.smarttech.com

Helps Your Students Practice Technology Integration

CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 71

1. APPLY WHAT YOU LEARNED To apply the concepts and skills you’ve read about throughout this chapter, go to the Chapter 2 Technology Application Activity.

2. TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION LESSON PLANNING: PART 1—EVALUATING AND CREATING LESSON PLANS

Complete the following exercise using the sample lesson plans found on any lesson planning site that you �nd on the Internet.

a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the tools or strategies you learned about in this chapter. For example, select those that re�ect:

• Directed integration strategies • Constructivist integration strategies • Integration strategies useful to support with directed or constructivist approaches

b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist to evaluate each of the lessons you found.

c. Create your own lesson—After you have reviewed and evaluated some sample lessons, cre- ate one of your own using a lesson plan format of your choice (or one your instructor gives you). Be sure the lesson focuses on one of the strategies discussed in this chapter.

3. TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION LESSON PLANNING: PART 2—IMPLEMENTING THE TIP MODEL

Review how to implement the TIP Model in your classroom by doing the following activities with the lesson you created in the Technology Integration Lesson Planning exercise above.

a. Describe the Phase 1—Planning activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • Do you have resources and skills you need to carry it out?

b. Describe the Phase 2—Implementation activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • How will you assess your students’ accomplishment of the objectives? • What integration strategies are used in this lesson plan? • How would you prepare the learning environment?

c. Describe the Phase 3—Evaluation/Revision activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom: What strategies and/or instruments would you use to evaluate the success of this lesson in your classroom, in order to determine revision needs?

d. Add lesson descriptors—Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, NETS standards, 21st Century Learning standards).

e. Save your new lesson—Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP Model notes.

4. FOR YOUR TEACHING PORTFOLIO

• Lesson plan evaluations, lesson plans and products you created above • Products of your group’s Hot Topic Debates •

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

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◀ A Technology Integration Workshop, located at the end of every chapter, includes hands-on, interactive activities that connect chapter content to real-life practice. Each Workshop contains the following:

• Technology Integration Lesson Planning exercises, which provide students the opportunity and resources to evaluate a set of technology integration lessons and to modify or create their own lesson plans to meet their classroom needs.

• An Implementing the TIP Model activity, which asks teachers to show how they would implement the TIP Model in their classrooms by doing activities with the lesson(s) they created in the Technology Integration Lesson Planning exercise.

• For Your Teaching Portfolio feature, which directs students to save the material they created in each chapter in a personal portfolio.

PREFACE | xxv

new inTeRaCTiVe eTexT feaTuRes! An all-new Pearson eText version includes the following interactive features in each chapter:

CHAPTER 4 | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching—The Basic Suite | 109

CHAPTER 4 BIG IDEAS OVERVIEW Before you begin reading the rest of this chapter, listen to the Chapter 4 Big Ideas Overview. It will give you a two-minute audio overview of main concepts to look for and help prepare you to work through information and exercises to achieve this chapter’s outcomes.

INTRODu CTION TO THE BASIC SOFTwARE TOOL Su ITE

In education and, indeed, in most other areas of modern society, three of the most widely used so�ware support tools are word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation programs. Word processing so�ware allows production and revision of text- based information but also allows adding many kinds of graphic elements to text products. Spreadsheets are programs designed to allow storage of numerical data by row– column positions and enable calculations and other manipulations of the data. Presentation so�ware is a program that enables both text and graph- ical information to be organized and displayed as a set of slides. For many professionals in education and other �elds, these tools have become an indispensable part of their daily work. �ey are frequently sold as so�ware suites, separate tool programs placed in the same package and designed to work well together. Teachers choose them not only because they have qualities that aid classroom instruction and help make classroom time more productive, but also because they give students experience with 21st- century tools that they will see again and again in their workplaces.

Why Use Software Tools? Depending on the capabilities of the tool and the needs of the situation, these programs can o�er several bene�ts:

• Improved productivity—Getting organized, producing instructional materials, and accom- plishing paperwork tasks all go much faster when so�ware tools are used. Using a technol- ogy tool to do these tasks can free up valuable time that can be rechanneled toward working with students or designing learning activities.

• Improved appearance—So�ware tools help teachers and students produce polished- looking materials that resemble the work of professional designers. �e quality of class- room products is limited only by the talents and skills of the teachers and students using the tools. Students appreciate receiving attractive- looking materials and �nd it rewarding and challenging to produce handsome products of their own.

• Improved accuracy—So�ware tools make it easier to keep precise, accurate records of events and student accomplishments. More accurate information can support better instructional decisions about curriculum and student activities.

• More support for interaction and collaboration—So�ware tools have capabilities that promote interaction and collaboration among students, allowing input from several people at once. �ese qualities can encourage creative, cooperative group- learning activities. (For hints on making sure these powerful tools are available to all students, see the Adapting for Special Needs feature.)

Overview of Uses for the “Basic Three” Software Tools Since the early days of microcomputers, word processing and spreadsheet programs have served as two of the most basic components in the teacher’s “technology toolkit.” Database so�ware , a program that allows information to be collected and organized to allow easy retrieval through keyword searching, used to be one of the basic programs. �ough still used in education and elsewhere, it is not typically used as part of the basic suite anymore. Instead,

M04_ROBL2799_07_SE_C04.indd 109 10/30/14 7:55 PM

author-recorded BIG IDEAS OVERVIEW (BIO) on main chapter

concepts and points to guide reading. ▶

CHAPTER 8 | Online Models, Courses, and Programs | 251

Best practices for virtual schools. Studies con�rm that high interaction is an essential ingredient for virtual school success. A study examining a statewide virtual high school conducted by Oliver, Osborne, Patel, and Kleiman (2009) indicated that online students value high levels of interaction and feedback from teachers, content delivered in multiple modali- ties, and a mix of opportunities to communicate both synchronously and asynchronously with others. An in-depth study of K– 12 virtual school teachers’ beliefs and practices conducted by DiPietro (2010) indicated that increased interaction with the teacher and others leads to increased perceptions of students’ engagement with the content, and ultimately, a more positive learning experience. Clearly, to maintain and support the motivation necessary for success in distance learning courses, teachers must build in and maintain high levels of interaction with students.

Finally, virtual schools have begun to recognize the potential for social isolation due to online learning. Consequently, they have begun adding face-to-face experiences to address the need for socialization in young people (Davis, 2011).

K– 12 online courses and programs have been found to meet a need for students who wish to study advanced levels of content (e.g., Advanced Placement or AP courses) and special topic courses (e.g., Russian or Chinese languages) that are not available to many schools because they cannot afford teachers for the relatively few who want to take these courses. At the same time, studies have found that students in at least one large virtual school were more likely to be white and from wealthier families and much less likely to

virtual schools are widening, rather than addressing, the digital divide. What can be done to alleviate such a problem?

Hot Topic Debate Are Virtual Schools Widening the Digital Divide?

TECHNOLOGY LEARNING CHECK Complete TLC 8.5 to review what you have learned from reading this section about virtual schools and virtual diploma programs.

VIRTUAL REALITY ENVIRONMENTS �e potential of virtual reality (VR) systems to make cyberspace seem real has been talked about since William Gibson’s 1984 novel, Neuromancer, in which people used avatars, or graphic icons, to represent themselves in virtual environments. Until recently, however, that potential has been tapped more for video games than for education. �at is changing as better, more use- ful educational tools become available. �ree types of environments are described here, along with integration strategies for them. Also, a sample of these virtual tools is shown in the Top Ten Virtual Education Environments.

Types of Virtual Reality Environments �ree types of virtual reality (VR) environments are described here: full immersion environ- ments, multi- user virtual environments (MUVE), screen- based VR, and 3-D models. Only the latter three have seen much use in schools.

�

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◀ Top Ten (in Chapters 1, 3–8) pop up features highlight and describe the best software features, uses, and strategies for teachers to apply.

356 | PART II | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION

Music and technology have always had a unique relationship. �roughout the history of music, technological tools have been developed that a�ord musicians, teachers, and students the opportunity to experience music through creating, performing, and responding to it. However, there are several issues and challenges related to music education in general, as well as the use of technology in the classroom for teaching music. �ese issues and challenges are explored in this section.

A Changing Definition for Music Literacy In music education, the term music literacy usually means an ability to read standard music notation. But the computer enables—if not encourages—experimentation with alternative ways to represent music. �e earliest music sequencers, even those with notation capability, have always included a “graphic” or “matrix” editor, a window in which the user could edit music by dragging, deleting, or expanding small rectangles on a grid. Touchscreen interfaces such as those found on tablets have also led to apps that use similar drawing metaphors for creating music. �ese include apps such as Beatwave, Kaossilator, and Musyc, among others. See a list of the Top Ten Must- have Apps for Music.

Today, the desktop music production so�ware industry is helping accelerate a trend away from reliance on printed sheets and toward an audio artifact. �is means that many students who are discouraged by a requirement to learn notation- based theory can now participate in the school music program as both composers and performers without solely relying on stan- dard notation to perform or compose music. Electronically- produced music is also playing an increasing role in in music production, as noted in the Hot Topic Debate. When the de�nition of music literacy is expanded to include nontraditional performance and composition, music education may be more accessible for the approximately 80% of American high school students who do not participate in band, orchestra or chorus activities (Dammers, 2010, 2012).

Training Teachers to Meet Music Standards Until states begin requiring that teacher candidates demonstrate pro�ciency with technology, teacher preparation programs will have a di�cult time making a case for including required technology courses in music curricula. Such programs, already overloaded with content, would be reluctant to displace a more traditional course with one whose skills remain in the “optional” category with respect to licensure. Still, most teacher training programs in music include experi- ences with technology, if not as a full class then as a strand of components in other classes.

Hot Topic Debate Can an Electronic Music Ensemble Supplant a Traditional One?

Many schools, including some that do not offer traditional ensem- bles, are starting to organize groups of students to play electronic

instruments. These ensembles may not include any instruments that could be considered traditional; they instead use iPads, lap- tops, and other kinds of technological devices to produce sound. Electronic ensembles also might not perform in public. Do these types of ensembles have a place in the school music program? Can these ensemble experiences help students to develop musi- cianship? What should be the role of the teacher in an electronic ensemble, especially if the music is largely improvised?

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Top Ten Must-Have Apps (in Chapters 9–15) present apps that are widely used in society, and examples help educators see the role these tools

are beginning to play in education. ▶

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suPPoRT MaTeRials foR insTRuCToRs The following resources are available for instructors to download on www.pearsonhighered .com/educators. Instructors enter the author or title of this book, select this particular edition of the book, and then click on the “Resources” tab to log in and download textbook supplements.

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank (0133955389) The Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank includes a wealth of interesting ideas and ac- tivities designed to help instructors teach the course. Each chapter contains learning outcomes, key terms, key concepts, and group activities, as well as a comprehensive test bank containing multiple choice, short answer and essay questions.

◀ Links to video illustrations and commentaries from practitioners in the field.

88 | PART II | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching

Simulations That Teach How to Do Something Alessi and Trollip (2001) divide the “how to” simulations into procedural and situational types. Again, these categories are based on how users are able to interact with them.

• Procedural simulations. �ese activities teach the appropriate sequences of steps to per- form certain procedures. �ey include diagnostic programs, in which students try to iden-

tify the sources of medical or mechanical problems, and �ight simulators, in which students simulate piloting an airplane or other vehicle.

• Situational simulations. �ese programs give students hypothetical prob- lem situations and ask them to react. Some simulations allow for various suc- cessful strategies, such as letting students play the stock market or operate businesses. Others have most desirable and least desirable options, such as choices when encountering a potentially volatile classroom situation.

�e descriptions above clarify the various forms a simulation might take, but teachers need not feel they should be able to classify a given simulation into one of these categories. Simulations usually emphasize learning about the system itself rather than learning general problem- solving strategies. For example, a program called �e Factory has students build products by select- ing machines and placing them in the correct sequence. Since the program emphasizes solving problems in correct sequence rather than manufactur- ing in factories, it should probably be called a problem- solving activity rather

than a simulation. Programs such as City Creator, which let students design their own cities, provide more accurate examples of building- type simulations.

Selecting Good Simulation Software Simulations vary so much in type and purpose that a uniform set of criteria is not possible. For some simulations, a realistic and accurate representation of a system is essential, but for others, it is impor- tant only to know what screen elements represent. Since the screen o�en presents no set sequence of steps, simulations need good accompanying documentation—more than most so�ware. �ese help the teacher more quickly learn how to use the program and show the students how to use it. See Figure 3.3 for examples of simulation so�ware and a summary of simulation features.

Bene�ts of Simulations Simulations are more prevalent in science than any other area (Brunsell, & Horejsi, 2012; Eskrootchi & Oskrochi, 2010; Evagoroua, Nicolaoub, & Constantinoub, 2010; Jaakkola & Nurmi, 2008; Lalley, Piotrowski, Battaglia, Brophy, & Chugh, 2010; Urban- Woldron, 2009), but they are also popular in teaching social science topics (Bartels, McCown, & Wilkie, 2013; Iannou, Brown, Hanna�n, & Boyer, 2009). Simulations are currently available in other content areas; nearly all are now able to be accessed online. Some updated products combine the control, safety, and interactive features of computer simulations with the visual impact of pictures of real- life devices and processes.

Research comparing simulations to “real” activities o�en qualify the bene�ts they report by saying that the impact of simulations depends on how and with whom they are used. For example, in a study of a simulation of environmental concepts, Eskrootchi and Oskrochi (2010) report that, “Simulations do not work on their own; there needs to be some structuring of the students’ interactions with the simulation to increase e�ectiveness” (p. 236). Gelbart, Brill, and Yarden (2009) found that some students learn more than others from simulations designed to teach genetics concepts. Research on teaching “systems thinking” skills to elementary school students by using environmental simulations (Evagoroua, Nicolaoub, & Constantinoub, 2010) reported good impact on some skills but not others. One common �nding is that simulations work best when combined with nonsimulation activities. Urban- Woldron (2009) found that physics simulations were most useful as a follow-up to hands-on activities, and Jaakkola and Nurmi (2008) reported that simulations in electrical concepts had more positive bene�ts with elementary school children when accompanied by hands-on learning.

However, other studies report unquali�ed positive results from simulations. Lalley et al. (2010) compared the e�ectiveness of simulated and physical frog dissections on learning,

Simulated Virtual Science Lab

In this video, listen to this principal describe how a biology teacher uses a simulated lab to supplement regular labs. What are some of the ways these simulations can be better than the in-person ones?

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Interactive Technology Learning Checks (TLCs) at the end of each major section matched to each chapter learning outcome. These help readers apply the concepts and ensure that they master each chapter outcome. ▶

54 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

environments for getting students to think about how they think and for o�er- ing opportunities to challenge their creativity and problem- solving abilities.

Integration to help build mental models and increase knowledge transfer. �e problem of inert knowledge is believed to arise when students learn skills in isolation from problem applications. When students later encounter problems that require the skills, they do not realize how the skills could be relevant. Problem- solving materi- als in highly visual formats allow students to build rich mental models of problems to be solved. For example, visual information allows users to easily recognize patterns. Students need not depend on reading skills, which may be de�cient, to build these mental models. �us, supporters hypothesize that teaching skills in these highly visual, problem- solving environments helps ensure that knowledge will transfer to higher order skills. �ese technology- based methods are especially desirable for teach- ers who work with students in areas such as mathematics and science, where concepts are abstract and complex and where inert knowledge is frequently a problem.

Integration to foster group cooperation skills. One skill area currently identi�ed as an important focus for schools’ e�orts to restruc- ture curriculum is the ability to work cooperatively in a group to solve prob- lems and develop products (Lynch, Lynch, & Bolyard, 2013; Schul, 2011; Wirth, 2013). Although schools certainly can teach cooperative work with- out technology resources, a growing body of evidence documents students’

appreciation of cooperative work as both more motivating and easier to accomplish when it uses technology (Chin, 2013; Vargas, 2013).

Integration to allow for multiple and distributed intelligences. Integration strategies with group cooperative activities also give teachers a way to allow students of widely varying abilities to make valuable contributions on their own terms. Since each student is seen as an important member of the group in these activities, the activities themselves are viewed as problems for group—rather than individual—solution. �is strategy has implications for enhancing students’ self- esteem and for increasing their willingness to spend more time on learning tasks. It also allows students to see that they can help each other accomplish tasks and can learn from each other, as well as from the teacher or from media.

A TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION PLANNING (TIP) MODEL FOR TEACHERS

�is section introduces a model to help teachers—especially those new to technology use— understand how to integrate technology into their teaching. Now that you know the general cat- egories of technology integration strategies and the learning theories that gave rise to them, let’s turn to how to make the strategies work in practice. Any well- designed lesson takes planning. �e Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model, shown in Figure 2.16, is a problem- solving model that is useful when teachers are faced with selecting best strategies and materials, and they decide that they would like to try digital technologies to meet their needs.

Each step in the model’s three broad phases helps ensure that technology use will be mean- ingful, e�cient, and successful in meeting needs. Teachers experienced in using technology

▲ Technology integration strategies support a variety of teaching and learning needs, including fostering group cooperation skills. (Photo courtesy

TECHNOLOGY LEARNING CHECK Complete TLC 2.5 to review what you have learned from reading this section about technology integration strategies based on both models.

M02_ROBL2799_07_SE_C02.indd 54 10/30/14 5:17 PM

end-of-chapter Technology integration workshops

now include: Technology Application Activities

and Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation

Checklists ▶

230 | PART II | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching

1. APPLY WHAT YOU LEARNED To apply the concepts and skills you’ve read about throughout this chapter, go to the Chapter 7 Technology Application Activity.

2. TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION LESSON PLANNING: PART 1—EVALUATING AND CREATING LESSON PLANS

Complete the following exercise using the sample lesson plans found on any lesson planning site that you �nd on the Internet.

a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the tools or strategies you learned about in this chapter. For example:

• Web- based lessons and projects • Podcasts and vodcasts • Flipped classroom and other blended models

b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist to evaluate each of the lessons you found.

c. Create your own lesson—After you have reviewed and evaluated some sample lessons, create one of your own using a lesson plan format of your choice (or one your instructor gives you). Be sure the lesson focuses on one of the technologies or strategies discussed in this chapter.

3. TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION LESSON PLANNING: PART 2—IMPLEMENTING THE TIP MODEL

Review how to implement the TIP model in your classroom by doing the following activities with the lesson you created in the Technology Integration Lesson Planning exercise above.

a. Describe the Phase 1—Planning activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • Do you have resources and skills you need to carry it out?

b. Describe the Phase 2—Implementation activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

d. Add lesson descriptors—Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, NETS standards, 21st Century Learning standards).

e. Save your new lesson—Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP model notes.

4. FOR YOUR TEACHING PORTFOLIO Add the following to your Teaching Portfolio:

• Lesson plan evaluations, lesson plans, and products you created above • Products of your group’s Hot Topic Debates • Products of your group’s Collaborate, Discuss, Re�ect online or in-class activities

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

M07_ROBL2799_07_SE_C07.indd 230 11/4/14 2:33 PM xxvi | PREFACE

A01_ROBL2799_07_SE_FM.indd 26 11/16/14 12:55 PM

www.pearsonhighered.com/educators

PowerPoint Slides (0133971988) Designed for teachers using the text, the PowerPoint™ Presentation consists of a series of slides that can be shown as is or used to make handouts or overhead transparencies. The presentation highlights key concepts and major topics for each chapter.

TestGen (0133944859) TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. You install TestGen on your personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material.

The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:

• TestGen Testbank file—PC

• TestGen Testbank file—MAC

• TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF

• TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF

• Angel Test Bank (zip)

• D2L Test Bank (zip)

• Moodle Test Bank

• Sakai Test Bank (zip)

aCknowledgMenTs Both the goal and challenge of this book have been to provide the reader with the most up-to- date, yet foundational, theory, research, and practices in educational technology across the dis- ciplines. I believe this goal has been achieved. As in any project, realizing this goal would not have been possible without the assistance of numerous individuals who helped sharpen the fo- cus of this edition. These individuals include the reviewers for this edition: Li-Ling Chen, California State University at East Bay; Mary Jo Dondlinger, Texas A&M University, Commerce; Lynne M. Pachnowski, University of Akron; Karen M. McFerrin, Ed.D., Northwestern State University; Kevin Oliver, North Carolina State University.

Very special, heartfelt thanks go out to the school principals who agreed to share on video their invaluable perspectives on how current technologies are being used in their schools: Dr. Tony Donen, principal at the STEM School Chattanooga; Ms. Tammy Helton, Principal at East Ridge High School in Chattanooga; and Dr. Sonja Rich, Principal at the Hamilton County Virtual School. I learned so much from each of you! Thanks also to my two “in-house pho- tographers,” Bill Wiencke and Paige Wiencke, for all your work to capture the essence of this edition with their photos; and to the students at East Ridge High School and Dalewood Middle School in Chattanooga, who served as our model technology users. We appreciated the special assistance of Talley Caldwell and principal Christian Earl to make possible photos at Dalewood Middle School. Thanks also go out to Stacey Hill of the STEM School Chattanooga for her informed—and quick—work with CCSS labels.

PREFACE | xxvii

A01_ROBL2799_07_SE_FM.indd 27 11/16/14 12:55 PM

Chapter 9 Teaching and Learning with Technology in English and Language Arts

Joan E. Hughes, Professor University of Texas, Austin College of Education

Chapter 13 Teaching and Learning with Technol- ogy in Music and Art

Jay Dorfman, Assistant Professor Boston University College of Fine Arts

Chapter 10 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Foreign and Second Languages

Phillip Hubbard, Director, English for Foreign Students Stanford University School of Humanities and Sciences

Chapter 14 Teaching and Learning with Technol- ogy in Health and Physical Education

Derrick Mears, Program Coordinator, Ed.S. in Curriculum and Instruction University of Arkansas College of Education

Chapter 11 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Mathematics and Science

Maggie Niess, Professor Emeritus Oregon State University College of Education

Chapter 15 Teaching and Learning with Technol- ogy in Special Education and Adapting for Special Needs features

Dave Edyburn, Professor University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee School of Education

Chapter 12 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Social Studies

Michael J. Berson, Professor University of South Florida College of Education

And finally, the incredible support from the Pearson Education staff is impossible to measure. I could not have survived the massive amount of revision work and logistical challenges of this edi- tion if it were not for the clear vision, high expertise, and caring support of our Senior Development Editor, Max Chuck. Max, you’re still the best! I would also like to recognize the rest of the editorial and production team—Senior Acquisitions Editor, Meredith Fossel; Editorial Assistant, Maria Feliberty; Executive Field Marketer, Krista Clark; Senior Marketing Manager, Christopher Barry; Program Managers Janet Domingo and Karen Mason; Project Managers, Cynthia DeRocco and Jessica Sykes; Media Producer, Allison Longley; and Art Director, Diane Lorenzo—who made this version of the book useful, attractive, and meaningful. Thank you for your indispensable contributions to this text.

I would like to recognize the enduring love and patience of my family, Bill and Paige Wiencke, and the tenacious loyalty of all our friends in various parts of our global village. Also, I would like to continue to remember and acknowledge the incalculable contributions of those who are with us now only in memory: parents Servatius L. and P. Catherine Roblyer and Raymond and Marjorie Wiencke, and mentor and friend FJ King. Finally, I would like to acknowledge all the educators whose perseverance and commitment to their students remains a constant we can count on as we face the challenges of technological change.

—M. D. Roblyer xxviii | PREFACE

I would also like to thank Aaron Doering, who contributed to the last two editions, and to our contributors for the current edition who include the following:

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After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to:

1. Analyze how the following work together to shape today’s educational technology events and trends in schools: (a) different groups’ historical perspectives on educational technology; and (b) current definitions for educational technology, instructional technology, and integrating educational technology. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

2. Identify periods in the history of digital technologies, and describe what we have learned from this history that can help us use educational technology effectively today. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

3. Place a given educational technology resource in one of the general hardware categories (microcomputer, handheld, display, imaging, peripheral, or external storage), software categories (instructional, productivity, and administrative), or media (e.g., flash drive, CD, DVD). (ISTE Standards•T 4, 5)

4. Identify and analyze the impact of societal, educational, cultural/equity, and legal/ethical issues on current uses of technology in education. (ISTE Standards•T 4, 5)

5. Identify examples of technology literacy and other 21st- century skills that teachers and their students need in order to be prepared for future learning and the world of work, and select a teaching portfolio format from available technology- based platforms to document your accomplishment of these skills and Tech- PACK growth. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

6. Generate a personal rationale for using technology in teaching based on research findings, popular teaching practices, and types of problems that technology applications can solve. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

7. Identify trends in emerging technologies and describe how they shape trends in teaching and learning. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

Learning Outcomes

Educational Technology in Context T h e B i g P i c T u r e

Vladgrin/Shutterstock

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Then . . . Anna was almost as proud of her new classroom computers as she was of her new teaching degree. She had high hopes for the 1980– 1981 school year in her first teaching position, especially since the principal had asked her if she could use two brand- new Apple computer systems that had been donated to the school. As a student teacher, she had helped children use computer- assisted instruction (CAI) on terminals that were located in the school’s computer lab and connected by telephone lines to her university’s big mainframe computer, but this would be much different. Now the computers would be located right in her classroom, and how she used them would be completely up to her. With her new skills and these marvelous devices at her disposal, she felt a heady sense of power and anticipation.

She found some shareware and other free drill- and- practice and instructional game software packages, and successfully lobbied the principal to buy others. She planned to buy yet more with money she would raise from bake sales. All the students wanted to use the computers, but with only two machines, Anna quickly devised activities that allowed everyone to have a turn. She had relay- race math practices to help students prepare for tests, and she created a computer workstation where they could play math games as a reward for completing other activities and where she could send students in pairs to practice basic skills.

As Anna used her new computers, she coped with a variety of technical problems. Some of the soft- ware was designed for an earlier version of the Apple operating system, and each disk required a format adjustment every time it was used. Programs would stall when students entered something the program- mers had not anticipated; students had to either adjust the code or restart the programs. Despite these and other difficulties, by the end of the year Anna was still enthusiastic about her hopes, plans, and expecta- tions. She felt she had seen a glimpse of a time when computers would be an integral part of everyday teaching activities. She planned to be ready for the future.

now . . . As she prepared to begin another school year, Anna found it difficult to believe it had been over 35 years since that first pioneering work with her Apple microcomputers. This school year, she had received a set of tablet computers, part of the district’s one child- one computer initiative, and an interactive whiteboard, a device that would allow her to project information from a computer to a screen and then manipulate it either with special pens or hands. The school district had offered these tools to any teachers who proposed innovative ways to engage girls and minority students in math and science projects. With these devices, it would be so much easier for her students to access online math manipulatives and science simulations and collaborate with students in other locations. Her class’s favorite activity this year was working with students around the state to gather and compare data on local environmental conditions, but they also liked the spreadsheet software’s “Buy a Car” activity.

Anna also marveled at how most other teachers in the school were using technology in productive ways. Everyone communicated via email or online chats, and many, like herself, had their own, school- approved social network site so that students and parents could get up-to-date information on school and classroom activities. Students were using

graphing calculators to solve problems, and they used online programs to practice foreign languages. She often heard them talking about webquests and virtual field trips they were doing in science and social studies. A video project to interview war veterans had drawn a lot of local attention, and the student projects displayed on school bulletin boards were ablaze with screen captures from websites and images students had taken with digital cameras.

There were still problems, of course. Computer viruses and spam sometimes slowed the district’s network, and the firewall that had been put in place to prevent students from accessing undesirable Internet sites also prevented access to many other, perfectly good sites. Teachers reported intermittent problems with online bullying and inappropriate postings on social network sites, despite the schools Acceptable Use Policies. Some teachers complained that they had no time for innovative technology- based projects because they were too busy preparing students for the new state and national tests that would determine their schools’ ratings and their own teacher effect scores.

Technology InTegraTIon In acTIon: Then and now

2 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 3

Yet despite these concerns, Anna was amazed at how far educational technology had come from those first, hesitant steps in the classroom, and how much more there still was to try. She knew other teachers her age who had retired, but she was too interested in what she was doing to think about that. She was helping with a virtual program for homebound students and leading a funded project to develop curricula for the district’s social media. Not a day went by that a teacher didn’t come to her for help with a new project. She couldn’t wait to see what challenges lay ahead. She looked forward to the future.

CHAPTER 1 BIg IdeAs OvervIew Before you begin reading the rest of this chapter, listen to the Chapter 1 Big Ideas Overview. It will give you a two-minute audio overview of main concepts to look for and help prepare you to work through information and exercises to achieve this chapter’s outcomes.

IntrOduCtIOn: the “BIg PICture” On teChnOlOgy In eduCAtIOn

Today’s educators tend to think of educational or instructional technology as devices or equipment—particularly the more modern, digital devices, such as computers, cell phones, and tablets. But educational technology is not new at all, and it is by no means limited to the use of devices. Modern tools and techniques are simply the latest developments in a field that is as old as education itself. This chapter begins our exploration of educational technology with an overview of the field, from the early perspectives that shaped and defined it to the tools and conditions that determine the role it is able to play in today’s society.

Why We Need the “Big Picture” The “big picture” review in this section serves an important purpose: It helps new learners develop mental pictures of the field, what Ausubel (1968) might call cognitive frameworks, through which to view all applications and consider best courses of action. This framework takes the following form.

• Key terminology. Talking about a topic requires knowing the vocabulary relevant to that topic. Educators who want to study the field must recognize that language used to describe technology reflects differing perspectives on the appropriate uses of educational technology.

• Reflecting on the past. Showing where the field began helps us understand where it is headed and why. Reflecting on changes in goals and methods in the field over time casts new light on the challenges and opportunities of today’s technologies.

• Considering the present. The current role of educational technology is shaped primarily by two factors: available technology resources and our perspectives on how to use them. Available technologies dictate what is possible; a combination of social, instructional, cul- tural, and legal issues influence the directions we choose to take.

• Looking ahead to the future. Technology resources and societal conditions change so rap- idly that today’s choices are always influenced as much by emerging trends as by current conditions. To be informed citizens of an information society, teachers must be futurists.

Perspectives That Define Educational Technology Saettler (1990) says that the earliest references to the term educational technology were by radio instruction pioneer W. W. Charters in 1948, and instructional technology was first used by audiovisual expert James Finn in 1963. Even in those early days, definitions of these terms focused on more than just devices and materials. Saettler notes that the 1970 Commission on

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4 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Instructional Technology defined educational technology as both “the media born of the com- munication revolution which can be used for instructional purposes” (p. 6) and “a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching” (p. 6). As the 1970 commission concluded, a broader definition of educational technology that encompasses both tools and processes “belongs to the future” (Saettler, 1990, p. 6).

If educational technology is viewed as both processes and tools, it is important to begin by examining four different historical perspectives on these processes and tools, all of which have helped shape current practices in the field. These influences come to us from four areas of edu- cation and society, each with a unique outlook on what technology in education is and should be. Some of these views have merged over time, but each retains a focus that tends to shape inte- gration practices. These four views and professional organizations that have represented them are summarized in Table 1.1.

Perspective #1: Educational technology as communications media. This perspective grew out of the audiovisual (AV) movement in the 1930s, when higher education instructors proposed that media such as slides and films delivered information in more con- crete, and, therefore, more effective, ways than did lectures and books. This movement produced audiovisual communications, or the “branch of educational theory and practice concerned pri- marily with the design and use of messages that control the learning process” (Saettler, 1990, p. 9). The view of educational technology as delivery media has dominated areas of education and the communications industry.

Perspective #2: Educational technology as instructional systems and instructional design. This view originated with post– World War II military and indus- trial trainers who were faced with preparing large numbers of personnel quickly. Based on effi- ciency studies and learning theories from educational psychology, they advocated using more planned, systematic approaches to developing uniform, effective materials and training proce- dures. Their view was based on the belief that both human (teachers) and nonhuman (media) resources could be part of an efficient system for addressing any instructional need. Therefore, they equated “educational technology” with “educational problem solutions.” This perspec- tive has evolved into human performance technology or a systematic approach to improving human productivity and competence by using strategies for solving problems.

Perspective #3: Educational technology as vocational training. Also known as technology education, this perspective originated with industry trainers and voca- tional educators in the 1980s. They believed (1) that an important function of school learning

TaBlE 1.1 Organizations with Various Perspectives on Technology in education Association for educational

Communications and

technology (AeCt)

International technology and

engineering educators

Association (IteeA)

International society for

Performance Improvement

(IsPI)

International society

for technology in education

(Iste)

Perspectives on technology in education and training

Initial focus: Audio- visual (AV) devices and media

Now: Using any resources to improve teaching and learning

Initial focus: Manufacturing and materials skills

Now: STEM education and careers

Initial focus: Information concerned with programmed instruction Now: Improving human performance

Initial focus: Computer systems

Now: Digital devices and systems

Current definitions for technology in education/training

Educational technology is facilitating learning and improving performance by creating and using technological processes and resources.

Technology education is problem- based learning using STEM principles.

Human performance technology is a systematic approach to improving productivity and competence.

Educational technology is the full range of digital hardware used to support teaching and learning.

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 5

is to prepare students for the world of work in which they will use technology, and (2) that vocational training can be a practical means of teaching all content areas, such as math, science, and language. This view brought about a major paradigm shift in vocational training in K– 12 schools away from industrial arts curricula centered in woodworking/metals and graphics/ printing shops and toward technology education courses taught in labs equipped with technol- ogy stations, such as graphics production, robotics systems, and computer- aided design (CAD) software, a program used by architects and others to aid in the design of structures such as houses and cars.

Perspective #4: Educational technology as computer systems (a.k.a., educational and instructional computing). This view began in the 1950s with the advent of computers and gained momentum when they began to be used instructionally in the 1960s. As computers began to transform business and industry practices, both train- ers and teachers began to see that computers also had the potential to aid instruction. From the time computers came into classrooms in the 1960s until about 1990, this perspective was known as educational computing and encompassed both instructional and administrative sup- port applications.

At first, programmers and systems analysts created all applications. But by the 1970s, many of the same educators involved with media, AV communications, and instructional systems also were researching and developing computer applications. By the 1990s, educators began to see computers as part of a combination of technology resources, including media, instructional systems, and computer- based support systems. At that point, educational computing became known as educational technology.

How This Textbook Defines Technology in Education Each of these four perspectives on technology in education has contributed to the current body of knowledge about processes and tools to address educational needs. Since an informed use of educational technology must focus on all of these perspectives, this textbook attempts to merge them in the following ways:

• Processes—For the processes, or instructional procedures for applying tools, we look to (1) learning theories based on the sciences of human behavior, and (2) applications of technology that help prepare students for future jobs by teaching them skills in using current tools, as well as skills in “learning to learn” about tools of the future that have not yet been invented—or even imagined.

• Tools—This textbook looks at the roles technology tools play as delivery media, instructional systems, and technology support, and focuses primarily on those tools that play a current, high- profile role in furthering teaching and learning.

Figure 1.1 shows the framework in which to view these tools and processes. The terms shown in this figure have the following “evolving” definitions:

• Educational technology is a combination of the processes and tools involved in addressing educational needs and problems, with an emphasis on applying the most current digital and information tools.

• Integrating educational technology refers to the process of matching digital tools and methods to given educational needs and problems.

• Instructional technology is the subset of educational technology that deals directly with teaching and learning applications (rather than educational administrative ones).

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 1.1 to review what you have learned from reading this section about basic perspec- tives and definitions underlying technology integration.

Integrating educational te chn

olo gy

te gra

ting educational technology

Ed uc

ation al technology

Instructional technology

FigurE 1.1 A Framework for Viewing Educational Technology

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6 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

yesterdAy’s eduCAtIOnAl teChnOlOgy: hOw the PAst hAs shAPed the Present

Though a “technology” can be anything from a pencil to a virtual environment, the modern history of technology in education has been shaped in large part by developments in digital technologies, such as computers. The four eras in the history of digital technologies, shown in Figure 1.2, are described in this section, followed by a summary of what we have learned from the past that can help us become more effective technology users today.

PRE-MICROCOMPUTER ERA

1950 First computers used

for instruction: Computer-driven �ight simulator

trains MIT pilots

MICROCOMPUTER ERA INTERNET ERA

1959 First computer used with school children:

IBM 650 teaches binary arithmetic in

NYC

1960s University time-

sharing movement: Mainframes used for

programming and shared utilities

Early 1970s Computer-assisted

instruction (CAI) movement: Schools use university-based

mainframes/mini- computers

Mid-to-late 1970s Schools begin using

computers for instruction and administration:

CDC’s announces PLATO system

Late 1970s Arthur Luehrmann

coins term computer literacy ; Andrew

Molnar warns: non- computer-literate

students are at risk

1977 Microcomputers enter schools.

Teachers begin to control instructional

applications.

1980s Microcomputer

movements: software publishing, teacher authoring,

Logo problem solving

1980s–early 1990s ILS marks

movement to networks, away from desktop

systems

1993 World Wide Web

born: First browser (Mosaic) transforms Internet. Teachers enter Information

Superhighway

1994 Internet use

explodes; distance learning increases in

higher education

1995 Virtual schooling (online courses in

high school) begins

2001 Wikipedia begins;

crowdsourcing movement gains

momentum

2005 Social networking

sites such as Facebook are established

2006 Twitter established; social media enter

classrooms

2007 Amazon releases �rst Kindle ebook

reader)

2010 Apple releases �rst

iPad (handheld computer)

2010–2020 Mobile technologies spawn BYOD/BYOT movements; MOOCs

offer schools new access possibilities

MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES, SOCIAL MEDIA, AND OPEN ACCESS ERA

Pearson Education 4tomania/Fotolia

Arahan/Fotolia © Shutterstock Hackerkuper/Fotolia

Monkey Business/Fotolia MaverickLEE/Shutterstock MonkeyBusiness/Fotolia

Sophie Bluy/Pearson Education

Eimantas Buzas/ Shutterstock

Weerapat1003/Fotolia Courtesy of Wikipedia

John Foxx Collection/ Imagestate

Studio 8/Pearson Education

FigurE 1.2 Digital Technologies in Education: A Timeline of Events That Shaped the Field

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 7

Era 1: The Pre- Microcomputer Era Many of today’s teachers began using computer systems only since microcomputers came into common use, but a thriving educational computing culture predated microcomputers by 20 years. The first computers were used instructionally as early as the 1950s. In the late 1960s, IBM pioneered the IBM 1500, the first instructional mainframe, or large- scale computer with many users connected to it with terminals. On the IBM 1500, these terminals were multimedia learning stations capable of displaying animation and video. By the time IBM discontinued it in 1975, some 25 universities were using this system to develop computer- assisted instruction (CAI) materials that schools used via long- distance connections. CAI was software designed to help teach information and/or skills related to a topic. The most prominent of these efforts was led by Stanford University professor and “Grandfather of CAI” Patrick Suppes, who developed the Coursewriter programming language to create reading and mathematics lessons. Companies such as the Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC, founded by Suppes) and the Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) system (developed by the Control Data Corporation) dominated the field for about 15 years. Universities also developed CAI for these large- scale computers, as well as computer- managed instruction (CMI) applications, or pro- grams that kept track of students’ performance data based on mastery learning models. Even after smaller minicomputer systems, then a designation for systems smaller that mainframes that could support fewer users at a time, replaced mainframes to deliver CAI and CMI to schools, sys- tems were expensive to buy and complex to operate and maintain, so school district offices con- trolled their purchase and use. But by the late 1970s, it was apparent that there was little support for computer- based curriculum controlled by district data processing and industry personnel; schools began to reject the business office model of using computers to revolutionize instruction.

Era 2: The Microcomputer Era Integrated circuits made computers both smaller and more portable beginning in 1975, and teachers began to bring small, stand- alone, desktop computers called microcomputers, or systems designed for use by only one person at a time, into their classrooms. This grassroots movement wrested control of educational computers from companies, universities, and school districts and placed them directly into the hands of teachers and schools. Several initiatives emerged to shape this new teacher- centered control: a software publishing movement that catered to teachers quickly sprang up; organizations emerged to review software and help teach- ers select quality products; and professional organizations, journals, and magazines began to publish software reviews and recommend “top products.” Teachers clamored for more input into courseware design, so companies created authoring languages and systems (e.g., PILOT, SuperPILOT, GENIS, PASS). However, teacher authoring soon proved too time consuming, and interest faded. As schools searched for a way to make CAI more cost effective, districts began to purchase networked integrated learning systems (ILSs), or networked systems that provide both CAI- based curriculum and CMI functions, to help teachers address required standards. Control of instructional computer resources moved once again to central servers in school dis- trict offices. Three other technology initiatives also became prominent in this era:

• The computer literacy movement. When author and researcher Arthur Luehrmann coined the term computer literacy to mean required levels of skills in using the computer, schools tried to implement computer literacy curriculum. However, these efforts were eventually dropped due to difficulties in defining and measuring skills.

• Videodisc- based curriculum. Companies such as ABC News and the Optical Data Corporation joined forces to offer curriculum on videodiscs, both standalone (level 1) and connected to microcomputers (level 3). But, when other forms of optical and digital storage replaced videodisc technology, curricula were not transferred.

• The Logo movement. A final focus during this period was teaching Logo programming, a high- level language originally designed as an artificial intelligence (AI) language designed to emulate decision- making capabilities of the human mind, but used by Seymour Papert (1980) to support his view that computers should be used as an aid to teach problem solving.

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8 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Logo began to replace CAI as the “best use” of computer technology. Despite its popularity and research showing it could be useful in some contexts, researchers could capture no Logo impact on mathematics or other curriculum skills, and interest in Logo, too, waned by the beginning of the 1990s.

Era 3: The internet Era At the beginning of the 1990s, the Internet, a worldwide collection of university computer networks that could exchange information by using a common software standard had already been operating for many years. Then the World Wide Web was introduced in 1993. This was a system within the Internet that allowed graphic displays of Internet sites through hypertext links, or pieces of texts or images that allowed users to jump to other locations connected by the links. The first browser software (Mosaic) designed especially to allow users to use these links marked the beginning of the third era of educational technology. Teachers and students joined the throng of users on the “Information Superhighway,” and interest in computer technol- ogy’s potential for instruction once again sprang to life. By the beginning of the 2000s, email, online (i.e., Web- based) multimedia, and videoconferencing became standard tools of Internet users. Websites became a primary form of communication for educators, and distance education became a more prominent part of instructional delivery at all levels of education. The mean- ing of “online” changed from simply being on the computer to being connected to the Internet. Virtual schools, or schools in which “( K– 12) students and teachers are separated by time and/or location and interact via computers and/or telecommunications technologies” (National Forum on Education Statistics, 2006, p. 1) began a steady growth that would see it become a mainstay of public education in the 2000s.

Era 4: The Mobile Technologies, Social Media, and Open access Era The current era began the early 2000s, when portable devices such as smartphones and tablets made Internet access and computer power ubiquitous. As more and more individuals made texting and social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter part of their everyday lives, this constant connectedness transformed educational practice. The ease of access to online resources and communications drove several movements.

• Distance learning. A dramatic increase in the number and type of distance learning offer- ings came about, first in higher education and then in K– 12 schools.

• Electronic books (e-books or e-texts). Texts in digital form on computers, e-book read- ers, and cell phones became increasingly popular alternatives to printed texts. Some school districts eschewed book adoptions in favor of allowing educators to choose their own digital materials.

• Mobile access. One-to-one laptop programs (and later tablet programs), as well as Bring Your Own Device (or Technology, BYOD or BYOT) programs were those that allowed students to use their own handheld devices for learning and accelerated the move to bring computer and Internet access into all classrooms. Another type of access that may be on the horizon is what some educators are calling 1:X Computing or “one to many computing.” This is when students have access to many different digital devices from which they may choose “depending on the task at hand” (Herold, 2013, p. s2).

• Open access. Around 2008, open- access university offerings called Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), which allowed anyone anywhere in the world to participate in college courses for free, became available. By 2011, MOOC projects at MIT, Harvard, and Stanford popularized the concept, and MOOCs came into common use in other colleges and uni- versities. The later part of the decade would see the MOOC concept evolve, as higher edu- cation began charging fees for MOOC credit.

As ubiquitous communications and social networking defined social practices in modern life, educators struggled to create appropriate policies and uses that could take advantage of this new power while minimizing its risks and problems.

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 9

What We Have learned from the Past In no small part, developments in digital technologies have shaped the history of educational technology. However, knowing the history of educational technology is useful only if we apply what we know about the past to future decisions and actions. What have we learned from more than 60 years of applying technology to educational problems that can improve our strategies now? The following points are among the most important:

No technology is a panacea for education. Great expectations for products such as Logo and programs such as BYOD and MOOCs have taught us that even the most cur- rent, capable technology resources offer no quick, easy, or universal solutions. Computer- based materials and strategies are usually tools in a larger system and must be integrated carefully with other resources and with teacher activities. Planning must always begin with this ques- tion: What specific needs do my students and I have that (any given resources) can help meet?

Teachers usually do not develop technology materials or curriculum. In the microcomputer era, companies tried to market authoring systems so teachers could create their own materials, but such systems were never widely adopted. Teaching is one of the most time- and labor- intensive jobs in our society. With so many demands on their time, most teach- ers cannot be expected to develop software or create complex technology- based teaching mate- rials. Publishers, school or district developers, or personnel in funded projects have traditionally provided the majority of this assistance; this seems unlikely to change in the future, even for distance education courses or digital instructional materials.

“Technically possible” does not equal “desirable, feasible, or inevitable.” A popular saying is that today’s technology is yesterday’s science fiction. But science fiction also shows us that technology brings undesirable—as well as desirable—changes. For example, greater access to cell phones and tablets in classrooms means that online communications and informa- tion are increasingly available. But as recent events have shown, communications always come with caveats, and readily available information is not always reliable or helpful. New technological horizons make it clear that it is time to analyze carefully the implications of each implementation decision. Better technology demands that we become critical consumers of its power and capabil- ity. We are responsible for deciding just which science fiction becomes reality.

Technologies change faster than teachers can keep up. History in this field has shown that resources and accepted methods of applying them will change, often quickly and dramatically. This places a special burden on already overworked teachers to continue learning new resources and changing their teaching methods. Gone are the days—if, indeed, they ever existed—when a teacher could rely on the same handouts, homework, or lecture notes from year to year. Educators may not be able to predict the future of educational technology, but they know that it will be different from the present; that is, they must anticipate and accept the inevitability of change and the need for a continual investment of their time.

Older technologies can be useful. Technology in education is an area especially susceptible to fads. With so little time and resources dedicated to what actually works, anyone can propose dramatic improvements. When they fail to appear, educators move on to the next fad. This approach fails to solve real problems, and it draws attention away from the effort to find legitimate solutions. Worse, teachers sometimes throw out methods that had potential but were subject to unrealistic expectations. The past has shown that teachers must be careful, ana- lytical consumers of technological innovation, looking to what has worked in the past to guide their decisions and measure their expectations in the present. Educational practice tends to move in cycles, and “new” methods often are old methods in new guise. In short, teachers must be as informed and analytical as they want their students to become.

Teachers always will be more important than technology. The developers of the first instructional computer systems in the 1960s foresaw them replacing many teacher positions; some advocates of today’s distance learning methods envision a similar impact on

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10 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

future education. Yet good teachers are more essential now than ever. One reason for this was described in Naisbitt’s (1984) MegaTrends: “whenever new technology is introduced into society, there must be a counterbalancing human response . . . the more high tech [it is], the more high touch [is needed]” (p. 35). We need more teachers who understand the role technology plays in society and in education, who are prepared to take advantage of its power, and who recognize its limitations. In an increasingly technological society, we need more teachers who are both technology savvy and child centered.

tOdAy’s eduCAtIOnAl teChnOlOgy resOurCes: systems And APPlICAtIOns

Digital technology may be thought of as systems, or combinations of hardware and software applications. The resources described in this section, along with current conditions in schools and society described in the next section, help define and shape the current climate for technol- ogy in education.

an Overview of Digital Technology Tools Technology integration strategies require a combination of hardware, or computing equipment, and software, or programs written to perform various functions. Even today’s mobile devices, or por- table, handheld computer equipment, such as cell phones or tablets, have this hardware/software combination. Sometimes software and data must be stored outside of the hardware using flash drives, CDs, or various types of DVDs. These are thought of as storage media, rather than hardware.

A growing trend is toward using online storage, referred to as cloud com- puting, a generic term for using a storage service accessed through the Internet. Sometimes this service is fee based, and sometimes sites such as Google make it available as a free service. The latter is referred to as Google Drive, though it is not really a hard drive device in the traditional sense. Users can send documents to this space, either as a backup copy or as an alternate to storing items on one’s own computer system.

Technology Facilities: Hardware and Configurations for Teaching Figure 1.3 gives a visual overview of the six types of technology hardware in common use in today’s classrooms. These include:

• Microcomputers—Though technologies are becoming increasingly smaller and more mobile, microcomputers, sometimes referred to as desktop or lap- top computers, remain a mainstay of classroom computing.

• Handheld technologies—Even smaller, multipurpose devices, such as cell phones, tablets (e.g., iPads), e-books or e-texts, and “smart” pens, make it easier for teachers and students to view, communicate, and share informa- tion, regardless of location.

• Display technologies—These devices support whole- class or large- group demonstrations of information from a computer. They are some- times used in combination with devices such as clickers (a.k.a., student

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 1.2 to review what you have learned from reading this section about the history of digital technologies in education and what we have learned from it.

MICROCOMPUTERS (desktops, laptops,

network servers)

HANDHELDS (cell phones, tablets, etext readers, smart

pens)

DISPLAY TECHNOLO- GIES (interactive

whiteboards, projection systems)

IMAGING TECHNOLOGIES

(cameras, scanners)

PERIPHERALS (I/O DEVICES)

(mice, computer monitors, keyboards,

printers, clickers, synthesizers)

EXTERNAL STORAGE DEVICES

(hard drives)

FigurE 1.3 The Teacher’s Hardware Toolbox

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 11

response systems), which are wireless devices used for interactive polling of student answers to teacher questions in face-to-face classes.

• Imaging technologies—To make teaching and learning more visual, these devices allow the development and use of images ranging from still photos to full- motion videos.

• Peripherals—These are the input devices, such as keyboards and mice (to get informa- tion and requests into the computer for processing), and output devices, such as printers and synthesizers (to see or hear the results of the processing), that make microcomput- ers more functional.

• External storage—While most storage is either inside the computer itself or on storage media, sometimes a device is needed to hold large files that won’t fit easily on storage media or to allow a backup copy of all files inside the computer.

As Tables 1.2 and 1.3 show, digital equipment can be arranged or configured in various ways, each of which is suited to supporting specific types of integration strategies. Configurations include:

• Laboratories of networked computers. As centralized resources, these are easier to main- tain and secure; networking software can monitor individual performance in groups. However, students must leave their classrooms to use them.

TaBlE 1.2 Types of Technology Labs types of labs (20–30 computers) Benefits limitations

Special- purpose labs: • Programming or technical courses • Technology education/vocational courses (e.g., with

CAD, robotics, desktop publishing stations) • MIDI music labs • Labs dedicated to content area(s) (e.g., mathematics/

science, foreign languages) • For use by Chapter or Title III students • Multimedia production work • Teacher work labs

Permanent setups of group resources specific to the needs of certain content areas or types of students.

Usually excludes groups who do not meet the designated purpose. Tend to isolate resources by groups of students.

General- use labs Accommodate all kinds of uses. Must usually be scheduled for whole- class use.

Library/media centers Usually permanent staff members are present to provide ready access to all materials to promote integration of computer and noncomputer resources.

Classes may not be able to do production or group work that might bother other users of the library/media center.

TaBlE 1.3 Types of classroom Arrangements types of Arrangements Benefits limitations

Mobile workstations (on carts) and mobile labs (sets of devices)

Can stretch resources by sharing among many users; supply on-demand access.

Sometimes difficult to get through doors or upstairs; can increase theft and breakage problems.

Classroom single computers or workstations

Enables teacher- productivity uses and integration strategies that require. whole- class demonstrations or a technology “learning station.”

Limits number of students who can have hands-on use at one time.

Student- supplied handheld devices (BYOD) Enables integration strategies that require a device for each student.

Requires infrastructure, policies, and strategies to limit access only to permitted content.

School- supplied devices (one-to-one programs)

Enables integration strategies that require a device for each student.

Expensive to purchase, maintain, and update.

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12 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

• Computer arrangements in classrooms. These are more convenient and accessible to both teachers and students, but teachers may have to use strategies to stretch available units when there are not enough for each student to have one. BYOD and one-to-one initiatives have tried to address this problem.

Types of Software applications in Schools Schools carry out many types of activities in addition to teaching, and soft- ware has been designed to support each of these. Software to support educa- tional technology applications in school settings include:

• Instructional—Programs designed to teach skills or information through demonstrations, examples, explanations, or problem solving. Examples are tutorials, drill- and- practice programs, and simulations.

• Productivity—Programs designed to help teachers and students plan, develop materials, communicate, and keep records. These include word processing, spreadsheet, database, and email programs, as well as a variety of other materials generators and data collection/ analysis, graphics, and research and reference tools.

• Administrative—Programs that administrators at school, state, and district levels use to sup- port record keeping and exchanges of information among various agencies. These include stu- dent records and payroll systems.

Technology integration strategies described in this textbook focus primarily on instruc- tional and productivity applications that teachers implement. However, some administrative applications that both teachers and administrators use are also described.

tOdAy’s eduCAtIOnAl teChnOlOgy Issues: COndItIOns thAt shAPe PrACtICe

Teaching today is challenging because it occurs in an environment that mirrors—and sometimes magnifies—some of society’s most problematic issues. Adding digital technologies to this mix con- tinues to make the situation even more complex. Yet, to integrate technology successfully into their teaching, educators must recognize and be prepared to work in this environment with all of its sub- tleties and complexities. Some of today’s important issues and their implications for technological trends in education are described in the following sections. Issues relevant to four areas—societal, educational, cultural/equity, and legal/ethical—are discussed here and summarized in Table 1.4.

Social issues Technology uses have a way of both responding to societal needs and problems and creating a new set of issues with society- wide implications. School systems have recognized that social issues impact every school’s mission and classroom climate and must be addressed by sound policies and a planned, ongoing education program to make teachers and students aware of these concerns and to limit possible negative impact. Social issues include the following:

Privacy issues. GPS technologies in combination with cell phone software features make it possible to pinpoint anyone’s exact location and can communicate a great deal of per- sonal information to others, usually without the user’s knowledge. Some have decried schools’

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 1.3 to review what you have learned from reading this section about today’s digital technology resources and skills.

computer arrangements in classrooms

Watch this video and listen to this principal talk about using Bring-Your-Own-Device (BYOD) and other strategies for gaining universal student access to technology. What factors form the rationale for schools and districts using this approach?

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 13

use of radio frequency identification (RFID) to track students’ attendance and whereabouts as an attack on privacy. Also, social networks, mistakenly believed to be private, often make public users’ personal information. New technologies such as Google Glass are wearable devices that make it possible to record video or images without others’ awareness, continue to challenge our definitions of what is private.

TaBlE 1.4 issues That Shape the environment for using Technology Issue Implications for educators and students

social Issues

Privacy issues • Technology- enabled tracking of user location, personal information • Ability to photograph or record surreptitiously with wearable devices • Private information made public on social networks

Health- related concerns • Ailments resulting from technology overuse • Obesity, fitness decline from physical inactivity

Fears about technology overuses, misuses • Detrimental effects of multitasking • Disruptions of cell phone uses in schools • Dangers of sexting

Risks of being online • Colleges monitoring of high school students social footprint • Teachers faulted for social media uses • Cyberbullying

Malware, viruses, spam, and hacking • Harm to programs, data, and/or hardware • Spam drains time, resources • Identity theft from phishing schemes

educational Issues

Lack of technology funding • Fewer funds available for technology hardware, software, and training force choice between technology and other education priorities

Teacher and student accountability needs • Accountability emphases drive technology uses • Decreased emphasis on innovative teaching strategies

Digital literacy /digital citizenship needs • Students must become good digital citizens • Responsibility falls on schools

Best practices with technologies • Debate over teacher- directed methods versus inquiry- based methods

Reliance on distance education • Not all students can learn well at a distance • Some states and districts require an online course for graduation

Cultural/equity Issues

The digital divide • Dropout rates from distance courses higher for already- underserved students

Racial and gender equity • Females and some minorities use computers less and enter STEM at lower rates • Uses by some underserved groups is often limited to remedial, rather than empowering,

purposes

Students with special needs • Devices and methods to allow equal access remain expensive, difficult to implement

legal/ethical Issues

Hacking • Students’ personal data at risk from loss of privacy, identity theft • Incumbent on schools to safeguard students

Safety issues • Risks of predators, loss of privacy • Acceptable Use Policies are required

The new plagiarism and academic dishonesty • Online access enables cybercheating • Online courses must safeguard against academic dishonesty, fraud

Illegal downloads/software piracy • Ease of illegal access increases software and music piracy • Students and others being prosecuted

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14 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Health- related concerns. Potential problems such as hearing loss from headphone use or eye strain from gazing too long at digital screens have been posed and continue to be studied. Time spent at video games and computer work is time taken away from actual physical activity, which can lead to obesity and decline in fitness.

Fears about technology misuses. Young people feel that they excel at multitask- ing, or doing several (usually technology- enabled) activities at the same time. However, studies have shown that the practice negatively affects both accuracy and information retention, and texting while driving has proven a serious threat to public safety. Cell phone use during school can disrupt learning activities and may even be used for cheating on schoolwork or tests. Young people are often unaware that their cell phone uses are not private and, thus, may not hesitate to send out explicit photos or messages, a practice known as sexting. See one expert’s opinion on technology overuse in this chapter’s Hot Topic Debate.

Risks of online behaviors. Time spent on social networking is often time taken away from schoolwork (Goodman, 2011). Students are often unaware that some colleges and universities admissions person- nel review and consider information on students’ social networking sites. Teachers who have their own social networking sites (e.g., Facebook) have encountered criticism for ill- advised personal posts and contacts with stu- dents. Cyberbullying, or online harassment in social networks, mirrors similar bullying on school campuses and can have as many negative con- sequences as in-person bullying (Cyberbullying Research Center website; Juvonen & Gross, 2008).

Malware, viruses, spam, and hacking. Malware, short for malicious software, can damage, destroy, disrupt operations, or spy on the operation of computers. Viruses, a type of malware, are programs written specifically to do harm or mischief to programs, data, and/or hardware, and include logic bombs, worms, and Trojan horses. Spyware is malware

that secretly gathers information stored on a person’s computer and can gather addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers to use for identity theft. Computers can be implanted with a program that enables outside control without the owner’s knowledge. Spam, or unso- licited email messages or website postings, come with such frequency that they interfere with computer work. Schools and colleges have dedicated considerable resources to blocking them. Computer users sometimes respond unwittingly to phishing attempts, or emails that falsely claim to be a legitimate business in order to glean private information to be used for identity theft. For example, a teacher may get a message purporting to be from the school

In his essay “The End of Human Specialness,” Lanier (2010), author of the book You Are Not a Gadget, said, “A post- Facebook generation is appearing, and its members are questioning the

legacy of their predecessors. Recently, when I asked students not to tweet or blog during a lecture, they stood and cheered” (p. 7). In addition, research at Stanford University found that students who were multitaskers were more easily distracted and could not focus as well as others who multitasked less or not at all. Some educa- tors view much of social networking as a form of multitasking and a distraction to learning, rather than a resource to support learn- ing. What examples and research results (not opinions) could you use to either support or refute this position?

Hot Topic Debate Multitasking with Social Networking as Distraction?

Preventing cyberbullying

In this video, listen to a fourth-grade teacher talking about strategies to combat cyberbullying. Would these strategies be effective in your school? What other methods can you suggest?

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 15

district information technology department, asking all users to update their records with passwords and other information. If the teacher supplies this information to the designated location, the “phisher” gets access to the teacher’s account, which may contain a great deal of private information.

Educational issues Trends in the educational system are intertwined with trends in technology and society. Several kinds of educational issues have special implications for the ways technology is used in teaching and learning:

Lack of technology funding. Recent economic downturns have meant decreased education funding, which also means fewer funds available for technology hardware, soft- ware, and training. This downturn comes at a time when technology expenses are on the rise. Although some educators are unwilling to advocate for technology funding over other priorities (e.g., music, arts), technology advocates point out strategies such as open- source options can make technology use more feasible by lowering costs.

Teacher and student accountability for quality and progress. Accountability emphases that began with the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 remain strong and drive a trend toward using technology in ways that help teachers and students pass tests and meet required standards, rather than to support more innovative teaching strategies. Teachers hesitate to use technologies unless they address accountability goals.

Digital literacy and digital citizenship. The increasing role that technology plays in all areas of our society make it ever more essential that students become savvy con- sumers of technology resources and demonstrate digital citizenship or use of technology resources in safe, responsible, and legal ways. The responsibility for this instruction usually falls on schools.

Debates on best practices with technologies. Educators continue to debate the proper roles of traditional, teacher- directed methods versus student- led, inquiry- based methods. Long- used and well- validated teacher- directed uses of technology can address con- tent standards, but many educators see them as passé. Inquiry- based, constructivist methods are considered more modern and innovative, but it is less clear how they address standards required to demonstrate teacher and student accountability.

Reliance on online learning. Increasing numbers of virtual K– 12 courses are being offered, and virtual schools are becoming a mainstream part of U.S. education. Although this movement has increased access to high- quality courses and degrees, not all students have the skills needed to use them, even if they get access. Recognizing that learning at a distance is rapidly becoming commonplace in higher education, some states, including Michigan, Florida, Virginia, and Alabama, and some school districts, such as Putnam County, Tennessee, have made completing a distance course a high school graduation requirement.

Cultural and Equity issues The power of technology is a double- edged sword, especially for education. While it presents obvious potential for changing education and empowering teachers and students, technology may also further divide members of our society along socioeconomic, ethnic, and cultural lines and widen the gender gap. Teachers will lead the struggle to make sure technology use promotes, rather than conflicts with, the goals of a democratic society.

The Digital Divide. Originally referred to as a discrepancy in access to technology resources among socioeconomic groups (although race and gender may also play a role), the digi- tal divide has recently taken on a new and more subtle impact. While low- income and minority students have more access to technologies than ever before, dropout rates from distance courses are higher than rates for physical schools and usually affect underserved students more than

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16 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

others, which could further widen the digital divide. A study by Vigdor and Ladd (2010) found that simply providing access to home computers can actu- ally be associated with decreased achievement, since unmonitored children tend to use them primarily in noneducational activities.

Racial and gender equity. When compared with males and whites, females, African Americans, and Hispanic minorities use comput- ers less and enter careers in math, science, and technology areas at lower rates. Many educators believe that less frequent use of technology leads to lower entrance into technical careers. In addition, children in remedial programs may have access to computers, but they often use them mainly for remedial work rather than for email, multimedia production, and other personal empowerment activities.

Students with special needs. Devices and methods are avail- able to help students compensate for their physical and mental deficits and allow them equal access to technology and learning opportunities.

However, they remain difficult to purchase and implement, and often go unused. Parents clamor for the technology resources guaranteed their children by federal laws, but schools often claim insufficient funding to address these special needs. See ways that teachers can better meet the needs of these students in the Adapting for Special Needs feature.

Legal and Ethical Issues The legal and ethical issues educators face reflect those of the larger society. The major types of ethical and legal issues, discussed next, have a major impact on how technology activities are implemented.

Hacking. Hackers are those who use online systems to access the personal data of stu- dents in order to accomplish identity theft and commit other malicious acts. To combat these problems, schools are forced to install firewalls, software that blocks unauthorized access to classroom computers, and to spend larger portions of technology funds each year on preventing and cleaning up after illegal activities. They must also constantly educate teachers and students on strategies to prevent these attacks.

Safety issues. As students spend more time in online environments, attempts by online predators to contact students are more likely, and objectionable material is readily available and easy to access, sometimes referred to as cyberporn (Levy, 2010). To address these concerns, schools are requiring students/parents to sign an Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) that outlines

Teachers increasingly recognize that some students have difficulty accessing and engaging in typical classroom learning activities. For example, some students with disabilities may not be able to use the standard textbook due to a physical disability or may be unable to comprehend the text because of a learning disability. In situations like these, teachers are encouraged to consult with their district’s assistive technology specialist. Specialized technologies that are used by only a small number of students are known as assistive technologies. To learn more about what assistive technology looks like and how it can be used, visit the National Public Web Site on Assistive Technology.

In recent years, the notion of using technology to support academic performance has expanded from assistive technology for some individuals to universal design for learning (UDL) applica- tions that benefit all students. UDL interventions provide multiple means of support to diverse students by providing choice in how they access and engage in the curriculum and how they demon- strate what they know. UDL was identified as a key component in the National Education Technology Plan 2010 (http:// www.ed.gov/ technology/ netp- 2010).

—Contributed by Dave Edyburn

Adapting for Special Needs Assistive Technologies and Universal Design Resources

▲ Girls and boys need early opportunities to become involved in STEM activities such as robotics projects. (Photo by W. Wiencke)

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 17

appropriate use of school technologies for students and educa- tors. This policy puts in place procedures to safeguard access to students’ personal information.

Academic dishonesty. Greater online access to full- text documents on the Internet has resulted in increased incidents of student plagiarism, a practice often referred to as cybercheating or online cheating. Sites have emerged to help teachers catch plagiarizers, while teachers are also trying to structure assignments that make this kind of cheating more difficult. To make sure they comply with copyright laws, which give the creator of original works exclusive rights to use and profit from it, schools are making teachers and stu- dents aware of policies about copyright, AUP, and guidelines for fair use of published materials. Fair use gives limited rights to those who want to use brief excerpts of copyright material without the need for permission. Schools also are concerned that students signed up for an online course are actually the ones doing the work of the course. Some orga- nizations have moved to proctoring systems with either

cameras or biometric sensors to monitor students, while others have students come into a physical location to take required exams.

Illegal downloads/software piracy. An increasing number of sites offer ways to download copies of software, music, or media without paying for them, a practice known as software piracy or music piracy, and software and media companies are prosecuting even young offenders. Teachers are tasked with modeling and teaching ethical behaviors related to software and media. The most important of these issues in terms of their impact in shaping what we can and must do with technology in education are summarized in the Top Ten feature for this chapter.

Today’s EducaTional TEchnology skills: sTandards, assEssmEnTs, and TEaching compETEnciEs

Clearly, 21st- century educators will have to deal with issues and situations that their predeces- sors could not even have imagined. New technology tools also mean new and different ways of accessing and processing information needed for teaching and learning. Both teachers and students must have the skills and knowledge that will prepare them to meet these new challenges and use these new and powerful strategies. Sets of skills and a framework for teacher education that have been created specifically to guide them are discussed below.

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) The CCSS are statements of what students should learn and were developed by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). The standards cite the following under College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Writing:

CCSS. ELA- Literacy.CCRA.W.8 Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, assess the credibility and accuracy of each source, and integrate the information while avoiding plagiarism.

▲ Inform students about their school’s Acceptable Use Policies (AUP) both to educate and protect them. (Photo by W. Wiencke)

Technology learning check Complete Tlc 1.4 to review what you have learned from reading this section about various issues that shape technology uses in education.

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18 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

ISTE Standards for Teachers, Students, and Administrators The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), a technology professional organiza- tion described earlier in this chapter, has developed standards for students, teachers, and school administrators. ISTE Standards for Teachers have become a benchmark for technology infusion in teacher education programs. Note that ISTE Standards for Students are considered to be the basic skills that students—and their teachers—should meet. ISTE Standards for Teachers, which assume that teachers have attained the student standards, focus on teaching skills that use technologies.

The Partnerships for 21st Century Skills (P21) for Students and Teachers P21 was formed in 2002 to create a successful model of learning based on incorporating “21st century skills into our system of education.” Figure 1.4 is an image from the P21 web- site that shows three overarching categories of student outcomes and illustrates the support systems students and teachers will need to achieve these skills. In addition to a listing of specific “knowledge, skills, and expertise students should master to succeed in work and life in the 21st century,” P21 has identified a set of essential core subjects (English, reading, or language arts, world languages, arts, mathematics, economics, science, geography, history and government/civics) as well as interdisciplinary themes that should be interwoven through these subjects. These themes, which also have skills listed under each one, include global awareness; financial, economic, business, and entrepreneurial literacy; civic literacy; health literacy; and environmental literacy. The P21 website also provides skills maps for each content area that list specific learning activities for each of the P21 competencies.

The ICT Competency Framework for Teachers UNESCO personnel collaborated with industry partners Cisco, Intel, ISTE, and Microsoft to create the information and communication technology (ICT) framework, which focuses on skills that teachers require to bring about three different levels of human capacity development: technology

21st Century Student Outcomes and Support Systems

Learning and Innovation Skills - 4Cs

Critical thinking • Communication Collaboration • Creativity

Core Subjects - 3Rs and 21st Century Themes

Standards and Assessments

Curriculum and Instruction

Reprinted by permission from Partnership for 21st Century Skills.

Professional Development

Learning Environments

Life and Career Skills

Information, Media, and Technology

Skills

FIgurE 1.4 The P21 Skill Framework

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 19

literacy, knowledge deepening, and knowledge creation. ICT is a term often used in place of the terms instructional technology and educational technology, especially outside the United States. UNESCO has Teacher Competency Standards Modules for each of these levels. Each module con- sists of curricular goals and teacher skills in six different areas: policy, curriculum and assessment, pedagogy, ICT, organization and administration, and teacher professional development.

The Tech- PACK Framework Teaching is a complex combination of what teachers know about the content they teach, how they decide to teach that content, and the tools they use to carry out their plans. Historically, teacher education has centered on content knowledge and pedagogy as separate concerns. But Shulman (1986) was first to stress the importance of how these “knowledge components” work together, rather than separately. Hughes (2000) extended Shulman’s concept by adding technol- ogy as another component of knowledge needed by teachers. The result is a combination of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge. See Figure 1.5 for an illustration of how these areas converge and overlap. Teachers who are in the “zone” at the center of the diagram when all three areas merge have the skills they need to integrate technologies into teaching (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

Originally called TPCK, or the combination of technological pedagogical content knowl- edge required to integrate technology most effectively into instruction, this textbook refers to this combination as “ Tech- PACK” to emphasize the critical contribution of technology to teach- ing. See Table 1.5 for a brief history of the development of this terminology. Teacher education programs have come to view the Tech- PACK framework as useful for several purposes. It gives students and their instructors a common vision and language for talking about their technology- related goals and illustrates to students the competencies they are aiming to develop. It also provides a common metric for gauging growth. Voogt, Fisser, Roblin, Tondeur, and van Braak (2012) reviewed the literature on how teacher education programs are using the Tech- PACK

FIgurE 1.5 The Original TPACK Framework (from TPACK.org)

Contexts

Technological Pedagogical Content

Knowledge (TPACK)

Technological Knowledge

(TK)

Content Knowledge

(CK)

Pedagogical Knowledge

(PK)

Pedagogical Content

Knowledge (PCK)

Technological Content

Knowledge (TCK)

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge

(TPK)

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20 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

framework and found that “Active involvement in (re)design and enactment of technology- enhanced lessons” (p. 109) was found to be a best practice in increasing competencies in teacher educators’ technology integration skills. Harris, Grandgenett, and Hofer (2010) validated a rubric for assess- ing these skills. See this rubric and articles about it at the Tpack.org website.

Demonstrating Technology Skills: Portfolio Options and Tech- PACK Many teacher preparation programs require their candidates to develop a teaching portfolio, a collection of their work products from courses they take, to demonstrate their achievement of required skills and Tech- PACK growth as they go through the program. Portfolios can also serve as a col- lection of the student’s work products over time, arranged so that they and others can see how their skills have developed and progressed. They also

include criteria for selecting and judging content. Figure 1.6 shows a suggested sequence to follow in creating an electronic portfolio. Also see the feature Open Source Options for free materials to create portfolios.

In addition to showing their own technology development, teachers may want to have their students demonstrate their skills with a portfolio. Many teach- ers are turning to student digital or electronic portfolios, or a collection of work in a website or multimedia product, as the assessment strategy of choice. For free versions of portfolio materials, see Open Source Options.

Teachers usually provide the portfolio structure and tell students how to fill in the content. Resources available for creating portfolios are described here.

• “ Ready- made” portfolio software packages. These packages provide a structure to which teachers can add content instead of creating their own format. Popular examples include Grady Profile by Auerbach and the online portfolio site Livetext. These systems usually are built on database software, with locations for attaching files of written and visual products.

• Adobe Acrobat Professional. To store and display documents (with or without graphics), teachers can use Adobe Acrobat Professional to create electronic versions of pages. PDFs are essentially pictures of pages and are easy to store and share with others by downloading the free Acrobat Reader. However, Adobe Acrobat Professional also has features that allows files that were created in different formats and applications (e.g., Word documents, email messages, spreadsheets, and PowerPoint presentations) to be com- bined in one portfolio file.

• Multimedia authoring software. Teachers can structure portfolios with pre- sentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Apple Keynote, or with multimedia development software such as Adobe Director, Travantis Lectora, or MediaWorks.

instructional Uses of Digital Portfolios

Find out products required, medium to use, and criteria to meet. See rubric for evaluating portfolio quality: http://www.uwstout.edu/static/art/artedportfolios/ evaluating/portevaluatiorubric.html

DETERMINE PORTFOLIO REQUIREMENTS

Set up the portfolio structure on the medium (e.g., web, PowerPoint, Adobe Acrobat) you have chosen

CREATE THE STRUCTURE

Create media and software products to demonstrate technology integration skills; add to portfolio by required deadlines

ADD AND LINK COMPONENTS

Review products with instructors; determine if requirements are being met

MONITOR THE COLLECTION; RECEIVE PERIODIC FEEDBACK

Add or revise components based on re�ection and feedback

REFLECT ON PRODUCTS; REVISE AS NEEDED

FIgurE 1.6 Electronic Portfolios: How to Develop Them

See this video on one school district’s instructional uses of digital portfolios. What are some of the benefits of having online portfolios, as opposed to other formats?

TAbLE 1.5 A Brief History of Tech- PACK Terminology 1986 Shulman says pedagogy and content knowledge (PCK) must be considered together.

2000 Hughes adds technology to form TPCK (technological pedagogical content knowledge).

2006 Mishra and Koehler articulate the interdependence of content, pedagogy, and technology knowledge.

2007 TPCK becomes TPACK as Thompson and Mishra say it better represents the interdependence of the three knowledge domains and represents the “Total PACKage” of teacher knowledge required for technology integration.

2012 TPACK becomes Tech- PACK as Roblyer and Doering emphasize the critical contribution of technology to teaching.

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 21

• Websites. Portfolios can be posted on the Internet, where they can be more easily shared with others. Like multimedia packages, these portfolios can offer sophisticated video and audio presentations. Adobe’s Creative Suite and Fireworks are popular Web- page develop- ment packages.

• Video. Today’s digital video offers flexible, interactive formats for displaying portfolio elements. Video elements to document teacher or student accomplishments can also be inserted into multimedia products and websites described above.

Today’s EducaTional TEchnology usEs: dEvEloping a sound raTionalE

The history of educational technology teaches us the importance of answering the “Why should I use technology?” question. Also, two current needs make it essential that teachers and schools are able to state a clear and compelling case for using technology in education. First, integrating technology into education requires substantial, ongoing investments in technology infrastruc- ture and teacher training, so educators and policy makers need to offer a solid rationale for why these funds are well spent. Second, administrators want to see evidence that technology pur- chases help improve students’ achievement, increase school attendance, or improve graduation rates. Developing a sound rationale for using technology in specific situations requires review- ing research findings and other evidence that technology is, indeed, helping to address some of education’s most urgent needs and problems.

TyPES OF PORTFOLIO DEvELOPMENT MATERIALS SOURCES ready- made portfolio software packages Mahara e‑Portfolios: mahara.org

Sakai’s Open Source e‑Portfolio System: sakaiproject.org (Search on “eportfolios”)

multimedia authoring software Sophie: sophieproject.org

relational databases PostgreSQL: postgresql.org

Free websites with templates • Firebird: firebirdsql.org • Google Sites – Steps for creating a Google Sites portfolio:

learnnc.org • Listing of other free sites at Internet4Classrooms:

internet4classrooms.com

video editors Open Movie Editor: openmovieeditor.org

for Electronic Portfolios

Technology learning check Complete Tlc 1.5 to review what you have learned from reading this section about how teachers address technology standards and skills.

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22 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

What Does research on Technology in Education Tell us? Limitations of past research. Even though electronic technologies have been in use in education since the 1950s, research results have not drawn a clear line between technology use and impact on educational quality indicators. Researchers such as Clark (1983, 1985, 1991, 1994) have openly criticized “ computer- based effectiveness” research and meta- analysis, which is a statistical method designed by Glass (1976) to summarize results across studies and measure the size of the effect a “treatment” (e.g., a technology- based method) has over and above traditional methods. Clark concluded that most studies that have found a greater impact on achievement of one delivery method over the other did not control for factors such as different instructors, instructional methods, curriculum contents, or novelty. He famously said technologies make no more contribution to quality indicators than the truck that deliv- ers the groceries does for nutrition. Though Kozma (1991, 1994) responded by asserting that research should look at technology not as an information delivery medium but as “the learner actively collaborating with the medium to construct knowledge” (1991, p. 179), policy makers still need evidence that this collaboration improves learning in measurable ways.

Evidence from one‑to‑one initiatives. Some of the most promising research results to date have come from the one-to-one computing initiatives, which provide a laptop, that is, a small portable personal computer, or other mobile computing device such as a tab- let to every student in a given grade level or school and measure the impact on achievement, dropout rate, attendance, and other factors. Maine led this effort with a statewide program for middle school students in 2001 after a successful pilot project (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005). Bebell and O’Dwyer (2010) edited a group of articles reporting the results of four other one-to-one initiatives. These reports show that each initiative had an impact on quality indicators, but the amount of impact varied according to factors such as how projects were implemented, teacher acceptance, and students’ use of the devices outside of school. Results of Project RED (Revolutionizing Education), an initiative completed with funding from computing industries, found similar results. Schools with one-to-one computing programs (Devaney, 2010) had fewer discipline problems, lower dropout rates, and higher rates of college attendance.

Other recent reviews of research. In February 2013, the educational magazine Edutopia published a summary of recent evidence of the impact of various technologies on quality indicators. Their review has links to all the recent reviews of research. The overall con- clusions are that:

• Simply adding any technology to any learning environments does not necessarily improve learning. Teacher and student uses remain the most important factor.

• Successful technology integration requires accompanying changes in teacher training, curricula, and assessment practices.

• Blending technology with face-to-face teacher time generally produces better outcomes than face-to-face or online learning alone.

• Rigorous research on the specific features of technology integration that improve learning is limited.

A Technology- use rationale based on Problem Solving As recent research shows, the case for using technology in teaching is one that must be made not just by isolating variables that make a difference, but by combining them. Educators have cited a number of reasons why we should integrate technology into teaching. These are described here in three different categories related to solving problems that limit learning, but it is when these contributions are combined that technology seems to make the greatest difference.

Problem 1: How to motivate and engage students? Technologies, when properly implemented, can use the following strategies to address the problem of unmotivated students:

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 23

• Gaining their attention. Teachers say technology’s visual and interactive qualities can direct students’ attention toward learning tasks.

• Supporting manual operations during high- level learning. Students are more motivated to learn complex skills (e.g., writing compositions and solving algebraic equations) when technology tools help them do the low- level skills involved (e.g., making corrections to written drafts or doing arithmetic).

• Illustrating real- world relevance. When students can see video and online examples of high- level math and science skills being used in real- life, it is no longer just “school work”; they are more willing to learn skills that have clear value to their future life and work.

• Engaging students through production work. Students who learn by creating their own products with technologies such as word processing, multimedia, and other technol- ogy products report higher engagement in learning and a greater sense of pride in their achievements.

• Connecting students with audiences for their writing. Educators say that students are much more motivated to write and do their best writing when they publish it online, since others outside the classroom will see their work.

• Providing support for cooperative work. Although students can do small- group work without technology, teachers report that students are often more motivated to work coop- eratively on presentation software and website production projects.

Problem 2: How to support students’ learning needs? The following are ways technologies can support students’ learning by making their work more efficient and productive and by providing access to sources and ways of learning that they would not otherwise have:

• Supporting effective skill practice. When students need focused practice in order to comprehend and retain the skills they learn, drill- and- practice type software offers the pri- vacy, self- pacing, and immediate feedback that makes practice most effective.

• Visualizing underlying concepts in unfamiliar or abstract topics. Simulations and other interactive software tools have unique abilities to illustrate science and mathemat- ics concepts. Highly abstract mathematical and scientific principles become clearer and easier to understand.

• Studying systems in unique ways. Students use tools such as spreadsheets and simulations to answer “what if ” questions that they would not be able to do easily by hand or that would not be feasible at all without the benefits of technology.

• Giving access to unique information sources and populations. The Internet connects students with information, research, data, and expertise not available locally.

• Supplying self- paced learning for accelerated students. Self- directed students can learn on their own with software tutorials and/or distance learning materials. They can surge ahead of the class or tackle topics that the school does not offer.

• Turning disabilities into capabilities. Students with disabilities depend on technology to compensate for vision, hearing, and/or manual dexterity they need to read, interact in class, and do projects to show what they have learned.

• Saving time on production tasks. Software tools such as word processing, desktop pub- lishing, and spreadsheets allow quick and easy corrections to reports, presentations, bud- gets, and publications.

• Grading and tracking student work. Personalized learning systems and mobile, handheld technologies help teachers quickly assess and track student progress, giving them the rapid feedback they need to make adjustments to their learning paths.

• Providing faster access to information sources. Students use the Internet and email to do research and collect data that would take much longer to gather by other methods.

• Saving money on consumables. Software tools such as drill- and- practice and simulations optimize scarce funds by taking the place of materials (e.g., worksheets, handouts, animals for dissection) that are used and replaced each year.

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24 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Problem 3: How to prepare students for the future? As the discussion of CCSS and 21st- Century Skills earlier in this chapter showed, skills that students will need in the future will focus more on skills such as thinking creatively and reasoning effectively, than on memorizing facts, defi- nitions, and rules. To learn these skills, students will need the following:

• Digital literacy. As technologies are increasingly used to store and con- vey information, digital literacy, or skills in using both technologies and

the information they carry, are viewed as essential (Pierce, 2013). For many library/media experts, digital literacy is becoming an umbrella term that encompasses information literacy (Beach & Swiss, 2011; Jewett, 2011; Stripling, 2010). Also, images and video are increasingly replacing text as communication media, requiring students to learn visual literacy, or skills in interpreting, creating, and using images. Because images are usually carried via digital media, visual literacy may

be considered a subset of digital literacy. • Digital citizenship. Schools are tasked with teaching students how to use technology

resources in safe, responsible and legal ways.

All these reasons point out specific ways to integrate technology into teaching and learn- ing and together form powerful rationale for why technology must become as commonplace in education as it is in other areas of society. See Figure 1.7 for a summary of elements under- lying this rationale.

FIgurE 1.7 Why Use Technology? A Summary Rationale Based on Problem Solving

problem 1: how to motivate and engage students?

• Gains learner attention

• Supports manual operations during high- level learning

• Illustrates real- world relevance through highly visual presentations

• Engages students through production work

• Connects students with audiences for their writing

• Engages learners through real- world situations and collaborations

• Provides support for working cooperatively

problem 2: how to support students’ learning needs?

• Supports effective skill practice

• Helps students visualize underlying concepts in unfamiliar or abstract topics

• Lets students study systems in unique ways

• Gives access to unique information sources and populations

• Supplies self- paced learning for accelerated students

• Turns disabilities into capabilities

• Saves time on production tasks

• Grades and tracks student work

• Provides faster access to information sources

• Saves money on consumable materials

problem 3: how to prepare students for future learning?

• Helps teach digital literacy

• Helps teach digital citizenship

School rationale for Technology integration

In this video, the principal talks about a rationale for integrating technology based on increased engagement. Listen for both the pros and cons of students’ uses of technology. How could you address and prevent the negative outcomes she mentions?

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CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 25

Tomorrow’s EducaTional TEchnology: EmErging TrEnds in Tools and applicaTions

Visions of the future are suffused with images of technologies that may seem magical and far- fetched now, just as cell phones and wearable technologies like Google Glass seemed only a few decades ago. We know that future education will mirror current technical trends and shape the goals and priorities we set today for tomorrow’s education. As with so many “miraculous” tech- nologies, the question is how we will take advantage of their capabilities to bring about the kind of future education systems our society wants and our economy needs.

Trends in Hardware, Software, and System Development For emerging developments with great potential for impact on education, we turn to the annual report of the New Media Consortium’s (NMC) Horizon Project, established in 2002 to identify and describe emerging technologies that are likely to have great impact on our society. Though the focus of the education editions of this report are on postsecondary education, some of the trends listed here from recent reports also seem likely to impact K– 12 education (Johnson, Adams Becker, Estrada, & Freeman, 2014; Johnson et al., 2013).

Trend #1: Ubiquitous mobile computing. The trend toward mobile devices in education is already widespread and having great impact on K– 12 education, though concerns about curriculum, privacy, classroom management, and uniform access abound. Cloud- based storage and communications enables this trend.

Trend #2: More sources of open content. When combined with open- source materials, open content means that more courses and educational materials that were previously proprietary will now be free and available to everyone online. This trend also means more free content will be available to K– 12 teachers and students.

Trend #3: Massive open online courses (MOOCs). One of the fastest growing of the new trends, MOOCs heralded a new way of looking at learning. One of the outcomes of the open- content movement, MOOCs hold the promise of a future where education is cheaper and available to anyone anywhere in the world.

Trend #4: Increased e‑book/e‑text presence. Though e-texts have been avail- able for decades, their technical sophistication has recently increased dramatically. They are rapidly replacing paper books as the dominant medium for accessing information.

Trend #5: Tablet computing. The portability of these devices facilitate ubiquitous Internet access and rapid communications, as well as access to e-texts. A thriving software devel- opment movement for tablets is driving this trend and increasing the options they enable.

Trend #6: Augmented reality systems. Coined by a Boeing researcher in 1990, augmented reality refers to a computer- generated environment in which a real- life scene is overlaid with information that enhances our uses of it. Examples have been evident in industry,

Technology learning check Complete Tlc 1.6 to review what you have learned from reading this section about a rationale for integrating technology into teaching.

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26 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

military, and entertainment (e.g., the movies Avatar and Iron Man) environments for years, but now simple versions of these systems are available to schools on mobile devices for uses such as GPS and maps of the sky. Devaney (2013) said that augmented reality is assuming a greater role in the classroom as learning tools based on it become avail- able. For example, one teacher used an augmented reality app called Aurasma to lets students hover their tablets over images of famous paintings, thus calling up audio and text with features and notes about the artist’s techniques. Other augmented reality apps include Layar, used to enhance print materials, and colAR which works with coloring- book pages.

Trend #7: Wearable technologies. In combination with augmented reality, a trend noted above, wearable technologies such as Google Glass are anticipated to impact education as new applications come on the market. Mineer (2014) cites predictions that BYOD will segue into “WYOD” or wear your own device. She describes one teacher’s uses of Google Glass to record lectures as she gives them and let students record their progress on projects they are completing. Wearables such as AiQ’s “smart textiles,” which monitor the wearer’s vital signs, and Recon Instruments’ sports goggles, which monitor movements, have great potential for health- and sports- related areas. Other wearable products track location data, offering the potential for improving student safety in school settings.

Trend #8: Gesture‑ based computing. Devices that we can control through mov- ing a hand or other body part are changing the way people interact with computers. With gesture- recognition systems, a camera or sensor reads body movements and communicates them to a computer, which processes the gestures as commands and uses them to control devices or displays. Gesture- based technology, especially in combination with wearable tech- nologies, has the potential to enhance teaching simulations by making them more lifelike and intuitive to use.

Trend #9: Games and gamification. Gamification, or incorporating the most motivational aspects of games (e.g., badges awarded for success) into nongame activities, is attracting more attention from both software developers and educators. The hope is that driving interest and rewarding student achievement can increase the time spent on learning activities.

Trend #10: Learning analytics. Educators are also paying increased attention to learning analytics, or the ability to detect trends and patterns from sets of performance data (a.k.a. “big data”) across large numbers of students. The goal is to find ways of applying findings across students to create a personalized approach to learning for each student.

Trend #11: 3D printing. Though currently seen in research and lab settings, 3D printers, devices that can “print” models or actual products when a 2-D image is supplied, are predicted to play a greater role in science and other subjects that rely on models to illustrate and provide practice with new concepts.

Trends in Educational Applications Hardware/software trends are important because they support and drive current and emerging conditions for education. People expect to work, learn, and study whenever and wherever they want to, and they seek instruction that is responsive to their personal needs. These

▲ A growing hardware trend is use of e‑texts. (Photo by W. Wiencke)

▲ 3D printers offer students a new way to learn design strategies. (Photo by W. Wiencke)

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technology trends and the conditions in which they are emerging augur a dramatically trans- formed education system:

Trend #1: Flexible learning environments. With wireless communications and portable devices, learning environments can be located beyond the walls of classrooms and schools. Students can take notes, gather data, or do research from wherever they are and have easy, fast access to resources such as writing labs and digital production labs. MOOC envi- ronments mean that students can supplement (or even circumvent) school learning with high- quality advanced courses offered at a distance. Though they are a “holdable technology,” rather than a wearable technology, devices such as the LiveScribe Echo (“smart pens”) offer instanta- neous access to supportive information.

Trend #2: Personalized learning. Learning analytics has driven a fast- growing trend toward personalized learning systems (PLS), or computer- based management pro- grams that (1) assess individual student learning needs using complex algorithms and collec- tions of data across students, and (2) provide a customized instructional experience matched to each student.

Trend #3: New instructional models. The ubiquity of computer power and Internet access has enabled both integration strategies, such as BYOD and new instructional models such as the MOOC and the flipped classroom models, in which students engage with concepts via lectures stored as downloadable videos or vodcasts before coming to class, then spend class time on other learning activities. Milman (2012) says that this model is also known as an inverted classroom, and the term’s originators, Colorado chemistry teachers Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams also called it “reverse instruction” (Makice, 2012). Milman says that this approach frees up class time “for more engaging (and often collaborative) activities typically facilitated by the instructor” (p. 85).

Trend #4: Reliance on learning at a distance. As high- speed connections become more readily available to schools and homes and handheld devices like tablets become capable of online access, more students are taking virtual courses and learning through vir- tual programs. The number of virtual schools operating across states is increasing (Watson, Murin, Vashaw, Gemin, & Rapp, 2013), and some schools now offer a completely online, virtual diploma. Though currently fraught with controversies such as funding and quality control, dis- tance learning for K– 12 students eventually will have the same degree of impact on reshaping schools as it has had on redefining higher education.

Trend #5: Increased educational options for students with disabilities. New technologies continue to make the most dramatic advances in opportunities for people with disabilities. On his website, innovator Ray Kurzweil describes physical immersion sys- tems and intelligent programs that help people with sensory impairments and physical dis- abilities function effectively in learning situations. Bargerhuff, Cowan, Oliveira, Quek, and Fang (2010) describe virtual reality (VR) uses for those with visual impairments, but VR uses may now be expanding as a result of augmented reality, gesture- based computing, and other recent trends.

Technology learning check Complete Tlc 1.7 to review what you have learned from reading this section about emerging trends in technologies and their uses in education.

CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 27

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The following questions may be used either for in-class, small- group discussions or may initiate

discussions in blogs or online discussion boards:

1. visit the Common Sense Media website and review its Digital Citizenship Curriculum (under the Education menu button). How could a grasp of these skills and attitudes help young people in learning and in their social contacts with other students?

2. In his 2012 editorial “Will MOOCs Destroy Academia?” from the Communications of the ACM, vardi opines that “due to the seductive possibilities of lower costs . . . the very value of college education is being seriously questioned” (p. 5). What evidence can you cite to support or refute the idea that MOOCs will threaten education as we know it? Will it have any impact on K– 12 schools?

3. Gene Glass, originator of meta- analysis techniques, said, “Experienced education leaders worry that something is lost when teachers are replaced by avatars and real life is replaced by Facebook . . . only a fool believes everything that can be gained from face-to-face teaching and learning also can be acquired online” (2010, p. 34). Give examples from research and practice to support or refute Glass’s analysis.

4. Go to Edutopia’s website and do the following two activities:

a. In Edutopia’s “Technology Integration Research Review” from February 5, 2013, there is evidence summarizing the impact of educational technologies; learn what research can teach us about effective uses of technology for learning. Read especially the studies by subject area, such as science or writing. Summarize what you learned about the overall benefits of technology- based strategies and of using technology to teach your subject.

b. Also at the Edutopia website, click on the video tab to access the video collection. In the Search by Topic window, use the menu to browse videos by topic, and select Technology Integration. Watch one of the videos. (i) Which of the perspectives that shaped educational technology is evident in the video? (ii) Refer to Figure 1.7 in the text, and list elements that show which reasons the technology in the video is being used.

5. Educational technology historian Paul Saettler (1990) said, “Computer information systems are not just objective recording devices. They also reflect concepts, hopes, beliefs, attitudes” (p. 539). Contrast the concepts, hopes, beliefs, and attitudes that our past versus current uses of technology in education reflect.

6. Richard Clark’s now- famous comment about the impact of computers on learning was that the best current evidence is that media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes change in our nutrition (Clark, 1983, p. 445). Why has this statement had such a dramatic (and, in some cases, emotional) impact on educational technology practitioners? What evidence could you cite to respond to it?

Summary The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter.

1. introduction: The “Big picture” on Technology in Education • This chapter’s “big picture” review provides an important framework for viewing the field and con-

sists of key terminology, reflections on the past, considerations about the present, and a look ahead to the future.

• Four perspectives help define today’s educational technology: educational technology as communi- cations media (originally represented by AECT); educational technology as instructional systems and instructional design (originally represented by ISPI); educational technology as vocational training

1Chapter

28 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

collaBoraTE, discuss, rEFlEcT

Monkey Business/Fotolia

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(originally represented by ITEEA); and educational technology as computer systems (a.k.a., educa- tional and instructional computing) (originally represented by ISTE).

• Important definitions in the field are: – Educational technology—A combination of the processes and tools involved in addressing educa-

tional needs and problems, with an emphasis on applying the most current digital and information tools.

– Integrating educational technology—The process of matching digital tools and methods to given educational needs and problems.

– Instructional technology—The subset of educational technology that deals directly with teaching and learning applications (rather than educational administrative ones).

2. yesterday’s Educational Technology • The history of educational computing/technology comprises four eras: the pre- microcomputer era

( 1950– late 1970s); the microcomputer era (late 1970s– 1993); the Internet era (1990s); and mobile technologies, social media, and open access ( 2001– present).

• We have learned the following from the history of technology in education: No technology is a panacea for education; teachers usually do not develop technology materials or curriculum; “technically pos- sible” does not equal “desirable, feasible, or inevitable;” technologies change faster than teachers can keep up; older technologies can be useful, and teachers always will be more important than technology.

3. Today’s Educational Technology resources: systems and applications—These resources include: • An overview of digital technology tools includes these categories: hardware, software, and storage

media (such as flash drives), as well as cloud computing storage.

• Hardware tools include: microcomputers, handheld technologies, display technologies, imaging technologies, peripherals, and external storage.

• Technology facilities that allow teachers and students to access these resources include laboratories of networked computers and classroom computer arrangements such as ByOD and one-to-one programs.

• Software resources include programs for instruction, enhancing productivity, and administration.

4. Today’s Educational Technology issues—These include issues under the following categories: • Social issues such as privacy, health- related concerns, fears about technology misuses, and risks of

online behaviors.

• Educational issues such as lack of technology funding; teacher and student accountability for quality and progress; digital literacy and digital citizenship; debates on best practices with technologies; and reliance on online learning.

• Cultural/equity issues such as the digital divide, racial and gender equity, and students with special needs.

• Legal/ethical issues such as hacking, safety issues, academic dishonesty, and illegal downloads/ software piracy.

5. Today’s Educational Technology skills • Skills include the following: at least one competency named in the Common Core State Standards;

ISTE Standards for Students and Teachers; 21st Century Skills for Students and Teachers; ICT Competency Framework for Teachers; and the Tech- PACK framework.

• various portfolio options are available for teachers to document their skills in meeting these standards. These options include “ ready- made” portfolio software packages, Adobe Acrobat Professional, multimedia authoring software, and websites.

6. a rationale for using Educational Technology • Items that can help build a rationale come from examining evidence from past research and from

reviewing types of problems that the use of technologies has helped solve.

• Technology can help to solve some educational problems, including how to motivate and engage students in learning, how to support learning needs, and how to prepare students for the future.

7. Emerging Trends in Tools and applications • Trends in hardware, software, and system development include ubiquitous mobile computing, more

sources of open content, massive open online courses (MOOCs), increased e-book/e-text presence, tablet computing, augmented reality systems, wearable technologies, gesture- based computing, games and gamification, learning analytics, and 3D printing.

• Trends in educational applications resulting from these tools include flexible learning environments, personalized learning, new instructional models, reliance on learning at a distance, and increased educational options for students with disabilities.

CHAPTER 1 | Educational Technology in Context—The Big Picture | 29

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Technology inTegraTion Workshop

As you move through your teacher preparation program, you will see opportunities for adding products to a teaching portfolio that show what you know about and are able to do with tech- nology. In this chapter, do the following to prepare for adding to your portfolio:

1. To apply the concepts and skills you’ve read about throughout this chapter, go to the chapter 1 Technology application activity.

2. Review the section entitled “Demonstrating Technology Skills: Portfolio Options.”

3. Determine portfolio requirements for your program and begin creating your own portfolio structure.

4. As you complete your own structure, include the following products:

• Products of your group’s “Hot Topic Debates” • Products of your group’s “Collaborate, Discuss, Reflect” online or in-class activities.

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After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to:

1. Identify the contributions of each of three different factors to effective technology integration: learning theory foundations, the technology integration planning (TIP) model, and essential conditions for effective technology integration. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

2. Contrast objectivist and constructivist teaching strategies according to their language and epistemologies (i.e., beliefs about the nature of human knowledge and how to develop it). (ISTE Standards•T 5)

3. Analyze learning theories associated with directed instruction by identifying the theorists and beliefs associated with them and how they contributed to current directed technology integration strategies. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

4. Analyze learning theories associated with constructivist instruction by identifying the theorists and beliefs associated with them and how they contributed to current constructivist technology integration strategies. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

5. Analyze technology integration strategies in order to identify whether they reflect directed or constructivist approaches, or combinations of these. (ISTE Standards•T 5)

6. Determine planning needs for a sample classroom technology integration strategy by using steps in the Technology Integration Planning (TIP) Model. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 5)

7. Identify examples of each of the essential conditions to support effective classroom integration of technology. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 5)

Learning Outcomes

Theory into Practice F o u n d at i o n s F o r E F F E c t i v E t E c h n o l o g y i n t E g r at i o n

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32 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Strategy a PrEParing studEnts For statE tEsts

One of Bill’s responsibilities as mathematics department chair was helping all teachers make sure their students did well on the mathematics portion of the state’s Test of Essential Skills for Success (TESS). Bill and the other math teachers were determined that every student in the school would pass the TESS‑M, the math portion. They also decided that they would not just “teach to the test.” They wanted the students to have a good grounding in math skills that would serve them well in their future education.

From practice test scores he had seen, Bill realized that there were too many students who needed help to provide individual coaches or tutors for each one, and he disliked the idea of making all students work on skills only some of them needed. At a school he had visited in another district, Bill had been impressed with how teachers relied on a computer‑ based system that included drills, tutorials, simulations, and problem‑ solving activities that they could access in their rooms or from the computer lab.

One of the benefits of the system was that students could take practice tests and teachers could get a list of skills with which they were having problems. Then the system would recommend specific activities, on and off the system, matched to each child’s needs. The activities ranged from practice in very basic math skills to solving real‑ life problems that required algebra and other math skills. Bill persuaded his prin‑ cipal to purchase a year’s subscription to this system, and he and the other math teachers agreed on ways they would use it to supplement their classroom instruction.

That year, every student at the school passed the TESS‑M. The math teachers agreed that the computer‑ based activities had played a key role in students’ preparation. They liked the way it helped them target students’ specific needs more efficiently while not overemphasizing test taking. Bill asked the principal to make the system a permanent part of the school’s budget.

Strategy B a simulatEd Family ProjEct

Mayda’s middle‑ school math students are usually fairly good at math skills; almost none of them has any trouble passing the state’s criterion‑ referenced test. However, she likes to do at least one ongoing project each year to show students how their math skills apply to real‑ life situations. She also wants them to learn to work together to solve problems, just as they would be doing in college and in work situations when they graduate.

The first activity she does at the beginning of each year is to have her students work in small groups to simulate “fam‑ ilies.” They select a type of “job” their “wage earner” will have and create a monthly budget in a spreadsheet template she designed to show income earned from an imaginary job ver‑ sus estimated monthly expenses for each of them and for the “family.” To select jobs, the groups consult online newspaper Help Wanted sections to get an idea of what positions are available and how much they pay.

To estimate expenses, they look at online newspaper and real estate ads to see how much it costs to rent a house or

an apartment in an area where they would like to live. Throughout the year, she gives each group unexpected expenses (e.g., the dog gets sick, the roof is leaking); the students must then adjust

Technology InTegraTIon In acTIon: The role of conTexT

Sophie Bluy/Pearson Education

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 33

CHAPTER 2 Big ideas Overview Before you begin reading the rest of this chapter, listen to the Chapter 2 Big ideas Overview. It will give you a two-minute audio overview of main concepts to look for and help prepare you to work through information and exercises to achieve this chapter’s outcomes.

Overview Of faCtOrs in suCCessful teChnOlOgy integratiOn

As illustrated by the contrasting Technology Integration in Action examples that begin this chapter, the answer to the question, “Which kind of technology integration strategy works best?” is, “It depends on the situation.” Effective technology integration calls for a well- planned match of learning needs with tools and strategies, as well as classroom conditions that support them. This chapter describes three complementary factors, as depicted in Figure 2.1, that work in combination to enable effective technology integration strategies.

Learning Theory Foundations To make use of all the insights we have gained from the study and research on how people acquire new knowledge, learning theories should inform teaching strategies. Thus, it is important to begin with a look at two very different, competing theories of how learning should take place and exam- ine how various kinds of technology integration strategies were derived from them.

Technology Integration Planning (TIP) Model For the procedural and “people” issues involved in technology integration, we look to the steps of a three- phased TIP model and how teachers can assess the resources they require to plan and implement given technology- based lessons. This model specifies: analysis of teaching/learning needs/ objectives, planning tasks, and post- instruction analysis and revisions.

Essential Conditions for Effective Technology Integration The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) emphasizes that technology- based strategies work best when essential conditions, or elements that form an optimal environment, are in place to support them.

their spreadsheet budget to compensate for the extra expenses. If a group gets too far out of line with its budgeted expenses, she makes the students get a loan, which they do by researching available interest rates and adding a loan payment to their spreadsheet budgets that will pay off their debt.

Toward the end of the year, Mayda has students do estimated taxes on their earnings. Finally, they prepare a report using PowerPoint software that shows charts of their spending and what they learned about “making ends meet.” The students always tell her this is the most meaningful math activity they have ever done.

Technology Integration

Planning (TIP) Model

Essential Conditions

Learning Theories

FIgurE 2.1 Factors Required for an Enlightened Approach to Technology Integration

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34 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Thus, a review of these conditions is the final piece in the foundation: a shared vision, skilled personnel, technical assistance, appropriate teaching and assessment strategies, supportive poli- cies, access to hardware and software resources, and an engaged community.

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 2.1 to review what you have learned from reading this section about technology integration’s three essential ingredients.

Overview Of twO PersPeCtives On teChnOlOgy integratiOn

Prior to about 1980, there seemed little question about the appropriate instructional role for technology, particularly computer technology. According to respected writers of the time (Taylor, 1980), there were three acceptable roles: computers as tools to support learning (e.g., word processing, calculations), as tutors to deliver instruction (e.g., drill and practice, tutorials), and as “tutees” (e.g., learning to program computers). However, as technology became more capable and complex, society changed in response, and with those changes came differing views of education and appropriate teaching strategies.

Two Perspectives on Effective Instruction In the past, educational goals reflected society’s emphasis on the need for basic skills—such as reading, writing, and arithmetic—and an agreed-on body of information considered essential for everyone. Many educators now believe that the world is changing too quickly to define edu- cation in terms of specific information or skills; they believe it should focus instead on more general capabilities, such as “learning to learn” skills, that will help citizens cope with inevi- table technological change. The emphasis on learning and innovation skills and critical thinking and problem solving in the 21st Century Student Outcomes created by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) reflect this belief.

While everyone seems to agree that changes in our educational methods are needed to respond to modern challenges, not everyone agrees on which strategies will serve today’s edu- cational goals. Statements of theorists and practitioners reflect two contrasting views of how learning should take place:

• directed instruction. Teachers should transmit a predefined set of information to students through teacher- organized activities. This view is based on objectivism, a belief system grounded primarily in behaviorist learning theory and the information- processing branch of the cognitive learning theories.

• inquiry- based learning. Learners should generate their own knowledge through experi- ences, while teachers serve only as facilitators. This view is based on constructivism, which evolved from other branches of thinking in cognitive learning theory.

A few technology applications, such as drill and practice and tutorial software functions, are associated only with directed instruction; most others (problem solving, multimedia pro- duction, Web- based learning) can inform either directed instruction or constructivist teaching and learning, depending on how they are used. This text is based on the premise that there are meaningful roles for both directed instruction and constructivist strategies and the technol- ogy applications associated with them. Both can help teachers and students meet the many and varied requirements of learning in today’s information age society.

Where Did the Perspectives Come From? How did these differences come about? It is important to recognize that both people who espouse directed instruction methods and those who take constructivist approaches are attempting to identify what Gagné (1985) called the conditions of learning, or sets of circumstances that bring

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 35

about learning. Both approaches are based on the work of respected learning theorists and psy- chologists who have studied both the behavior of human beings as learning organisms and the behavior of students in schools and classrooms.

Educators’ views diverge, however, in the ways they define learning, how they identify the conditions required to make learning happen, and how they perceive the problems that interfere most with learning. They disagree because they subscribe to different life philosophies and learning theories and, consequently, they take different perspectives on improving current educational practice. The articles cited in the Hot Topic Debate reflects how these differing philosophies affect technology integration strategies.

The two perspectives have very different underlying epistemologies (beliefs about the nature of human knowledge and how to develop it). Constructivists (those who espouse inquiry- based methods) and objectivists (those who espouse directed methods) come from separate and different epistemological “planets,” although both nurture many different tribes or cultures. The characteristics and theoretical origins of these philosophical differences can be briefly summarized in the following way:

• Objectivists—Knowledge has a separate, real existence of its own outside the human mind. Learning happens when this knowledge is transmitted to people and they store it in their minds in ways that can be retrieved later.

• Constructivists—Humans construct all knowledge in their minds by participating in certain experiences. Learning occurs when one constructs both mechanisms for learning and one’s own unique version of the knowledge, colored by background, experiences, and aptitudes.

Sfard (1998) found that objectivists and constructivists view learning in such different ways that they actually use different metaphors for it: the acquisition metaphor and the participation metaphor. These differences in language signal fundamental differences in thinking about how learning takes place and how we can foster it. Figure 2.2 gives examples of these differing views and the language that signals them.

Sometimes differences of opinion among objectivists and constructivists have gener- ated strident debate in the literature (Clark, Yates, Early, & Moulton, 2010; Baroody, Eiland, Purpura, & Reid, 2013). Objectivists say constructivist methods are unrealistic; constructivists

The dramatic differences in learning theories underlying traditional objectivist strategies and innovative constructivist strategies (a.k.a., discovery learning, inquiry‑ based learning, and experiential learning) have generated ongoing debate. Nowhere has this debate been more strident than in discussions about which best practices in using technologies can support learning. For example, Clark, Yates, Early, and Moulton (2010) summarize “a half- century of research evidence” that using “electronic media and discovery‑ based learning” has failed to produce results equal to “guided training methods” (p. 263). Adams, Mayer, MacNamara, Koenig, and Wainess (2012) say that this evidence of low or negative impact extends even to discovery

methods in today’s computer‑ based games. Constructivists like Snape and Fox- Turnbull (2013) answer that today’s “graveyard model of teaching” (everyone in rows and dead) needs to be replaced with students interacting, solving problems, applying skills, and making decisions about meaningful issues” (p. 52), and only “technological practice (that) uses authentic tools and processes” (p. 53) can meet this need. In addition, Baroody, Eiland, Purpura, and Reid (2013) found that computer‑ based discovery learning can even help young learners acquire basic mathematical concepts. It is also evident that many of today’s T‑PACK assessments are based on measuring teachers’ growth in “authentic” (i.e., constructivist or inquiry‑ based) uses of technology in instruction. For example, Mouza, Karchmer‑ Klein, Nandakumar, Ozden, and Hu (2014) said that a “marker of effective teacher preparation” is the ability of teachers “to design inquiry- based activities around Web- based resources (p. 210).

What are the basic beliefs that underlie each of these oppos‑ ing positions? Which one are you closer to and how would you respond to the opposing view?

Hot Topic Debate What are “Best Practices” in Technology Integration?

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36 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

consider directed methods to be outmoded. The sections that follow will describe learning theories that underlie these belief systems. Subsequent sections will show how these theories give rise to different technology integration strategies.

Learning means transmitting a

body of knowledge!

Knowledge is generated in the

mind, not transmitted!

Students must all demonstrate mastery

of standards in the same way;

standardization makes accountability

possible!

Students generating their own knowledge is time-

consuming and inef�cient!

Students lack prerequisite skills to

handled constructivist problem solving!

Even if learning is anchored in authentic

problems, students may not transfer skills to real-life situations!

Students do not learn to solve novel problems or work cooperatively with others to solve

problems!

Learning is repetitive and predictable:

students �nd it dull and irrelevent; low

motivation leads to lower achievement and higher dropout rates.

Don’t break subjects into discrete topics and teach them in isolation! Students cannot apply them later; knowledge is

inert.

Critics of directed methods

Critics of constructivist methods

FIgurE 2.2 Perspectives from the Directed and Constructivist “Planets”

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 2.2 to review what you have learned from reading this section about differing perspectives on teaching and learning.

learning theOry fOundatiOns Of direCted integratiOn MOdels

Directed models of integrating technology were derived primarily from a combination of four theorists and theories, each of which contributed essential qualities and procedures: behav- iorist, information- processing, and cognitive- behaviorist learning theories and the systems approaches to instructional design that were based on them. This section summarizes the basic concepts associated with these theories and their implications for education practices and for technology integration.

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 37

Behaviorist Theories These theories, among the earliest explanations for how people learn new things, are based primarily on the work of B. F. Skinner. Read background on Skinner and his theories in Figure 2.3. From Skinner’s theories, we learned that instruction must provide the right stimuli and reinforcement to get students to make the desired behavioral responses, or learned skills. Computer- based instruction with teaching machines and programmed instruction quickly proved popular applications of this theory because they provided consistent, reliable stimuli and reinforcement on an individual basis.

Information- Processing Theories Educators found Skinner’s stimulus- response view of learned behavior insufficient to guide all types of learning, so the first cognitive (as opposed to behavioral) learning theorists began to hypothesize processes inside the brain allow human beings to learn and remember. Much of the work of the information- processing theorists is based on a model of memory and storage pro- posed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), and many teaching practices are based on this model.

Before B. F. Skinner, theories of learning were dominated by classical conditioning concepts proposed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who said that behavior is largely controlled by involuntary physical responses to outside stimuli (e.g., dogs salivating at the sight of a can of dog food). By contrast, Skinner’s operant conditioning theory said that people can have voluntary mental control over their responses (e.g., a child reasons he will get praise if he behaves well in school). Eggen and Kauchak (2013) said Skinner believed that learning is “observable responses that change in frequency or duration as the result of consequences, (which are) events that occur following behaviors” (p. 296). Skinner’s work showed that behaviors are controlled by the consequences of actions, rather than by events preceding the actions. A consequence is an outcome (stimulus) after the behavior, which can influence future behaviors. Skinner’s work made him a highly influential figure during this time.

Skinner reasoned that the internal processes (those inside the mind) involved in learning could not be seen directly. (Scientific work had not advanced sufficiently at that time to observe brain activity.) Therefore, he concentrated on cause‑ and effect relationships that could be established by observation. He found that human behavior could be shaped by contingencies of reinforcement or situations in which reinforcement for a learner is made contingent on a desired response. He identified three kinds of situations that can shape behavior:

• Positive reinforcement. A situation is set up so that an increase in a desired behavior will result from a stimulus. For example, to earn praise or good grades (positive reinforcement), a learner studies hard for a test more often (desired behavior).

• negative reinforcement. A situation is set up so that an increase in a desired behavior will result from avoiding or removing a stimulus. For example, a student dislikes going to detention (negative reinforcement), so to avoid detention again, the student is quiet in class more often (desired behavior).

• Punishment. A situation is set up so that a decrease in a desired behavior will result from undesirable consequences, such as when a student is given a failing grade (punishment) when she cheats on a test (undesirable behavior), so she is less likely to cheat in the future.

implications for education. Skinner’s influential book, The Technology of Teaching (1968), gave a detailed theory of how classroom instruction should reflect these behaviorist principles, and many of his classroom management and instructional techniques still are widely used today. To Skinner, teaching was a process of arranging contingencies of reinforcement effectively to bring about learning. He believed that even such high‑ level capabilities as critical thinking and creativity could be taught in this way; it was simply a matter of establishing chains of behavior through principles of reinforcement. Skinner felt that programmed instruction was the most efficient means available for learning skills. Educational psy‑ chologists such as Benjamin Bloom also used Skinner’s principles to develop methods that became known as mastery learning. In summary:

• We know when people learn only by observing changes in their behavior.

• Behavior is shaped by stimulus‑ response connections.

• Reinforcement strengthens responses; if people do something and are reinforced for it, they learn to respond in predictable ways.

• Chains of behavior become skills.

implications for technology integration. Most original drill‑ and‑ practice software was based on Skinner’s reinforcement principles, for example, when students knew they would get praise or an entertaining graphic if they gave correct answers. Much tutorial software is based on the idea of programmed instruction. Because the idea behind drill‑and‑practice software is to increase the frequency of correct answering in response to stimuli, these packages often are used to help students memorize important basic information, while tutorial software gives students an efficient path through concepts they want to learn.

FIgurE 2.3 Skinner’s Behaviorist Theories of Learning: Building on the S– R Connection

Corbis/Bettman

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38 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Computer programs provide ideal environments for the highly- structured cueing, attention- getting, visualization, and practice features that information- processing theorists found so essential to learning and remembering. See Figure 2.4 for information on on information processing theories of Atkinson and Shiffrin.

Cognitive- Behaviorist Theory Robert Gagné was a renowned educational psychologist who translated principles from behav- iorist and information- processing theories into practical instructional strategies for educators. Read background on cognitive- behaviorist theories of Robert Gagné in Figure 2.5. Instruction based on this theory had to provide “conditions for learning” by offering activities matched to each type of skill. Students had to demonstrate they had learned prerequisite skills by demon- strating the type of behavior appropriate for the skill. Computer- based methods such as drills and tutorials were deemed useful since they could consistently provide the ideal events and conditions for learning.

Behaviorists like Skinner focused only on external, directly observable indicators of human learning. Many people found this explanation insufficient to guide instruction. During the 1950s and 1960s, a group of researchers known as the cognitive‑ learning theorists began to hypothesize a model that would help people conceptualize processes they could not observe directly. Though some constructivists disassociate themselves with them, the information‑ processing theorists were among the first and most influential of the cognitive‑ learning theorists. They hypothesized processes inside the brain that allow human beings to learn and remember.

Although no single, cohesive information‑ processing theory of learning summarizes the field, the work of the information processing theorists is based on a model of memory and storage originally proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). According to them, the brain contains certain structures that process information much like a computer. This model of the mind as computer hypothesizes that the human brain has three kinds of memory or “stores”:

• sensory registers. The part of memory that receives all the information a person senses

• short- term memory (stM). Also known as working memory, the part of memory where new infor‑ mation is held temporarily until it is either lost or placed into long‑ term memory

• long- term memory (ltM). The part of memory that has an unlimited capacity and can hold infor‑ mation indefinitely.

According to this model, learning begins when information is sensed through receptors: eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and/or hands. This information is held in the sensory registers for a very short time (perhaps a second), after which it either enters STM or is lost. Many Information‑processing theorists believed that information can be sensed but lost before it gets to STM if the person is not paying at‑ tention to it. Anything people pay attention to goes into working memory, where it can stay for about 5 to 20 seconds. After this time, if information is not processed or practiced in a way that causes it to transfer to LTM, then it, too, is lost. Information‑ processing theorists believed that for new informa‑ tion to be transferred to LTM, it must be linked in some way to prior knowledge already in LTM. Once information does enter LTM, it is there essentially permanently, although some psychologists believed that even information stored in LTM can be lost if not used regularly.

implications for education. Although subsequent studies have indicated that learning may be more complicated than the two- store model of memory would explain (Schunk, 2012), information- processing views have become the basis for many common classroom practices. Teaching practices based on these concepts include the use of: (1) interesting questions and eye- catching material to help students pay attention to a new topic; (2) mnemonic devices (e.g., saying that HOMES stands for the first letters in the five Great Lakes; (3) instructions that point out (or cue) important points in new material to help students remember them by linking them to informa‑ tion they already know; (4) visual explanations of abstract concepts; and (5) practice exercises to help transfer information from STM to LTM.

implications for technology integration. Computer programs provide ideal environments for the highly structured cueing, attention‑ getting, visualization, and practice features that information‑ processing theorists found so essential to learning and remembering. Information‑ processing theories have also guided the development of artificial intelligence (AI) applications, an attempt to develop computer software that can simulate the thinking and learning behaviors of humans. Much of the drill and practice software available is designed to help students encode and store newly learned information into LTM.

Sensory Registers

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory

FIgurE 2.4 Information Processing Summary

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 39

Systems Approaches: Instructional Design Models The concept of instruction as a self- contained system with interdependent components is based on work of educational psychologists such as Robert Gagné and Leslie Briggs. They applied systems principles from military and industrial training to create models for designing school

Gagné built on the work of behavioral and information‑ processing theorists by translating principles from their learning theories into practical instructional strategies that teachers could employ with directed instruction. He is best known for three of his contributions in this area: the Events of Instruction, the types of learning, and learning hierarchies. Gagné used the information‑ processing model of internal processes to derive a set of guidelines that teachers could follow to arrange optimal “conditions of learning.” His set of nine events of instruction was perhaps the best known of these guidelines (Gagné, Briggs, & Wager, 1992):

1. Gaining attention

2. Informing the learner of the objective

3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning

4. Presenting new material

5. Providing learning guidance

6. Eliciting performance

7. Providing feedback about correctness

8. Assessing performance

9. Enhancing retention and recall

Gagné identified several types of learning as behaviors students demonstrate after acquiring knowledge. These differ according to the condi‑ tions necessary to foster them. He showed how the Events of Instruction would be carried out slightly differently from one type of learning to another (Gagné et al., 1992):

1. Intellectual skills:

• Problem solving

• Higher order rules

• Defined concepts

• Concrete concepts

• Discriminations

2. Cognitive strategies

3. Verbal information

4. Motor skills

5. Attitudes

The development of “intellectual skills,” Gagné believed, requires learning that amounts to a building process. Lower level skills provide a necessary foundation for higher level ones. For example, to learn to work long division problems, students first would have to learn all the prerequisite math skills, beginning with number recognition, number facts, simple addition and subtraction, multiplication, and simple division. Therefore, to teach a skill, a teacher must first identify its prerequisite skills and make sure the student possesses them. He called this list of building block skills a learning hierarchy.

implications for education. Instruction based on this theory provides “conditions for learning” by offering activities matched to each type of skill. Students had to demonstrate they had learned prerequisite skills by demonstrating the type of behavior appropriate for the skill. For example, if the skill was using a grammar rule, students had to demonstrate they could correctly apply the rule in situations that required it. Gagné’s Events of Instruction and learning hierarchies have been widely used to develop systematic instructional design principles. Although his work has had more impact on designing instruction for business, industry, and the military than for K– 12 schools, many school curriculum development projects still use a learning hierarchy approach to sequencing skills.

implications for technology integration. Computer‑ based methods such as drills and tutorials were deemed useful since they could consistently provide the ideal events and conditions for learning. Gagné, Wager, and Rojas (1981) showed how Gagné’s Events of Instruction could be used to plan lessons using each kind of instructional software (drill, tutorial, simulation). They said that only a tutorial could “stand by itself” and accomplish all of the necessary events of instruction; the other kinds of software required teacher‑ led activities to accomplish

events before and after software use.

FIgurE 2.5 Gagné’s Cognitive‑ Behaviorist Theory: Providing Conditions for Learning

Courtesy of Harriet Gagné

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40 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

and college instruction. A system of instruction (based on behaviorist, information- processing, and cognitive- behaviorist theories) can be designed to achieve replicable results efficiently (i.e., good results over time and across student groups). See Figure 2.6 to read background on systems approaches to instructional design.

Objectivist Theory Foundations for Directed Methods Figure 2.7 shows how these four theories contribute to directed technology integration strategies based on mastery learning approaches, or sequences of objectives that, once met, define mastery of a subject. A considerable body of research indicates that directed methods work well to foster this kind of approach. For example, Clark, Yates, Early, and Moulton (2010) argue that directed instruction is more effective and efficient than minimally guided instruction when learners do not have enough prior knowledge to be self- guided. They say that minimally guided instruction ignores the fundamentals of human cognition and overloads working memory. Adams, Mayer, MacNamara, Koenig, and Wainess (2012) and other scholars have echoed Hirsch’s (2002) early declaration that “one minute of explicit (directed) learning can be more effective than a month of implicit (exploratory) learning.”

Objectivists focus primarily on technology integration strategies for systematically designed, structured learning products, such as drills, tutorials, and personalized learning systems (PLSs), discussed in Chapter 3. When they do use other materials such as simulations and some kinds of problem- solving software that have no innate structure, integration strategies are very struc- tured, providing a step-by-step sequence of learning activities matched to specific performance objectives. When objectivists evaluate these products, they typically look for a match among

There are many versions of the systematic design process and many views on what constitutes instructional design (Roblyer, 2015). Saettler (1990) said that the development of “scientifically based instructional systems” (p. 343) precedes this century, but he also pointed out that modern instructional design models and methods have their roots in the collaborative work of Robert Gagné and Leslie Briggs. These notable educational psychologists developed a way to transfer “ laboratory‑ based learning principles” gleaned from military and industrial training to create an efficient way of developing curriculum and instruction for schools.

Gagné specialized in the use of instructional task analysis to identify required subskills and conditions of learning for them. Briggs’s expertise was in systematic methods of designing training programs to save companies time and money in training their personnel. When they combined their two areas of expertise, the result was a set of step‑by‑step processes known as a systems approach to instructional design, or systematic instructional design, which came

into common use in the 1970s and 1980s. Designers created an instructional system by: stating goals and objectives, doing a task analysis to decide on learning conditions; aligning assessment and instructional strategies with goals and objectives; creating materials that deliver strate‑ gies; and testing and revising materials before finalizing them.

According to Saettler (1990), “the 1960s produced most of the major components of the instructional design process” (p. 345). Names associated with this era include Robert Mager (instructional objectives), Glaser ( criterion‑ referenced testing), and Cronbach and Scriven (for‑ mative and summative evaluation). Other major contributors to modern instructional design models include David Merrill (component display theory) and Charles Reigeluth (elaboration theory).

implications for education. Systems approaches to designing instruction have had great influence on training programs for business, industry, and the military, and somewhat less influence on K– 12 education. However, performance objectives and sequences for instructional activities still are widely used. Most lesson planning models call for performance objectives (sometimes called behavioral objectives) to be stated in terms of measurable, observable learner behaviors.

implications for technology integration. Most directed models for using technology resources are based on systems approaches; that is, teachers set objectives for a lesson, then develop a sequence of activities. A software package or an Internet activity is selected to carry out part of the instructional sequence. For example, the teacher may introduce a principle of genetics, then allow students to experiment with a simulation package to “breed” cats in order to see the principle in action. To those who espouse this approach, a system of instruction must be structured, sequential, and continually monitor student progress. Computer‑ based instruction is well‑ suited to delivering such an instructional system in a consistent and reliable way, while monitoring and giving fast feedback on student progress.

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

FIgurE 2.6 Systems Approaches and the Design of Instruction: Managing the Complexity of Teaching

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 41

Im pli

cat ions

for Te chnology Integration Strategies

plications for Technology Integrat ion S

tra teg

Information processing theories

(Atkinson & Shiffrin) Attention-getting,

repetitive, individual practice

Systems approaches to instructional design

Consistent presentation of new information,

practice, & assessment

Cognitive-behaviorist theories (Gagné)

Consistent presentation of sequences to ful�ll events of instruction

Behaviorist theories (Skinner)

Consistent presentation of

stimuli & reinforcement

Choose directed technology integration strategies when the goal is mastery learning:

Skills and content to be learned are clearly-de�ned, concrete, and unambiguous, and when a speci�c behavioral response (test performance) must be used to indicate learning has occurred. Students need individual tutoring and practice to learn and to demonstrate prerequisite skills. Students need to acquire speci�c skills as quickly and ef�ciently as possible.

•

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 2.3 to review what you have learned from reading this section about objectivist learning theories and technology integration strategies based on them.

FIgurE 2.7 How Objectivist Theories and Practices Lead to Directed Technology Integration Strategies

objectives, methods, and assessment strategies and how well they help teachers and students meet curriculum standards. To reflect objectivist principles, materials and integration strategies must have clearly defined objectives and a set sequence for their use.

learning theOry: fOundatiOns Of COnstruCtivist integratiOn MOdels

Constructivist beliefs and methods were derived from a combination of six theorists and theo- ries, each of which contributed essential qualities and procedures: social activism theory, social cognitive theory, scaffolding theory, child development theory, discovery learning and child development, and multiple intelligences theory. This section summarizes the basic concepts associated with each of these theories and their implications for education practices and for technology integration.

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42 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Social Activism Theory An early proponent of racial equality and women’s suffrage, John Dewey’s radical activ- ism shaped his beliefs about education. Today’s interdisciplinary curriculum and hands-on, experience- based learning are in tune with Dewey’s lifelong message. His emphasis on the need for cooperative (social) learning would mesh well with uses of social media and technologies that enable group projects. Read background on John Dewey and social activism theory based on his beliefs in Figure 2.8.

Social Cognitive Theory The work of Albert Bandura was very much in keeping with Dewey’s views of learning as a social process, but Bandura did pioneering research to show how this learning occurred. Bandura’s focus on modeling and self- efficacy are reflected in many of today’s instructional activities.

John Dewey is considered a philosopher rather than a learning theorist, an educational writer rather than an educational researcher. He was born in 1859 and most of his contributions to education predated those of the other famous indi‑ viduals described here. Yet no one voice in education has had more pervasive and continuing influence on educational practice. In many ways, he can be thought of as the Grandfather of Constructivism, but he also advocated a merging of absolutism and experimentalism in much the same way as this chapter calls for using a combination of directed and constructivist methods.

Dewey’s beliefs were very much shaped by his direct involvement in the social and cultural issues of the time; clearly he was a radical in his political views. An early proponent of racial equality and women’s suffrage, he helped found a third American political party for liberals. His beliefs about education also reflected this radical activism. Though he did not himself originate the Progressive Education Movement, a reform initiative popular in the first half of the 1900s, he was identified closely with it; the movement survived his death in 1952 by only a few years. His philosophy

of education, which he was able to see implemented at the turn of the century in a laboratory school established at the University of Chicago, focused on principles and concepts in direct opposition to those in education during that period. He believed the following:

• Curriculum should arise from students’ interests. Dewey deplored standardization. He felt curriculum should be flexible and tailored to the needs of each student, a “pedocentric” strategy rather than the “scholiocentric” one of the time. He advocated letting each child’s experiences determine individual learning activities.

• Curriculum topics should be integrated, rather than isolated from each other. He felt that isolating topics from one another prevented learners from grasping the whole of knowledge and caused skills and facts to be viewed as unrelated bits of information.

• education is growth, rather than an end in itself. He did not share the common view of the time that education is preparation for work. He found that this view served to separate society into social classes and promote elitism. Rather, he looked on education as a way of helping individuals understand their culture and develop their relationship to society and their unique roles in it.

• education occurs through its connection with life, rather than through participation in curriculum. He felt that social consciousness was the ultimate aim of all education. To be useful, all learning had to be in the context of social experience. However, he found that school skills such as reading and mathematics were becoming ends in themselves, disconnected from any meaningful social context.

• learning should be hands-on and experience based, rather than abstract. He objected to commonly used teaching methods that used a “ one- way channel of communication—from teacher to student through direct drill and memorization . . .” (Smith & Smith, 1994). He be‑ lieved that meaningful learning resulted from students working cooperatively on tasks that were directly related to their interests. Dewey’s writings (e.g., The School and Society, 1899; The Child and the Curriculum, 1902; How We Think, 1910; Schools of Tomorrow, 1915; Democracy and Education, 1916; Experience and Education, 1938) spanned an era of monumental change in America’s cultural identity and helped reform the country’s education system to reflect those changing times.

implications for education. Although it is difficult to say whether or not Dewey’s philosophies directly caused some of the trends in current educational practice, today’s interdisciplinary curriculum and hands‑on, experience‑ based learning are very much in tune with Dewey’s lifelong message. However, it also is likely he would deplore the current standards movement and the use of testing programs to determine school promotion and readiness for graduation.

implications for technology integration. As Bruce (2000) noted at the dawn of the Internet Age, Dewey would likely have approved of technologies like the Internet being used to help students communicate with each other and learn more about their society. Dewey’s empha‑ sis on the need for cooperative learning would mesh well with technologies used for developing group projects and presentations. However, as Dewey himself recognized, the central problem with all these resources is combining them into a curriculum that encourages intellectual challenge.

FIgurE 2.8 John Dewey: Educational Reform as Social Activism

Courtesy of the Library of Congress

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 43

Technologies like video and social media provide models and either increase or decrease self- efficacy, depending on the messages these media carry. The teacher’s job is to shape these mes- sages and models so they have a positive impact on self- efficacy. Read background on Albert Bandura and social cognitive theory in Figure 2.9.

Scaffolding Theories Lev Semenovich Vygotsky’s views were very much in tune with the social learning views of Dewey and Bandura. He felt that how children learn and think derives directly from the culture around them, but that a child perceives things much differently than an adult. Children learn by scaffolding, or building on what they know to what they need to know, with the help of adults. Today’s educators espouse many of Vygotsky’s beliefs that instruction should be tailored to each student’s needs, scaffolding the student to higher levels of learning after ascertaining the stu- dent’s current level of understanding. Many visual technology tools, from video- based scenarios to virtual reality, are designed to scaffold students’ understanding through graphic examples and real- life experiences relevant to their individual needs. Read background on Lev Vygotsky and scaffolding theory in Figure 2.10.

Child Development Theory French biologist Jean Piaget added to what we know about learning by exploring early stages of development in children and the role of environment in these stages. Although Piaget was not interested in applying his ideas to school- based education, today’s early childhood and elemen- tary curriculum reflects many of Piaget’s beliefs about children’s developmental levels. Also, Piaget’s pupil, MIT mathematician Seymour Papert (1980), used Piaget’s theories as the basis of his work with Logo, a language designed to let young students solve design problems using an on-screen cursor they called a “turtle.” This environment provided the vital link that Papert

Bandura’s work challenged some of the major premises of conditioning theories that were most popular at that time. He said that, contrary to the behavioral theories of reinforcement, students learned a great deal through observation (which he called vicarious learning), rather than through their actions (which he called enactive learning) (Schunk, 2012). Bandura found, for example, that one of the most powerful ways students learned was through observing the behaviors modeled by those around them.

He also found there was a difference between learning and behaviors that showed learning. Learning was acquir‑ ing new information or concepts, but he found that students often learned information and concepts in social settings that they did not reflect in any immediate behavior. Though he acknowledged that enactive learning was learning from one’s own actions, his ideas differed from Skinner’s view that behavior changed automatically (i.e., without intention)

as a result of reinforcement. Instead, Bandura found that it was students’ beliefs and judgments as social beings that determined whether or not their actions changed; their internal cognitive processes shaped their actions, rather than solely as a result of external consequences resulting from reinforcement.

Motivation to learn also played a central role in Bandura’s social cognitive theory. He found that students who were innately capable sometimes did not learn because they lacked self- efficacy, or belief in their abilities to accomplish the actions necessary to learn. Self‑ efficacy beliefs can be shaped by teachers and others and can affect whether or not students even try to learn, as well as how long they persist at learn‑ ing tasks. Schunk (2012) reported a series of studies that showed students’ self- efficacy and achievement increased from watching videos of their own or peers’ performance. Self‑ efficacy differs from self‑ concept in that self‑ concept is a general self‑ perception of one’s overall abilities; self‑ efficacy is belief specific to a certain area of learning.

implications for education. Educators’ practices acknowledge the importance of modeling. They frequently try to shape student behav‑ iors and grow motivation to learn by showing other students of similar age and backgrounds exhibiting these behaviors. Teachers also provide models, though sometimes inadvertently. Students tend to imitate what teachers do, rather than attending to what teachers say.

implications for technology integration. Video examples can provide many examples of models that teachers would not otherwise have at their disposal. In addition, studies have shown that self‑ modeling videos, in which students watch examples of their own successful performance, can increase their self‑ efficacy in the area.

FIgurE 2.9 Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: Social Influences on Learning

Courtesy of Albert Bandura

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44 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

felt would allow children to move more easily from the concrete operations or earlier stages of development to more abstract (formal) operations. Papert’s 1980 book, Mindstorms, challenged then- current instructional goals and methods for mathematics and became the first construc- tivist statement of educational practice with technology. Read background on Jean Piaget and developmental theory in Figure 2.11.

Discovery Learning Some of educational theorist Jerome Bruner’s beliefs seem to coincide with those of Dewey, Vygotsky, and Piaget. Like Piaget, Bruner believed children go through various stages of intellec- tual development. But unlike Piaget, Bruner supported instructional intervention. Bruner’s theories are associated with unstructured learning activities that he called discovery learning. This kind of learning can be supported with simulations, problem- solving environments, and exploring Internet sites for relevant information. Read background on Jerome Bruner’s theories in Figure 2.12.

Multiple Intelligences Theory Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory is the only learning theory that attempts to define the role of intelligence in learning. It posits there are at least eight different and relatively inde- pendent kinds of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s work (Gardner & Hatch, 1989) is based on

For many years, the writings of Russian philosopher and educational psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky had more influence on the development of educational theory and practice in America than in his own country. Vygotsky’s landmark book, Pedagogical Psychology, though written in 1926, was not published in Russia until 1991. Davydov (1995) attributed this lack of attention to the nature of the Russian government up until the time of perestroika. “. . . Vygotsky’s general ideas could not be used for such a long time in the education system of a totalitarian society—they simply contradict all of its principles” (p. 13). What were these educational concepts that were so threatening to a communistic state but found such a warm reception in a democracy?

Vygotsky felt that cognitive development was directly related to and based on social development (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013). What children learn and how they think are derived directly from the culture around them. An adult perceives things much differently than a child does, but this difference decreases as children gradually translate their social views into personal, psychological ones. Vygotsky’s theories, with their emphasis on individual differences, personal creativity, and

the influence of culture on learning, were discordant with the aims of the USSR, a government designed to “subjugate the education of young people to the interests of a militarized state that needed citizens only as devoted cogs” (Davydov, 1995, p. 12).

Vygotsky referred to the difference between these two levels of cognitive functioning (adult/expert and child/novice) as the Zone of Proxi- mal development (ZPd). He felt that teachers could provide good instruction by finding out where each child was in his or her development and building on the child’s experiences. He called this building process “scaffolding.” Ormrod (2014) said that teachers promote students’ cognitive development by presenting some classroom tasks that “they can complete only with assistance, that is, within each student’s zone of proximal development” (p. 39). Problems occur when the teacher leaves too much for the child to do independently, thus slowing the child’s intellectual growth.

implications for education. Davydov (1995) found six basic implications for education in Vygotsky’s ideas (p. 13):

1. Education is intended to develop children’s personalities.

2. The human personality is linked to its creative potential, and education should be designed to discover and develop this potential to its fullest in each individual.

3. Teaching and learning assume that students master their inner values through some personal activity.

4. Teachers direct and guide the individual activities of the students, but they do not force their will on them or dictate to them.

5. The most valuable methods for student learning are those that correspond to their individual developmental stages and needs; therefore, these methods cannot be uniform across students.

6. These ideas had heavy influence on constructivist thought; Vygotsky’s works were very much in tune with constructivist concepts of instruction based on each child’s personal experiences and learning through collaborative, social activities.

implications for technology integration. Many constructivist models of technology use the concepts of scaffolding and developing each individual’s potential. Many of the more visual tools, from Logo to virtual reality, are used under the assumption that they can help bring the student up from their level of understanding to a higher level by showing graphic examples and by giving them real‑ life experiences relevant to their individual needs.

FIgurE 2.10 The Contributions of Lev Vygotsky: Building a Scaffold to Learning

Courtesy of the Library of Congress

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 45

Guilford’s pioneering work on the structure of intellect and Sternberg’s view of intelligence as influenced by culture. Though teachers have experimented with allowing students to demon- strate learning in various ways, this theory has had less impact on curriculum due to the need for students to pass high- stakes tests in only one format. This theory supports doing group work on multimedia products, assigning students group roles based on their type of intelligence (e.g.,

Piaget’s examination of how thinking and reasoning abilities develop in the human mind began with observations of his own children and developed into a career that spanned some 60 years. He referred to himself as a “genetic episte‑ mologist,” or a scientist who studies how knowledge begins and develops in individuals. Both believers in and critics of Piagetian principles agree that his work was complex, profound, sometimes misunderstood, and usually oversimplified. However, at least two features of this work are widely recognized as underlying all of Piaget’s theories: his stages of cognitive development and his processes of cognitive functioning.

Piaget believed that all children go through four stages of cognitive development. While the ages at which they experience these stages vary somewhat, he felt that each developed higher reasoning abilities in the same sequence:

• sensorimotor stage (from birth to about 2 years). Characteristics of children: They explore the world around them through their senses and through motor activity. In the earliest stage, they cannot differentiate between themselves and their environments (if they cannot see something, it does not exist). Also, they begin to have some perception of cause and effect; develop the ability to follow something with their eyes.

• Preoperational stage (from about age 2 to about age 7). Characteristics of children: They develop greater abilities to communicate through speech and to engage in symbolic activities such as drawing objects and playing by pretending and imagining; develop numerical abilities such as the skill of assigning a number to each object in a group as it is counted; increase their level of self‑ control and are able to delay gratification, but are still fairly egocentric; and are unable to do what Piaget called conservation tasks (tasks that call for recognizing that a substance remains the same even though its appearance changes, e.g., shape is not related to quantity).

• Concrete operational stage (from about age 7 to about age 11). Characteristics of children: They increase in abstract reasoning ability and ability to generalize from concrete experiences; and can do conservation tasks.

• formal operations stage (from about age 12 to about age 15). Characteristics of children: They can form and test hypotheses, organize information, and reason scientifically; they can show results of abstract thinking in the form of symbolic materials (e.g., writing, drama).

Piaget believed a child’s development from one stage to another was a gradual process of interacting with the environment. Children develop as they confront new and unfamiliar features of their environment that do not fit with their current views of the world. When this happens, he said, a “disequilibrium” occurs that the child seeks to resolve through one of two processes of adaptation. The child either fits the new experi‑ ences into his or her existing view of the world (a process called assimilation) or changes that schema or view of the world to incorporate the new experiences, (a process called accommodation). Though recent research has raised questions about the ages at which children’s abilities develop, and it is widely believed that age does not determine development alone, Ormrod (2014) summarizes Piaget’s basic assumptions about children’s cognitive development in the following way:

• Children are active and motivated learners.

• Children’s knowledge of the world becomes more integrated and organized over time.

• Children learn through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

• Cognitive development depends on interaction with one’s physical and social environment.

• The processes of equilibration (resolving disequilibrium) help to develop increasingly complex levels of thought.

• Cognitive development can occur only after certain genetically controlled neurological changes occur.

• Cognitive development occurs in four qualitatively different stages.

implications for education. Educators do not always agree on the implications of Piaget’s theories for classroom instruction. One frequently expressed instructional principle based on Piaget’s stages is the need for concrete examples and experiences when teaching abstract concepts to young children who may not yet have reached a formal operations stage. Piaget himself repeatedly expressed a lack of interest in how his work applied to school‑ based education, calling it “the American question.” He pointed out that much learning occurs without any formal instruction, as a result of the child interacting with the environment. However, constructivist educators tend to claim Piaget as the philosophical mentor who guides their work.

implications for technology integration. Many technology‑ using teachers feel that using visual resources such as Logo and simulations can help raise children’s developmental levels more quickly than they would have occurred through maturation; thus children who use these resources can learn higher level concepts than they normally would not have been able to understand until they were older. Other educators feel that young children should experience things in the “real world” before seeing them represented in the more abstract ways they are shown in software, for example, in computer simulations.

FIgurE 2.11 Jean Piaget’s Theories: Cognitive Development in Children

Corbis/Bettman

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46 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

those with high interpersonal intelligence are project coordinators, those with high logical– mathematical ability are technical experts, and those with spatial ability are designers). Read background on Gardner’s theory in Figure 2.13.

Constructivist Theory Foundations for Inquiry- Based Methods Figure 2.14 shows how these six theories contribute to constructivist technology integration strategies based on an inquiry- based approach to learning. These qualities were designed to address a problem John Seely Brown called inert knowledge, a term introduced by Whitehead in 1929 to mean skills that students learned but did not know how to transfer later to problems that required them (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Brown said that inert knowledge resulted from learning skills in isolation from each other and from real- life application; thus, he advo- cated cognitive apprenticeships, or activities that called for authentic problem solving, that is, solving problems in settings that are familiar and meaningful to students (CTGV, 1990). These ideas were based on the theories of Dewey, Bandura, Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bruner.

Today’s technology- enabled environments were designed to provide learning environ- ments that reflected situated cognition, or instruction anchored in experiences that learners considered authentic because they emulate the behavior of adults. These kinds of materials were intended to assist teachers in helping students build on or “scaffold” from experiences they already had to generate their own knowledge in an active, hands-on way, rather than receiving it passively. Today’s constructivist integration strategies often focus on having students use data- gathering tools (e.g., mobile technologies) to study problems and issues in their locale, and on creating multimedia products to present their new knowledge and insights.

Like Piaget, Jerome Bruner was interested in children’s stages of cognitive development. Bruner described develop‑ ment in three stages (Schunk, 2012):

• enactive stage (from birth to about age 3). Children perceive the environment solely through actions that they initiate. They describe and explain objects strictly in terms of what they can do with them. The child cannot tell how a bicycle works but can show what to do with it. Showing and modeling have more learning value than telling for children at this stage.

• iconic stage (from about age 3 to about age 8). Children can remember and use information through imagery (mental pictures or icons). Visual memory increases and children can imagine or think about actions without actually experiencing them. Decisions are still made on the basis of perceptions, rather than language.

• symbolic stage (from about age 8). Children begin to use symbols (words or drawn pictures) to represent people, activities, and things. They have the ability to think and talk about things in abstract terms. They can also use and understand what Gagné would call “defined concepts.” For example, they can discuss the concept of toys and identify various kinds of toys, rather than defining them only in terms of toys they have seen or handled. They can better understand mathematical principles and use symbolic idioms such as “Don’t cry over spilt milk.”

implications for education. Unlike Piaget, Bruner was very concerned that school instruction build on the stages of cognitive develop‑ ment. The idea of discovery learning is largely attributed to him (Schunk, 2012). Discovery learning is “an approach to instruction in which students construct their own knowledge about a topic through firsthand interaction with an aspect of their environment” (Ormrod, 2014, p. G-4). They do this “by randomly exploring and manipulating objects or perhaps by performing systematic experiments” (Ormrod, 2014, p. 405). Bruner felt that students were more likely to understand and remember concepts they had discovered in the course of their own exploration. However, research findings have yielded mixed results for discovery learning, and the relatively unstructured methods recommended by Bruner have not found widespread support (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013; Ormrod, 2014). Teachers have found that discovery learning is most successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured experiences.

implications for technology integration. Many of the more “radical constructivist” uses of technology employ a discovery learning approach suggested by Bruner. For example, rather than telling students how logic circuits work, a teacher might allow students to use a simulation that lets them discover the rules themselves. Most school uses of technology, however, use what Eggen and Kauchak (2013) call a guided discovery learning approach. For example, a teacher may introduce a video‑ based problem scenario, then help students develop their approaches to solving the problem.

FIgurE 2.12 The Contributions of Jerome Bruner: Learning as Discovery

Courtesy of Jerome Bruner

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 47

Of all the learning and developmental theories embraced by constructivists, Howard Gardner’s is the only one that at‑ tempts to define the role of intelligence in learning. His work is based on Guilford’s pioneering work on the structure of intellect (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013) and Sternberg’s view of intelligence as influenced by culture (Ormrod, 2014). Gardner’s theory (1983) is that at least eight different and relatively independent types of intelligence exist, summarized in the fol‑ lowing table:

types of intelligences description reflected in activities

Linguistic • Uses language effectively

• Is sensitive to the uses of language

• Writes clearly and persuasively

Writer, journalist, poet

Musical • Understands musical structure and composition

• Communicates by writing or playing music

Composer, pianist, conductor

Logical‑ mathematical • Reasons logically in math terms

• Recognizes patterns in phenomena

• Formulates and tests hypotheses and solves

• problems in math and science

Scientist, mathematician, doctor

Spatial • Perceives the world in visual terms

• Notices and remembers visual details

• Can recreate things after seeing them

Artist, sculptor, graphic artist

Bodily‑ kinesthetic • Uses the body skillfully

• Manipulates things well with hands

• Uses tools skillfully

Dancer, athlete, watchmaker

Intrapersonal • Is an introspective thinker

• Is aware of one’s own motives

• Has heightened metacognitive abilities

Self‑ aware/ self‑ motivated person

Interpersonal • Notices moods and changes in others

• Can identify motives in others’ behavior

• Relates well with others

Psychologist, therapist, salesperson

Naturalist • Can discriminate among living things Botanist, biologist

implications for education. If Gardner’s theory is correct, then IQ tests (which tend to stress linguistic and logical‑ mathematical abilities) may not be the best way to judge a given student’s ability to learn, and traditional academic tasks may not be the best reflection of ability. McDevitt and Ormrod (2010) point out that “to the extent that intelligence is culture- dependent, intelligent behavior is likely to take different forms in children from different ethnic backgrounds” (p. 301). Teachers, then, should try to determine which type or types of intelligence each student has and direct the student to learning activities that capitalize on these innate abilities. Gardner and Hatch (1989) gave suggestions for how best to do this. Also, teachers may consider learning activities based on distributed intelligence, where each student makes a different, but valued contribution to creating a product or solving a problem.

implications for technology integration. Gardner’s theory meshes well with the trend toward using technology to support group work. When educators assign students to groups to develop a multimedia product, they can assign students roles based on their type of intelligence. For example, those with high interpersonal intelligence may be the project coordinators, those with high logical– mathematical ability may be responsible for structure and links, and those with spatial ability may be responsible for graphics and aesthetics.

FIgurE 2.13 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Courtesy of Howard Gardner

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48 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

pli cat

ions for Te

chnology Integration Strategies

Im plications for Technology Integrat

ion S trat

eg ie

Social Cognitive theories (Bandura)

Seeing others successfully modeling behaviors

increases students’ self- ef�cacy to learn behaviors

Discovery Learning (Bruner)

Children learn and remember concepts better

when they learn them through exploration

Scaffolding theory (Vygotsky)

Students learn from experts by building on what they

already know; each learner’s background shapes how

he/she learns

Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)

Learning can occur and be demonstrated in different ways,

depending on a learner’s type of intelligence

Child Development Theory (Bruner)

Learner abilities differ at each developmental level; children progress through stages through exploring

their environment

Social Activism (Dewey)

Promote social interaction among students on

problems and issues of direct interest to them

Choose inquiry-based technology integration strategies when the goal is teaching inquiry/thinking skills Concepts to be learned are abstract and complex; hands-on, visual activities are seen as essential so students can see how concepts apply to real world problem-solving. Teachers want to promote social collaboration and allow a variety of ways of learning and showing competence. Time permits students learning through unstructured exploration and discovering their own interest. Students need modeling to develop self-ef�cacy in order to increase their motivation to learn.

•

FIgurE 2.14 How Constructivist Theories and Practices Lead to Inquiry‑ Based Technology Integration Strategies

teChnOlOgy integratiOn strategies Based On direCted and COnstruCtivist theOries

The debate between objectivists and constructivists continues, in part because proponents of each view of learning focus on different kinds of problems (or different aspects of the same problems) confronting teachers and students in today’s schools. Table 2.1a – 2c show how directed and constructivist models differ by needs and problems they address and instructional and assessment methods they use. The remainder of this section will focus on technology inte- gration strategies that reflect each approach and possibilities for merging them.

Future Directions for Merging Directed and Constructivist Approaches Merging these two integration approaches in a way that benefits both learners and teachers requires an open- minded view of what constitutes “appropriate instruction.” Of course, the most effective approach will depend on the topics and problems that define the learning activity and individual learning needs. Clearly, instructional problems identified by both objectivists and

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 2.4 to review what you have learned from reading this section about constructivist learning theories and technology integration strategies based on them.

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 49

constructivists are common to most schools and classrooms, regardless of grade level, type of student, or content. Teachers will always use some directed instruction as the most efficient means of teaching required skills; teachers will always need motivating, cooperative learning activities to ensure that students want to learn and that they can transfer what they learn to prob- lems they encounter. Proficient technology- oriented teachers must learn to combine directed instruction and constructivist approaches and to select technology resources and integration methods that are best suited to their specific needs.

These two ostensibly different views of reality will merge to form a new and powerful approach to solving some of the major problems of the educational system, each contributing an essential element of the new instructional formula. Each will address a different need:

• directed learning may be best for providing a foundation of skills. Systematic approaches will ensure that specific prerequisite skills are learned.

• inquiry- based learning may be best for developing global skills slowly over time.

TABLE 2.1A a comparison of directed and constructivist models: instructional needs and Problems targeted directed instructional Models Constructivist Models

• Accountability: All students must meet required education standards to be considered educated.

• Individualization: Help meet individual needs of students working at many levels.

• Quality assurance: Quality of instruction must be consistently high across teachers and schools in various locations.

• Convergent thinking: All students must have the same skills.

• Higher- level skills: All students must be able to think critically and creatively and solve problems.

• Cooperative group skills: Help students learn to work with others to solve problems.

• Increase relevancy: Students must have active, visual, authentic learning experiences that relate to their own lives.

• Divergent thinking: Students must think on their own and solve novel problems as they occur.

TABLE 2.1B a comparison of directed and constructivist models: methods directed instructional Models Constructivist Models

• Stress individualized work. • Have specific skill‑ based instructional goals and objectives;

same for all students. • Teachers transmit a set body of skills and/or knowledge to

students. • Students learn prerequisite skills required for each new skill. • Sequences of carefully structured presentations and activities

help students understand (process), remember (encode and store), and transfer (retrieve) information and skills.

• Traditional teacher‑ directed methods and materials are used: lectures, skill worksheets.

• Stress group‑ based, cooperative work. • Have global goals such as problem solving and critical thinking

that sometimes differ for each student. • Have students generate their own knowledge through experiences

anchored in real‑ life situations. • Students learn lower‑ order skills in the context of higher‑ order

problems that require them. • Learning through problem‑ oriented activities (e.g., “what if”

situations); visual formats and mental models; rich, complex, learning environments; and learning through exploration.

• Nontraditional materials are used to promote student‑ driven exploration and problem solving.

TABLE 2.1C a comparison of directed and constructivist models: assessment strategies directed instructional Models Constructivist Models

• Traditional assessments (e.g., multiple choice, short answer) with specific expected responses; student products (e.g., essays) graded with checklists or rubrics.

• Nontraditional assessments (e.g., group products such as Web pages, multimedia projects) with varying contents or portfolios; student products graded with self‑ report instruments, rubrics.

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50 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Though constructivism could eventually dominate overall educational goals and objectives such as learning to apply scientific methods, directed approaches will ensure that students first have the prerequisite skills they need to do inquiry- based learning.

As Figure 2.15 shows, four technology integration strategies can be used to address either model, four strategies are based primarily on directed models, and four are based on construc- tivist models. These will be described in more detail in the following sections.

Technology Integration Strategies useful for Either Model Currently, there are already four integration strategies that have a more general support role for instruction and can address the needs of either model. These “enabling” strategies seem to be appearing with increasing frequency in combination with other directed or constructivist strate- gies described in this chapter, supporting the other strategies and making them more feasible and practical. The four strategies are summarized in Table 2.2 and are described here.

Integration to generate motivation to learn. Teachers who work with at-risk students say that capturing students’ interest and enthusiasm is key to success; frequently, they cite it as their greatest challenge. Some educators assert that today’s entertainment- immersed students are increasingly likely to demand more motivational qualities in their instruction than students in previous generations did. Constructivists argue that instruction must address stu- dents’ affective needs as well as their cognitive ones, saying that students will learn more if what they are learning is interesting and relevant to their needs. They recommend the highly visual and interactive qualities of Internet and multimedia resources as the basis of these strategies. Proponents of directed methods make similar claims about highly structured, self- instructional learning environments. They say that some students find it very motivating to learn at their own pace in a private environment because they receive immediate feedback on their progress. It seems evident that appropriate integration strategies to address motivation problems depend on the needs of the student; either constructivist or directed integration strategies can be used to increase motivation to learn.

Integration to optimize scarce resources. Current resources and numbers of personnel in schools are rarely optimal. Computer- based courseware materials can help make up for the lack of required resources in the school or classroom—from consumable supplies to qualified teachers. For example, drill- and- practice programs can replace worksheets, a good

Directed Models

Integration to remedy identi�ed weaknesses or skill di�cits

Integration to promote skill �uency or automaticity

Integration to support ef�cient, self-paced instruction

Integration to support self-paced review of concepts

Integration to generate motivation to learn

Integration to optimize scarce personnel and material resources

Integration to remove logistical hurdles to learning

Integration to develop information literacy and visual literacy skills

Constructivist Models

Both

Integration to foster creative problem solving and metacognition

Integration to help build mental models and increase knowledge transfer

Integration to foster group cooperation

Integration to allow for multiple and distributed intelligences

FIgurE 2.15 Technology Integration Strategies for Directed, Constructivist, or Both Models

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 51

distance program can offer instruction in topics for which local teachers are in short supply, and a simulation program (discussed in Chapter 3) can let students repeat experiments without depleting chemical supplies or other materials.

Integration to remove logistical hurdles to learning. Some technology tools offer no instructional sequence but help students complete learning tasks more efficiently.

These tools support directed instruction by removing or reduc- ing logistical hurdles to learning. For example, word process- ing programs do not teach students how to write, but they let students write and rewrite more quickly, without the labor of handwriting. CAD software does not teach students how to design a house, but it allows them to try out designs and fea- tures to see what they look like before building models or struc- tures. A calculator lets students do lower- level calculations so they can focus on the high- level concepts of math problems. A website might contain only a set of pictures of sea life, but it lets a teacher illustrate concepts about sea creatures more quickly and easily than he or she could with books.

Integration to develop information literacy and visual literacy skills. A rationale underlying many of the most popular directed and constructivist integration strategies is the need to give students practice in using modern

TABLE 2.2 technology integration strategies to support Either model integration strategies and needs and Problems

they address

example activities

to generate motivation to learn: • Due to past failures, at‑risk students need more than usual

motivation. • Students need to see the relevance of new concepts and

skills to their lives. • Students need to be active, rather than passive, learners.

• Visual and interactive qualities of the Internet and multimedia resources draw and hold students’ attention.

• Drill‑ and‑ practice/tutorial materials give students private environments for learning and practice.

• Video‑ based scenarios and simulations show relevance of science and math skills.

• Hands‑on production work (e.g., multimedia, web pages) gives students an active role in learning.

to optimize scarce personnel and material resources: • Schools have limited budgets; therefore, they must save

money on consumables. • Teachers are in short supply in some subject areas.

• Simulations allow repeated science experiments at no additional cost. • Distance courses can offer subjects for which schools lack teachers.

to remove logistical hurdles to learning: • Students find repetitive tasks (handwriting, calculations)

boring and tedious. • Students lack motor skills to show their designs. • Students cannot travel to places to learn about them. • Some social and physical phenomena occur too slowly, too

quickly, or at too great a distance to allow observation.

Students can use: • Word processing to make quick, easy revisions and corrections to

written work. • Calculators and spreadsheets to do low‑ level calculations involved in

math/science problem solving. • Computer‑ assisted design (CAD) and drawing software to try out and

change designs. • Virtual tours to see places the students could not go physically. • Simulations to allow study of social systems (e.g., voting) and physical

systems (chemical reactions).

to develop information literacy/visual literacy skills: Students need to learn: • Modern methods of communicating information. • How to analyze the quality of visual presentations.

Students can: • Do research reports as multimedia products or web pages. • Become media savvy by using information on the Internet and video.

▲ The highly visual and interactive qualities of Internet and multimedia resources make learning more interesting and relevant to students. (Photo courtesy W. Wiencke)

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52 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

methods of communicating information. For example, when students use presentation software instead of paper charts to give a report, they gain experience for college classrooms and business offices, where computer- based presentations are the norm. Using technology to communicate visually represents information age skills that students will need both for higher education and in the workplace.

Technology Integration Strategies Based on Directed Models The four integration strategies based on directed methods are all designed to address individual instruction and practice (see Table 2.3).

Integration to remedy identified weaknesses or skill deficits. Constructivists say that students should learn prerequisite skills as they see the need for them in a group or individual project. However, experienced teachers know that even motivated students do not always learn skills as expected. These failures occur for a variety of reasons, many of which are related to learners’ internal capabilities, and not all of which are thoroughly understood. When the absence of prerequisite skills presents a barrier to higher- level learning or to passing tests, directed instruction usually is the most efficient way of providing these skills. Materials such as drill- and- practice and tutorial software have proven to be valuable resources for providing this kind of individualized instruction. When students have failed to learn required skills, they frequently find technology- based materials more motivating and less threatening than teacher- delivered instruction.

Integration to promote skill fluency or automaticity. Some prerequi- site skills must be applied quickly and without conscious effort in order to be most useful. Gagné (1982) and Bloom (1986) referred to this automatic recall as automaticity. Students need rapid recall and performance of a wide range of skills throughout the curriculum, including simple math facts, grammar and usage rules, and spelling. Some students acquire automaticity through repeated use of the skills in practical situations, while others acquire it more efficiently through isolated practice. Drill- and- practice, instructional games, and, sometimes, simulation courseware can provide practice tailored to individual skill needs and learning pace.

TABLE 2.3 technology integration strategies Based on directed teaching models integration strategy needs and Problems addressed example activities

to remedy identified weaknesses or skill deficits

• At‑risk students need individual instruction and practice.

• Students fail parts of high‑ stakes tests.

Tutorial or drill‑ and‑ practice software is targeted to identified skills.

to promote skill fluency/automaticity • Students need to be able to recall and apply lower‑ level skills quickly, automatically.

• Students need to review for upcoming tests.

Drill‑ and‑ practice or instructional game software lets students practice math facts, vocabulary, or spelling words.

to support efficient, self- paced learning • Students are motivated and able to learn on their own.

• No teacher is available for the content area.

Use tutorial software or distance learning courses for foreign languages, higher‑ level science or math, or other elective subjects.

to support self- paced review of concepts

• Students need help studying for test. • Students need make‑up instruction for

missed work.

Use tutorial, drill‑ and‑ practice, or simulation software to cover specific concepts.

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 53

Integration to support efficient, self- paced learning. When students are self- motivated and have the ability to structure their own learning, the most desirable method is often the one that offers the fastest and most efficient path. Sometimes these students are interested in topics not being covered in class or for which there is no instructor avail- able. Directed instruction for these students can frequently be supported by well- designed, self- instructional tutorials and self- paced distance learning workshops and courses.

Integration to support self- paced review of concepts. When students cover a number of topics over time, they usually need a review prior to taking a test to help them remember and consolidate con- cepts. Sometimes students are absent when in-class instruction was given or need additional time going over the material to understand and remem- ber it. In these situations, drill- and- practice and tutorial software materials are good ways to provide these kinds of self- paced reviews.

Technology Integration Strategies Based on Constructivist Models This section reviews the four integration strategies identified with constructivist methods. The strategies are summarized in Table 2.4.

Integration to foster creative problem solving and metacognition. Many people believe that our world is too complex and technical for students to learn ahead of time everything they may need for the future. Thus, our society is beginning to place a high value on the ability to solve novel problems in creative ways. If students are conscious of the procedures they use to solve problems, they often can more easily improve on their strategies and become more effective, creative problem solvers. Consequently, teachers often try to present students with novel problems to solve and to get them to analyze how they learn to solve them. Resources such as problem- solving courseware and multimedia applications are often considered ideal

▲ Drill- and- practice and tutorial software materials can provide self- paced reviews on computers or handheld devices. (Photo courtesy W. Wiencke)

TABLE 2.4 technology integration strategies Based on constructivist models integration strategy needs and Problems addressed example activities

to foster creative problem solving and metacognition

• Students need to be able to solve complex, novel problems as they occur.

• Teachers want to encourage students’ self‑ awareness of their own learning strategies.

• Video‑ based scenarios pose problems and help support student problem solving.

• Graphic tools illustrate concepts and support student manipulation of variables.

• Simulations allow exploration of how systems work.

to help build mental models and increase knowledge transfer

• Students have trouble understanding complex and/or abstract concepts.

• Students have trouble seeing where skills apply to real‑ life problems.

• Video‑ based scenarios pose problems. • Students create multimedia products to illustrate

and report on their research. • Simulations and problem‑ solving software illustrate

and let students explore complex systems.

to foster group cooperation skills

Students need to be able to work with others to solve problems and create products.

Students collaborate to: • Do Internet research. • Create multimedia/web page products. • Compete in instructional games.

to allow for multiple and distributed intelligences

Teachers want to allow students multiple ways to learn and to demonstrate achievement.

Students have varying roles in group work to create: • Multimedia products. • Web pages. • Desktop‑ published newsletters, brochures.

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54 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

environments for getting students to think about how they think and for offer- ing opportunities to challenge their creativity and problem- solving abilities.

Integration to help build mental models and increase knowledge transfer. The problem of inert knowledge is believed to arise when students learn skills in isolation from problem applications. When students later encounter problems that require the skills, they do not realize how the skills could be relevant. Problem- solving materi- als in highly visual formats allow students to build rich mental models of problems to be solved. For example, visual information allows users to easily recognize patterns. Students need not depend on reading skills, which may be deficient, to build these mental models. Thus, supporters hypothesize that teaching skills in these highly visual, problem- solving environments helps ensure that knowledge will transfer to higher order skills. These technology- based methods are especially desirable for teach- ers who work with students in areas such as mathematics and science, where concepts are abstract and complex and where inert knowledge is frequently a problem.

Integration to foster group cooperation skills. One skill area currently identified as an important focus for schools’ efforts to restruc- ture curriculum is the ability to work cooperatively in a group to solve prob- lems and develop products (Lynch, Lynch, & Bolyard, 2013; Schul, 2011; Wirth, 2013). Although schools certainly can teach cooperative work with- out technology resources, a growing body of evidence documents students’

appreciation of cooperative work as both more motivating and easier to accomplish when it uses technology (Chin, 2013; Vargas, 2013).

Integration to allow for multiple and distributed intelligences. Integration strategies with group cooperative activities also give teachers a way to allow students of widely varying abilities to make valuable contributions on their own terms. Since each student is seen as an important member of the group in these activities, the activities themselves are viewed as problems for group—rather than individual—solution. This strategy has implications for enhancing students’ self- esteem and for increasing their willingness to spend more time on learning tasks. It also allows students to see that they can help each other accomplish tasks and can learn from each other, as well as from the teacher or from media.

a teChnOlOgy integratiOn Planning (tiP) MOdel fOr teaChers

This section introduces a model to help teachers—especially those new to technology use— understand how to integrate technology into their teaching. Now that you know the general cat- egories of technology integration strategies and the learning theories that gave rise to them, let’s turn to how to make the strategies work in practice. Any well- designed lesson takes planning. The Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model, shown in Figure 2.16, is a problem- solving model that is useful when teachers are faced with selecting best strategies and materials, and they decide that they would like to try digital technologies to meet their needs.

Each step in the model’s three broad phases helps ensure that technology use will be mean- ingful, efficient, and successful in meeting needs. Teachers experienced in using technology

▲ Technology integration strategies support a variety of teaching and learning needs, including fostering group cooperation skills. (Photo courtesy of W. Wiencke)

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 2.5 to review what you have learned from reading this section about technology integration strategies based on both models.

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 55

tend to do these steps intuitively. However, for new teachers or those just beginning to integrate technology, the TIP model provides a helpful guide on procedures and issues to address. The following sections will discuss each of its component steps, and give examples of tasks and prod- ucts required in each step. As you read about the TIP model, also see a classroom example of how to implement the tasks: the Online Multicultural Project.

Phase 1: Analysis of Learning and Teaching Needs In this phase of technology integration, teachers analyze classroom problems and how technology- based strategies could address them. This section describes Phase 1 analysis steps and explains why each is necessary.

FIgurE 2.16 The Technology Integration Planning Model Phase 1: analysis of teaching/learning needs

step 1: Determine relative advantage

step 2: Assess required resources & skills

Phase 2: designing an integration framework

step 3: Decide on objectives, assessments

step 4: Design integration strategies

step 5: Prepare instructional environment

Phase 3: Post- instruction analysis and revisions

step 6: Analyze lesson results, impact

step 7: Make revisions, based on results

example 2.1 Phase 1: analysis of learning and teaching needs Mia wanted to include more meaningful multicultural activities in the social studies curriculum since she and the other social studies teachers in her school focused primarily on studying various holidays and foods from other cultures. They sponsored an annual International Foods smorgasbord event that was very popular with the students, but she doubted it taught them much about the richness of other cultures or why they should respect and appreciate cultures different from their own. She sometimes overheard her students making disparaging comments about people in other ethnic groups and felt a better approach to multicultural education might help.

Mia concluded that she could follow a model she heard about while attending a workshop the previous summer. At the workshop, teachers in another school district described an online project with partner schools in countries around the world. One teacher told about her partners in Israel and Spain and said students exchanged information with designated partners and answered assigned ques‑ tions to research each other’s backgrounds and locales. Then they worked in groups on travel brochures or booklets to email to each other. They even took digital photos and videos of themselves to send. It sounded like a great way for kids to learn about other cul‑ tures in a meaningful way while also learning some geography and

civics. The teachers in the workshop remarked that it was difficult to demean people who look and talk differently from you when you’ve worked with and gotten to know them. Mia was so impressed with the online project they described that she decided to try it out in her own classroom. Even though she had not seen it modeled, she felt she could structure a good curriculum around these activities once she knew about what was needed.

Phase 1 analysis Questions

1 What is the problem Mia wants to address?

2 What evidence does she have that there is a problem?

3 What would be the relative advantage of the method she is proposing?

4 In what ways does she hope this method will be better than previous ones?

5 What special skills or resources would Mia need to carry out such a project?

T E C h N O L O g y I N T E g r A T I O N

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56 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Step 1: Determining relative advantage. Every teacher has topics—and sometimes whole subject areas—that have proven challenging to teach. Some concepts are so abstract or foreign to students that they struggle to understand them; some students find some topics so boring, tedious, or irrelevant that they have trouble attending to them. Some learning requires time- consuming tasks that students resist doing. Good teachers try to meet these challenges by making concepts more engaging or easier to grasp, mak- ing tasks more efficient to accomplish, or by completely rethinking curricu- lum goals. And, though technology- based strategies offer many benefits to teachers as they look for instructional solutions to these problems, time and effort (and often, expense) are required to plan and carry them out. Teachers have to consider the benefits of new methods compared to their current ones and decide if the benefits are worth the additional trouble.

Everett Rogers (2003), an expert on why and how people adopt innova- tive ideas and methods, called this seeing a relative advantage. Table 2.5 lists

several kinds of learning problems and technology solutions with potential for high relative advantage to teachers. However, these lists are really just guidelines. Being able to recognize specific instances of these problems in a classroom context and knowing how to match them with an appropriate technology solution require knowledge of classroom problems, practice in addressing them, and an in-depth knowledge of the characteristics of each technology. Deciding whether to integrate technology requires answering the following two questions about technol- ogy’s relative advantage in a given situation:

• what is the problem? To make sure a technology application is a good solution, begin with a clear statement of the teaching and learning problem. This is sometimes difficult to do. It is a natural human tendency to jump to a quick solution rather than to recognize the real problem. Also, everyone may not see a problem the same way. Use the following guidelines when answering the question, “What is the problem?” • Nonuse of technologies may not be the problem. When problems are stated in ways such as

“Students do not know how to use spreadsheets,” or “Teachers are not having their students use the Internet,” the true nature of the problem is unclear and should be restated. For example, the problem may be lack of skills to use a specific technology (e.g., a spreadsheet or the Internet). In this case, the problem is, “Students lack digital literacy in key area.” This kind of problem calls for instruction in technology, rather than integrating technology into instruction. On the other hand, if teachers are given a technology (e.g., “Here’s your new iPad!”) and told to implement it, they must decide if there is a real teaching or learn- ing problem the new resource can help meet and state that. If teachers have a technology available, know how to use it, but choose not to use it, it may mean they can see no relative advantage to using it. Nonuse of a technology is not in itself a problem to address with the TIP model.

• Look for observable indications that there really is a problem that technology integration can solve. Examples of evidence include: the curriculum is being revised and reconstituted around critical- thinking and problem- solving goals and requires resources to enable that move; students consistently achieve lower grades in a skill area; a formal or informal survey shows that teachers have trouble getting students to attend to learning tasks; or teachers observe that students are refusing to turn in required assignments in a certain area.

• do technology- based methods offer a solution with sufficient relative advantage? Analyze the benefits of the technology- based method in light of the effort and cost to implement it, and then make a final decision. First, use the following guidelines to help determine whether your methods should be primarily directed or constructivist:

• Use directed strategies when students need an efficient way to learn specific skills that must be assessed with traditional tests.

• Use constructivist strategies when students need to develop global skills and insights over time (e.g., cooperative group skills, approaches to solving novel problems, mental mod- els of highly complex topics) and when learning may be assessed with alternative mea- sures, such as portfolios or group products.

Planning for Technology Integration

Watch the video and listen to one teacher talk about planning as a creative problem solving process. What is the basis for her rationale for deciding to use video in her lessons?

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 57

Then examine the needs and integration strategies described in Tables 2.3 through 2.5, and determine which one(s) apply for the situation. Select one that seems to be a good match to the problem and situation you have identified in your own classroom. Use the following guidelines to answer the question, “Is technology a good solution?”

• estimate the impact. Consider the benefits others have gained from using the technology as a solution. Is it likely you will realize similar benefits?

• Consider the required effort and expense. How much time and work will it take to implement the technology solution? Is it likely to be worth it?

TABLE 2.5 technology solutions with Potential for high relative advantage learning Problems technology solutions relative advantage

Concepts are new, foreign (e.g., mathematics, physics principles)

Graphic tools, simulations, video‑ based problem scenarios

Visual examples clarify concepts and applications.

Concepts are abstract, complex (e.g., physics principles, biology systems)

Math tools (Geometer’s sketchPad), simulations, problem‑ solving software, spreadsheet exercises, graphing calculators

Graphics displays make abstract concepts more concrete; students can manipulate systems to see how they work.

time- consuming manual skills (e.g., handwriting, calculations, data collection) interfere with learning high- level skills

Tool software (e.g., word processing, spreadsheets) and probeware

Takes low‑ level labor out of high‑ level tasks; students can focus on learning high‑ level concepts and skills.

students find practice boring (e.g., basic math skills, spelling, vocabulary, test preparation)

Drill‑ and‑ practice software, instructional games

Attention‑ getting displays, immediate feedback, and interaction combine to create motivating practice.

students cannot see relevance of concepts to their lives (e.g., history, social studies)

Simulations, Internet activities, video‑ based problem scenarios

Visual, interactive activities help teachers demonstrate relevance.

skills are “inert,” i.e., students can do them but do not see where they apply (e.g., mathematics, physics)

Simulations, problem‑ solving software, video‑ based problem scenarios, student development of Web pages, multimedia products

Project‑ based learning using these tools establishes clear links between skills and real‑ world problems.

students dislike preparing research reports, presentations

Student development of desktop‑ published and web page/multimedia products

Students like products that look polished, professional.

students need skills in working collaboratively, opportunities to demonstrate learning in alternative ways

Student development of desktop‑ published and Web page/multimedia products

Provides format in which group work makes sense; students can work together “virtually”; students make different contributions to one product based on their strengths.

students need technological competence in preparation for the workplace

All software and productivity tools; all communications, presentation, and multimedia software

Illustrates and provides practice in skills and tools students will need in work situations.

teachers have limited time for correcting students’ individual practice items

Drill‑ and‑ practice software, handheld computers with assessment software

Feedback to students is immediate; frees teachers for work with students.

no teachers available for advanced courses

Self‑ instructional multimedia, distance courses

Provides structured, self‑ paced learning environments.

students need individual reviews of missed work

Tutorial or multimedia software Provides structured, self‑ paced environments for individual review of missed concepts.

schools have insufficient consumable materials (e.g., science labs, workbooks)

Simulations, e‑books Materials are reusable; saves money on purchasing new copies.

students need quick access to information and people not locally available

Internet and email projects; multimedia encyclopedias and atlases

Information is faster to access; people are easier, less expensive to contact.

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58 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Step 2: Assess required resources and skills. A successful technology- enhanced lesson requires a combination of materials (i.e., hardware, software, other media) and teacher skills. First, teachers determine whether they have materials they need to carry out the strategy they have in mind. For example, if they want to do a lesson where their students work in groups on a research project and present a Prezi presentation, they might ask, “Do I have access to enough computers for enough time to let students complete it?” They must also decide if they have enough skills to carry out such a lesson. For example, do they know how to guide Internet searches, while keeping students safe and protected? Do they how to get students started with Prezi and help them troubleshoot if they run into technical problems? Then they must ask if they have experience in organizing this kind of technology- enhanced approach or have they seen it modeled.

If teachers could obtain all of the teaching resources they needed whenever they wanted them, they would make all the planning decisions described here after they had decided on the best instructional strategies in Step 1. In practice, however, teachers make many Step 1 and Step 2 decisions at the same time, since most usually decide how they will teach something in light of what is available for teaching it. Effective technology use means making sure that the instruc- tional environment meets essential conditions required for successful technology integration. That means asking the following questions:

• Question 1: what equipment, software, media, and materials will i need to carry out the instructional strategies? As you create ways to stretch scarce resources, be sure that your strategies are ethical and in keeping with the reasons you chose a technology- based solution in the first place. Some guidelines: • Computers—If there are not enough computers available to support the individual for-

mat you wanted, consider organizing the integration plan around student pairs or small groups. Also consider having computer and noncomputer learning stations that indi- viduals or groups cycle through, completing various activities at each one. However, if students must master skills on an individual basis, consider scheduling time in a com- puter lab when all students in the class can use resources at once.

• Copies of software and media—Unless a software or media package specifically allows it, making copies of published software or media is illegal, even if copies are used on a temporary basis. Inquire about site licenses.

• Access to peripherals—In addition to computers, remember to plan for adequate access to printers, printer paper, and any other needed peripherals (e.g., probes, handhelds).

• Question 2: do i have the technical skills i need to do this lesson? Teachers must be familiar enough with the hardware and software to use it efficiently and do necessary trou- bleshooting. Insufficient skills can turn curriculum lessons into troubleshooting sessions.

Phase 2: Design of an Integration Framework This phase requires making decisions about outcomes and how they will be assessed, and about how to arrange and carry out integration strategies.

Step 3: Decide on objectives and assessments. Writing objectives is a good way of setting clear expectations for what technology- based methods will accomplish and allowing a later measurement of how much these expectations have been met. Usually, teachers expect a new method will improve student behaviors—for example, that it will result in better achievement, more on-task behaviors, or improved attitudes. Sometimes, how- ever, changes in teacher behaviors are important—for example, saving time on a task or helping to re-engineer curriculum. In either case, objectives should focus on outcomes that are observ- able (e.g., demonstrating, writing, completing, re-engineering),

▲ Schools are increasingly providing handheld technologies such as tablets to give all students access to online resources and communications. (Photo courtesy W. Wiencke)

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 59

examPle 2.2 Phase 2: design of an integration framework Mia reflected on the problems she saw with her current multi‑ cultural goals and what she wanted her students to learn about other cultures that they didn’t seem to be learning now. She decided on the following three outcomes: better attitudes toward people of other cultures, increased learning about similarities and differences among cultures, and knowledge of facts and con‑ cepts about the geography and government of the other country they would study. So that she could measure the success of her project later, she created objectives and instruments to measure the outcomes:

• attitudes toward cultures—At least 75% of students will demonstrate an improved attitude toward the culture being stud‑ ied with a higher score on the post‑ unit attitude measure than on the pre‑ unit measure. Instrument: She knew a good way to mea‑ sure attitudes was with a semantic differential. Before and after the project, students would answer the question: “How do you feel about people from ___________?” by marking a line between sets of adjectives to indicate how they feel.

• Knowledge of cultures—Each student group will score at least 90% on a rubric evaluating the brochure or booklet that reflects knowledge of the cultural characteristics (both unique and common to our own) about the people being studied. Instrument: After listing characteristics she wanted to see reflected in the prod‑ ucts, she found a rubric to assess them. She decided they should get at least 15 of the 20 possible points on this rubric.

• Factual knowledge—Each student will score at least 80% on a short‑ answer test on the government and geography of the country being studied.

Phase 2 analysis Questions (set 1) 1. How do you think Mia should use the product rubric to assign

grades?

2. What kinds of questions could Mia include in a survey to measure how much students liked this way of learning?

Mia knew that her students would not achieve the insights and changed attitudes she had in mind through a strategy of telling them information and testing them on it. They would need to draw their own conclusions by working and communicating with people from other cultures. However, she felt she could use a directed approach to teach them the Internet and email skills they would need to carry out project activities. The project website had good suggestions on how to set up groups of four with designat‑ ed tasks for each group member. It also suggested the following sequence of activities for introducing and carrying out the project:

Step 1: Sign up on the project website; obtain partner school assignments.

Step 2: Teachers in partner schools make contact and set a timeline.

Step 3: Teachers organize classroom resources for work on project.

Step 4: Introduce the project to students: Display project information from the project website and discuss previous products done by other sites.

Step 5: Assign students to groups; discuss task assignments with all members.

Step 6: Determine students’ email and Internet skills; begin teaching these skills.

Step 7: Students do initial email contacts/chats and introduce themselves to each other.

Step 8: Teacher works with groups to identify information for final product.

Step 9: Students do Internet searches to locate required information; take digital photos and scan required images; exchange information with partner sites.

Step 10: Students do production work; exchange final products with partners.

Step 11: Do debriefing and assessments of student work.

Phase 2 analysis Questions (set 2) 1. Is Mia’s approach primarily directed or constructivist?

2. Why did she decide to take this approach?

3. At which point should Mia do the pre‑ assessments to measure students’ skills and attitudes prior

4. How should Mia determine students’ levels of required Internet and email skills?

As soon as Mia knew that her students would be able to partici‑ pate in the online project, she began to get organized. First, she examined the timeline of project activities so she would know when her students needed to use computers. She made sure to build in enough time to demonstrate the project site and to get students used to using the browser and search engine. Then she began the following planning and preparation activities:

• Handouts for students—To make sure groups knew the tasks each member should do, Mia created handouts specifying timelines and what should be accomplished at each stage of the project. She also made a checklist of information students were to collect and made copies so that students could check off what they had done as they went. She wanted to make sure everyone knew how she would grade their work, so she made copies of the assessments (the rubric and a description of the country information test), handed them out, and discussed them with the students.

• Computer schedule—Mia had a classroom workstation consisting of five networked computers, each with an Internet connection, so she set up a schedule for small groups to use the computers. She knew that some students would need to scan pictures, download image files from the digital camera, and process those files for sending to the partner schools, so she scheduled some additional time in the computer lab for this work. She thought that students could do other work in the library/ media center after school if they needed still more time.

T E C h N O L O g y I N T E g r A T I O N

(Continued )

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60 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

rather than on internal results that cannot be seen or measured (e.g., being aware, knowing, under- standing, or appreciating).

After stating objectives, teachers create ways to assess how well outcomes have been accom- plished. Sometimes, they can use existing assessment instruments. In other cases, they have to create instruments or methods to measure the behaviors. (See the Open Source Options feature for some free tools to support assessment.) Here are a few example outcomes, objectives (which are used to state outcomes in a measurable form), and assessment methods matched to the outcomes:

• higher achievement outcome—Overall average performance on an end-of-chapter test will improve by 20%. (Assess achievement with a test.)

• Cooperative work outcome—All students will score at least 15 out of 20 on the coopera- tive group skill rubric. (Use an existing rubric to grade skills.)

• attitude outcome—Students will indicate satisfaction with the simulation lesson by an overall average score of 20 out of 25 points. (Create an attitude survey to assess satisfaction.)

examPle 2.2 Continued Phase 2 analysis Questions (set 3) 1 If Mia wanted to do a demonstration and display of the project

website to the whole class at once, what resource(s) would she have to arrange to do this?

2 Mia was concerned about students revealing too much per‑ sonal information about themselves to people in their partner

schools. What guidelines should she give them about information exchanges to protect their privacy and security?

3 If the network or Internet access were interrupted for a day, what could Mia have the students do to make good use of their time during the delay?

T E C h N O L O g y I N T E g r A T I O N

ASSESSMENT OPTIONS FREE SOURCES

Online survey sites (most have a free, limited- feature option, as well as a fee- based option)

advanced survey: advancedsurvey.com survey Monkey: surveymonkey.com Zoomerang: zoomerang.com surveyMethods: surveymethods.com

rubric makers and free prepared rubrics

See links in kathy Schrock’s guide to everything (rubrics and other assessments): schrockguide.net/ assessment- and- rubrics.html

test- makers and quiz- makers Quiz generator: quizgenerator.org content generator: contentgenerator.net to practice creating documents that you will use in the classroom easton’s list of quiz- maker sites and other free resources: eleaston.com/quizzes.html

for Assessment Tools for Teachers

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 61

• improved motivation—Teachers will observe better on-task behavior in at least 75% of the students. (Create and use an observation sheet.)

This phase in integrating technology requires answering two questions about outcomes and assessment strategies:

• Question 1: what outcomes do i expect from using the new methods? Think about problems you are trying to solve and what would be acceptable indications that the tech- nology solution has succeeded in resolving them. Use the following guidelines: • Focus on results, not processes—Think about the end results you want to achieve, rather

than the processes to help you get there. Avoid statements that focus on a process students use to achieve an outcome; for example, “Students will learn cooperative group skills.” Instead, state what you want students to be able to do as a result of having participated in the multimedia project—for example, “90% of students will score 4 out of 5 on a cooperative group skills rubric.”

• Make statements observable and measurable—Avoid vague statements that cannot be measured; for example, “Students will understand how to work cooperatively,”

• Question 2: what are the best ways of assessing these outcomes? The choice of assessment method depends on the nature of the outcome. Note the following guidelines: • Use written tests to assess skill achievement outcomes—Written cognitive tests (e.g., short

answer, multiple choice, true/false, matching) and essay exams remain the most com- mon classroom assessment strategy for many formal knowledge skills.

• Use evaluation criteria checklists to assess complex tasks or products—When students must create complex products, such as multimedia presentations, reports, or web pages, teachers may give students a checklist like the one shown here: a set of criteria that specify the requirements each product must meet. Points are awarded for meeting each criterion.

• Use rubrics to assess complex tasks or products—rubrics like the one shown here fulfill the same role as evaluation criteria checklists and are sometimes used in addition to them. Rubrics are instruments consisting of a set of elements that define important aspects of a given performance or product and provide ratings that describe levels of quality for each ele- ment. Their added value is giving students descriptions of various levels of quality. Teachers usually associate a letter grade with each level of quality (Level 5 = A, Level 4 = B, etc.).

• Use Likert scale– type surveys or semantic differentials to assess attitude outcomes—When the desired outcome is improved attitudes, teachers design a survey in Likert scale for- mat or with a semantic differential. In a semantic differential like the one shown here, students respond to a question by checking a line between each of several sets of bipolar adjectives to indicate their level of feeling about the topic of the question. The teacher sums the item scores to obtain a measure of student perceptions. A likert scale like the example shown here is a series of statements that students use to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement. Teachers sum responses across items to get an estimate of the change.

Use observation instruments like this one to measure frequency of behaviors—For example, if teachers wanted to see an increase in students’ use of scientific language, they could create a chart to keep track of this use on a daily basis so they could track baseline performance and improvement over time.

Step 4: Design integration strategies. What usually drives integration design decisions is whether the learning environment will be primarily directed (a teacher or expert source presents information for students to absorb) or primarily inquiry based or constructivist (students do activities to generate their own learning). In light of this decision, which you made in Step 1, consider each of the following implementation decisions:

• Question 1: what kind of content approach is needed? Should the approach be single subject or interdisciplinary? Sometimes school or district requirements dictate this deci- sion, and sometimes teachers combine subjects into a single unit of instruction as a way to cover concepts and topics they may not otherwise have time to teach. Most often, however,

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62 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

interdisciplinary approaches are used to model how real- life activities require the use of a combination of skills from several content areas.

• Question 2: what grouping approach should i use? Should the students work as indi- viduals, in pairs, in small groups, or as a whole class? This decision is made in light of how many computers or software copies are available, as well as the following guidelines: • Whole class: For demonstrations or to guide whole- class discussion prior to student work • Individual: When students have to demonstrate individual mastery of skills at the end of

the lesson or project • Pairs: For peer tutoring; higher- ability students work with those of lesser ability • Small group: To model real- world work skills by giving students experience in cooperative

group work. • Question 3: how can i prepare students adequately to use technologies? When

designing a sequence of activities that incorporates technology tools, be sure to leave enough time for demonstrating the tools to students and allowing them to become com- fortable using them before they do a graded product.

Step 5: Prepare the instructional environment. This step requires answer- ing two questions about preparing an instructional environment that will support technology integration:

• Question 1: how should resources be arranged to support instruction and learning? Guidelines here include: • Access by students with disabilities—For students with visual or hearing deficits, consider

software or adaptive devices created especially to address these disabilities. An important concern here is Universal Design for Learning or UDL. For more on this, see the Adapting for Special Needs feature.

• Privacy and safety issues—School students should never use the Internet (including social networking sites) without adult supervision and should never participate in unplanned chat sessions. If possible, firewall software should be used to prevent accidental access to inappropriate sites.

• Handouts and other materials—Prepare and copy (or post) necessary support materials. Unless learning to use the software without guidance is a goal of the project, consider creating summary sheets to remind students how to do basic operations.

• Question 2: what steps are required to make sure technology resources work well? Guidelines here include: • Troubleshooting—Computers, like all machines, occasionally break down. Learn simple

diagnostic procedures so you can correct some problems without assistance. • Test runs and backup plans—Leave sufficient time to learn and practice using resources

before students use them, but also try out the resources again just before class begins. Have a backup plan in case something goes wrong at the last minute.

Phase 3: Post- Instruction Analysis and revisions This section gives a detailed description of Phase 3 steps and an explanation of why each is necessary. As teachers complete a technology- based project with students, they begin reviewing evidence on how successful the strategies and plans were in solving the problems they identified. They use this evidence to decide what should be changed with respect to objectives, strategies, and implementation tasks to ensure even more success next time.

Step 6. Analyze results. To do a post- instruction analysis, teachers look at the fol- lowing issues:

• were the objectives achieved? This is the primary criterion of success for the activity. Teachers review achievement, attitude, and observation data they have collected and decide if the technology- based method solved the problem(s) they had in mind. These data help them determine what should be changed to make the activity work better.

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 63

• what do students say? Some of the best suggestions on needed improvements come from students. Informal discussions with them yield a unique “consumer” focus on the activity.

• Could improving instructional strategies improve results? Technologies in themselves do not usually improve results significantly; it is the way teachers use them that is critical. Look at the design of both the technology use and the learning activities surrounding it.

examPle 2.3 Phase 3: Post- instruction analysis and revisions Mia was generally pleased with the results of the multicultural proj‑ ect. According to the semantic differential, most students showed a major improvement in how they perceived people from the coun‑ try they were studying. Students she had spoken with were very enthusiastic about their chats and email exchanges. Some group brochures and booklets were more polished than others, but they all showed good insights into the similarities and differences between cultures, and every group had met the rubric criteria on content. The web searches they had done seemed to have helped a lot. One thing that became clear was that production work on their published products was very time consuming; in the future, either they would have to do a simpler product or the schedule would have to be changed to allow more time. Mia also realized she had to stress that the deadlines are firm. Students would search for and take digital photos forever if she let them, and that put them behind on doing their products and left little time to discuss their findings on comparisons of cultures. Results varied on the short‑ answer test on the government and geography of the country being studied. Only about half the students met the 80% criterion. Mia realized she

would have to schedule a review of this infor‑ mation before the test. She decided to make this a final group task after the production work was done.

Phase 3 analysis Questions 1 Although all of Mia’s groups did well on context overall, rubric

scores revealed that most groups scored lower in one area: spelling, grammar, and punctuation in the products. What steps could Mia add to the production work checklist that might improve this outcome next time?

2 If Mia found that only five of the seven groups in the class were doing well on their final products, what might she do to find out more about why this was happening?

3 One teacher who observed the project told Mia that it might be good to have the school district media/materials produc‑ tion office do the final work on the products for the students. Does this seem like a good idea? Why or why not?

T E C h N O L O g y I N T E g r A T I O N

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that has important implications for technology use in the classroom. UDL proactively values academic diversity through strategies that offer students multiple ways to access, engage, and demonstrate their mastery of the learning outcomes. One of the mantras of UDL is that instructional design that is deliberately created for individuals with disabilities often provides significant benefits to all students. The essence of UDL involves three components:

• Providing multiple means of representation to give learners various ways of acquiring information and knowledge

• Providing multiple means of expression to provide learners with alternatives for demonstrating what they know

• Providing multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, to challenge them appropriately, and to motivate them to learn

Traditionally, when educators fail to recognize that 25 to 50 percent of the students in their classroom may not read at grade level, they distribute textbooks that have a readability level above grade level. However, using the principle of multiple means of representation, an educator plans instruction to provide access to digital text so that students can manipulate the physical nature of the text (e.g., change the font size, color contrasts), as well as alter the cognitive difficulty by using tools such as text‑to‑speech (e.g., Natural Reader) or text‑ summarization (e.g., the free program Text Compactor).

Learn more about universal design for learning in order to understand its applications for your own classroom by visiting the Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age (at the Center for Applied Special Technology or CAST website).

—Contributed by Dave Edyburn

Adapting for Special Needs Universal Design for Learning

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64 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

• Could improving the environment improve results? Sometimes a small change, such as better scheduling or access to a printer, can make a big difference in a project’s success.

• have i integrated technology well? how well has the technology integration strategy worked? Use the assessment tools: technology impact Checklist to determine if the activity has been “worth it.” Also check the available data: • Achievement data—If the problem was low student achievement, do data show stu-

dents are achieving better than they were before? If the goal was improved motiva- tion or attitudes, are students achieving at least as well as they did before? Is higher achievement consistent across the class, or did some students seem to profit more than others?

• Attitude data—If the original problem was low motivation or students refusing to do required work, are there indications this behavior has improved? Has it improved for everyone or just for certain students?

• Students’ comments—Be sure to ask both lower- achieving and higher- achieving students for their opinions. Even if achievement and motivation seem to have improved, what do students say about the activity? Do they want to do similar activities again?

• what could be improved to make the technology integration strategy work better? The first time you do a technology- based activity, you can expect it will take longer and you will encounter more errors than in subsequent uses. The following areas are most often cited as needing improvement: • Scheduling—If students request any change, it is usually for more time. This may or may

not be feasible, but you can review the schedule to determine if additional time can be built in for learning software and/or for production work.

• Technical skills—It usually takes longer than expected for students to learn the technology tools. How can this learning be expedited or supported better?

• Efficiency—From the teacher’s point of view, the complaint is usually that the activity took longer than expected to plan and carry out. Review the schedule to see if there is any way the activity can be expedited.

Step 7. Make revisions. Based on the results from Step 6, teachers make adjust- ments to materials, logistics, and/or strategies. Revision activities are on a continuum ranging from small changes in how materials are used all the way to going back to Step 1 and re-ana- lyzing the problem– solution match. Evidence in the form of student outcomes must drive these decisions.

As a planning tool, the TIP model makes the questions concrete that teachers need to think through when designing instruction that uses technology. The combination of theory founda- tion and thoughtful planning make technology integration purposeful, effective, and meaning- ful for teachers and students alike.

when teChnOlOgy wOrKs Best: essential COnditiOns fOr teChnOlOgy integratiOn

The ISTE website summarizes conditions necessary for teachers to exploit the potential power of technology. Teachers’ ability to use technology to good advantage is determined in large part by whether their workplace has the conditions described here. A summary of the essential condi- tions for effective technology integration is shown in Figure 2.17.

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 2.6 to review what you have learned from reading this section about the TIP model for technology integration.

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 65

Essential Condition: A Shared Vision for Technology Integration Teachers need system- wide support to implement technology. This means that the school, district, local community, and state share with teachers a commitment to using technology to support teaching and learning. Usually, this commitment is reflected in a statewide and/or district- wide plan created as a cooperative effort of teachers, admin- istrators, and community business partners. The National Center for Technology Planning offers guidelines for planning strategies and examples of school and district plans. To ensure that teachers and administrators have a shared vision for how technology should be supported, all technology plans should reflect the following qualities.

Coordinate school and district planning, and involve teachers and other personnel at all levels. Plans at the school and district levels should be coordinated with each other and involve all stakeholders. Also helpful are technology liaison/coordina- tors who act as each school’s representative on a district- wide planning committee.

Budget yearly amounts for technology purchases, and plan for sustainability. Technology changes too rapidly for

schools to expect that one- time purchases of equipment or software will suffice. Thus, a technol- ogy plan should identify a specific amount to spend each year and a prioritized list of activities to fund over the life of the plan. Schools find that the computers that were new just four years ago cannot run the latest software packages. Funding must address both initial purchases and upgrades needed to sustain schools’ technical capacities over time.

Emphasize continuing teacher training. Knowledgeable people are as important to a technology plan as up-to-date technology resources. Successful technology programs hinge on well- trained, motivated teachers who update their skills over time.

Match technology to curriculum needs. Rather than asking, “How can we use this equipment and software?” an effective vision focuses on questions such as these:

• What are current, unmet educational needs, and can technology address them? • What are we teaching now that we can teach better with technology? • What can we teach with technology that we could not teach before, but that should be taught?

Essential Condition: Standards and Curriculum Support The Common Core Standards, ISTE Standards for Students, 21st Century Student Outcomes, and the ICT Framework identify higher- order thinking skills and digital citizenship as critical for life- long learning and productivity in our emerging global society. Students learn these technology standards in the context of their content- area course work, rather than as a separate subject area. Therefore, it is critical to situate technology skills in content- area curriculum in ways that support both the subject- area content and the technology skills. This essential condition is met best when technology and content- area standards are designed to support each other.

Essential Condition: required Policies As discussed early in this chapter, legal, ethical, and equity conditions in our society profoundly affect how technology is used in schools. The following policies are required to ensure appro- priate behavior, safety, equitable treatment of all students, financial assistance, incentives, and accountability at all levels of integration:

TE CHN

OLOGY INTEGRATIONTE CHN

OLOGY INTEGRATAA ION

Access to resources

Skilled personnel

Technical assistance

Engaged community

Appropriate teaching and assessment

Shared vision for technology

integration

Standards and curriculum

support

Required policies

FIgurE 2.17 Essential Conditions for Effective Technology Integration

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66 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Online use policies. The increasing use of online resources for communications and research also means risks for students. In 2000, the U.S. Congress passed the Children’s Internet Protection Act to encourage schools to take measures that keep children away from Internet materials that could be harmful to them. Partly as a result of awareness- raising programs by schools and other organizations, recent studies have found that various harms experienced by underage online users have decreased in recent years and are not increasing with the rise in access to mobile and online technologies (Livingston & Smith, 2014). Although Livingstone and Smith found that cyberbullying, unwanted contact with strangers, sexual messaging and pornography affect only about 20 percent of adolescents, Jones, Mitchell, and Finkelhore (2013) found that that online harassment may be increasing, particularly for girls. Most schools have students sign an Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) that stipulates the risks involved in Internet use and outlines appropriate, safe online behavior.

Legal/ethical use polices. Schools also have policies and materials in place to address issues such as illegal access to school servers (hacking), viruses, and software/media piracy. Districts usually address illegal access problems by placing firewall software on district and school networks to prevent access to specific website addresses or to websites that contain certain keywords or phrases. (Unfortunately, firewalls and filtering software also create a new set of prob- lems for schools by preventing their users from connecting to many legitimate educational sites.)

Policies to ensure equity. Schools are also responsible for ensuring equitable access to and use of technology resources by all students, especially those who are traditionally under- served or underrepresented in mathematics, science, and technology occupations.

Financial assistance, incentives, and accountability policies. Schools need to support teachers in their efforts to integrate technology effectively. Important aspects of this support include financial assistance for purchasing software for use in their classrooms and attending professional development opportunities; offering incentives to teachers for trying to integrate technology, ranging from monetary incentives to release time; and accountability for teachers who do and do not support district technology initiatives.

Essential Condition: Access to hardware, Software, and Other resources Finding funding. Experts agree that adequate funding can determine the success or failure of even the best technology plans. The summary of guidelines on funding shown in Figure 2.18 is a good way to get started. Schools will never have the budgets for technology that they want or need. Strategies for optimizing available funds include requiring competitive bids, scheduling hardware and software upgrades, using donated equipment, and using broken computers for spare parts.

Purchasing hardware and software. Although teachers depend on their schools and district offices to provide necessary resources, teacher input in this process is critically impor-

tant. When schools and districts make hardware and software purchases, they are making curricular decisions. Therefore, it is important for purchases to begin with those that fulfill the curriculum needs for which teachers most need technology support.

Setting up and maintaining physical facilities. Schools have developed several arrangements to help ensure that computer equipment supports teachers’ various curriculum needs. They minimize technology repair problems by insisting that their users follow safety rules and conduct preventive maintenance procedures. In addition, they usually a maintenance options that best meets their needs. Securing equipment is an equally impor- tant maintenance issue, since vandalism and theft are recurring problems in schools. Again, schools can choose from among several options, including monitoring and alarm systems, security cabinets, and lockdown systems.

cost- effective Technology access

In this video, this principal describes some cost‑effective options for giving students access to essential hardware resources. What are some of these options? Are there others that would work well in your current or future situation?

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 67

Essential Condition: Skilled Personnel Most preservice teacher training programs include at least some preparation in how to integrate technology effectively into teaching. However, because technology resources and applications change so quickly, continuing professional staff development in technology resources and appli- cations remains an essential condition for effective technology integration.

FIgurE 2.18 Funding Information

funding sources Hundreds of sources can be found under the following five categories. The first four usually have budgets for funding larger projects, but schools and teachers usually have smaller projects that can be funded from community sources (e.g., companies, individuals, and groups):

1. federal funding sources: grants.gov

2. sources specific to your state: Look for links from your state’s Department of Education website

3. foundations of large companies: Go to company websites; look for “Funding” links. Examples include:

• the honda foundation

• verizon foundation

4. Private foundations: Examples include:

• the annenberg foundation

• the nea foundation

• the Bill and Melinda gates foundation

• the william & flora hewlett foundation

• Pearson’s funding resources Go to the Pearson school web site.

5. Professional education publications: Examples include:

• edutopia Go to the Edutopia web site and search on Grant Information: Resources to Get You Started.

• eschoolnews Go to the eSchoolNews website and search the site for Grant Information.

guidelines for writing successful Proposals

• read and follow the guidelines. This is the most important (and most‑ often neglected) guideline of all. Your idea MUST address directly the primary goals of the agency (e.g., some agencies cannot fund equipment; some accept only proposals from K– 12 schools, and some only from higher education).

• Organize the proposal. Have: a concise overview (one‑to‑two pages maximum), a statement of needs the proposal addresses, specific goals and objectives, a narrative summary (as brief as possible), a budget spreadsheet that identifies costs in categories, and a budget narrative that explains the costs.

• write in clear and compelling language. Ask as many people as possible to read the proposal and suggest changes to sharpen its lan‑ guage before you submit it.

Characteristics of successful applicants Schools and projects that obtain funding have several characteristics in common:

• Have ideas for how to make things better.

• Constantly stay in constant touch with funding opportunities.

• Foster ongoing relationships with community groups and individuals.

• Maintain boilerplate material so they are able to respond quickly when opportunities arise and have one or more good writers handy.

• Express passion about their work and know how to describe what they do.

Building on success To continue receiving outside funding, educators who have a funded project must do three things on a continuing basis:

1. Carry out what you proposed. Show you did good things with what you already received.

2. Publicize your success. Publicize through school and district public relations personnel. Create publications and websites to document accomplishments. Ask the local newspaper or TV and radio stations to come for a show‑ and‑ tell session. Give talks and presentations to local groups, and get your project on the agendas of school meetings.

3. generate new funding opportunities. View funded projects as seeds for new opportunities rather than one‑ time activities.

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68 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

Hands-on integration emphasis. Technology integration skills cannot be learned by sitting passively in a classroom, listening to an instructor, or watching demonstrations. Participants must have hands-on opportunities with technologies, and the focus must be on how to use technologies in classrooms rather than just on technical skills.

Training over time. The “ one- shot” in service approach is ineffective for helping teach- ers develop methods to use computers as instructional tools. In service training in technology uses must be ongoing.

Modeling, mentoring, and coaching. The most effective teacher educators are those who model the use of technology in their own teaching. One-to-one mentoring and coaching programs and linking teachers to each other and to staff developers have also been shown to be effective. Most teachers seem to learn computer skills through colleague interaction and information sharing.

Just-in-time training. To be most effective, teachers must learn technologies just prior to applying them. This means they must have access to required resources immediately follow- ing training.

Essential Condition: Technical Assistance Each teacher needs training in simple troubleshooting procedures, such as what to do if a URL doesn’t work or a computer doesn’t come on. But teachers should not be expected to address more complicated diagnostic and maintenance problems. Nothing is more frustrating than depending on computer access for an important student project only to discover that equip- ment is malfunctioning or Internet access is down. Schools must support teachers by providing and maintaining resources vital to classroom use, as well as by offering continuing professional development in using resources effectively.

Essential Condition: Appropriate Teaching and Assessment Models Models of technology integration range from add- ons to substitutes. Brown (2013) describes four different levels of integration referred to as the SAMR (for substitute, augmentation, modification, redefinition) model:

• Substitution, with no functional change. • Augmentation: Technology acts as a direct tool sub-

stitute, with functional improvement. • Modification: Technology allows for significant task

redesign. • Redefinition: Technology allows for new tasks that

were previously not possible.

Puentedura (2009), the model’s creator, conceived of these integration types as “levels,” going from lowest (substitution) to highest (redefinition). However, each technology integration strategy is appropriate depend- ing on the instructional need, and teachers should be encouraged to use all of them.

Assessment practices will vary with the technology integration model. (See assessment strategies in Phase

▲ Effective technology integration depends in large part on the “essential condition” of well-trained teachers. Thomas Barrat/Shutterstock

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 69

2 of the TIP model.) The critical factor is matching the teaching strategy with an appropriate assessment strategy. For example, if students are creating Web pages, a grading rubric would measure their achievement better than a traditional written test would. Depending on the integration model, teachers may want to use a combination of assessment strategies (e.g., written tests as well as products evaluated with a rubric or checklist).

Essential Condition: Engaged Community Technology has the most impact on achieving educational goals when schools involve the entire local community. This means holding public forums about technology initiatives, bringing community members into the classroom, educating those who can play key roles, and fostering partnerships among schools, businesses, corporations, individual entrepreneurs, and educators. Businesses often partner with school programs to make a dream a reality.

This is not only a way to extend school technology budgets, it brings many talents together to work toward a common purpose: school improvement.

Substitution A technology tool takes the

place of another tool, but with no change in the actual activity.

Example: Uses work processor instead of

typewriter to type a paper.

Modi cation Technology tools allow

substantial changes in the nature of the activity.

Example: Students work on a written

product in a wiki, editing and improving it using online tools

and features.

Augmentation A technology tool takes the place of another tool, but

changes and improves the activity.

Example: Use word processing tools to check spelling and improve word choice and grammar.

Rede nition Technology tools completely alter the nature of the tasks.

Example: Students work together on a product, collaborating online with others at a distance and

using word processing, graphics, and presentation

software to create, share, and discuss their work.

FIgurE 2.19 The SAMR Model (based on concepts from Puentedura, 2009)

Technology Support for assessment Strategies

In this video, this principal talks about how technology can support appropriate and efficient assessment strategies. What are some of the benefits of assessing students in this way?

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 2.7 to review what you have learned from reading this section about essential conditions for technology integration.

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70 | PART I | Introduction and Background on Integrating Technology in Education

the following questions may be used either for in-class, small- group discussions or may initiate

discussions in blogs or online discussion boards:

1. An analysis of studies on discovery learning research by Alfieri, Brooks, Aldrich, and Tenenbaum (2011) illustrated that not all discovery‑ learning approaches are created equal. They found that unassisted discovery strategies nearly always resulted in lower achievement when compared with explicit instruc‑ tion. However, strategies they referred to as “enhanced discovery” methods often compared favorably with explicit instruction. What can you find out about each of these types of discovery learning meth‑ ods? How are they carried out? What characteristics of enhanced discovery methods would be likely to make them more successful than unassisted strategies?

2. Search online or in your college’s database for the article “The Poor Scholar’s Soliloquy,” (S. M. Corey, 1944, Childhood Education, Volume 33, 219– 220.). This piece was written about 70 years ago. Is the situation the boy describes still typical of American education? Can you cite ways in which more con‑ structivist approaches could benefit this child?

Summary 1. Overview of factors in successful technology integration—Three interrelated factors help

ensure effective technology integration: learning theory foundations; an integration planning model; and essential conditions for integration.

2. Overview of learning theory foundations—Two lines of learning theories have given rise to two types of integration models: directed and constructivist. • Directed integration models were shaped by objectivist theories: behaviorist (Skinner), information‑

processing (Atkinson and Shiffrin), cognitive‑ behavioral (Gagné), and systems theories. • Constructivist models were shaped by constructivist theories: social activism (Dewey), social learn‑

ing (Bandura), scaffolding (Vygotsky), child development (Piaget), discovery learning (Bruner), and multiple intelligences (Gardner) theories.

3. technology integration strategies based on directed models include—Integration to remedy identified weaknesses or skill deficits; integration to promote skill fluency or automaticity; integration to support efficient, self‑ paced learning; and integration to support self‑ paced review of concepts.

4. technology integration strategies based on constructivist strategies include— Integration to foster creative problem‑solving and metacognition; integration to help build mental models and in‑ crease knowledge transfer; integration to foster group cooperation skills; and integration to allow for multiple and distributed intelligences.

5. technology integration strategies based on either model—Integration to generate motivation to learn; integration to optimize scarce resources; integration to remove logistical hurdles to learning; and integration to develop information literacy and visual literacy skills.

6. the technology integration Planning (tiP) Model—This model is designed to help teachers (especially those new to technology) plan for effective classroom uses of technology. The model con‑ sists of seven steps within three phases: • Phase 1: Analysis of Learning and Teaching Needs • Phase 2: Design of an Integration Framework • Phase 3: Post‑ Instruction Analysis and Revisions

7. essential conditions for technology integration—For technology to have the desired impact on improved teaching and learning, the following conditions must be in place: a shared vision for technology integration; standards and curriculum support; required policies; access to hardware, software, and other resources; skilled personnel; technical assistance; appropriate teaching and assessment approaches; and an engaged community.

2Chapter

COllaBOrate, disCuss, refleCt

Monkey Business/Fotolia

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CHAPTER 2 | Theory into Practice—Foundations for Effective Technology Integration | 71

1. aPPLy WHat yOU LearNeD To apply the concepts and skills you’ve read about throughout this chapter, go to the Chapter 2 technology application activity.

2. teCHNOLOgy INtegratION LeSSON PLaNNINg: Part 1—eVaLUatINg aND CreatINg LeSSON PLaNS

Complete the following exercise using the sample lesson plans found on any lesson planning site that you find on the Internet.

a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the tools or strategies you learned about in this chapter. For example, select those that reflect:

• Directed integration strategies • Constructivist integration strategies • Integration strategies useful to support with directed or constructivist approaches

b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the technology lesson Plan evaluation Checklist to evaluate each of the lessons you found.

c. Create your own lesson—After you have reviewed and evaluated some sample lessons, cre‑ ate one of your own using a lesson plan format of your choice (or one your instructor gives you). Be sure the lesson focuses on one of the strategies discussed in this chapter.

3. teCHNOLOgy INtegratION LeSSON PLaNNINg: Part 2—IMPLeMeNtINg tHe tIP MODeL

Review how to implement the TIP Model in your classroom by doing the following activities with the lesson you created in the Technology Integration Lesson Planning exercise above.

a. Describe the Phase 1—Planning activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • Do you have resources and skills you need to carry it out?

b. Describe the Phase 2—Implementation activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

d. Add lesson descriptors—Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, ISTE standards, 21st Century Learning standards).

e. Save your new lesson—Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP Model notes.

4. FOr yOUr teaCHINg POrtFOLIO

• Lesson plan evaluations, lesson plans and products you created above • Products of your group’s Hot Topic Debates • Products of your group’s Collaborate, Discuss, Reflect online or in‑class activities.

Technology InTegraTIon WOrkSHOP

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After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to:

1. Identify characteristics, sources, and roles of instructional software products. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

2. Analyze an instructional situation that is using drill and practice functions, and describe the integration strategy, selection criteria, benefits, and limitations of drill- and- practice software for the situation. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

3. Analyze an instructional situation that is using tutorial functions, and describe the integration strategy, selection criteria, benefits, and limitations of tutorial software for the situation. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

4. Analyze an instructional situation that is using simulation functions, and describe the integration strategy,

selection criteria, benefits, and limitations of simulation software for the situation. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

5. Analyze an instructional situation that is using instructional game functions, and describe the integration strategy, selection criteria, benefits, and limitations of instructional game software for the situation. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

6. Analyze an instructional situation that is using problem- solving functions, and describe the integration strategy, selection criteria, benefits, and limitations of problem- solving software for the situation. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

7. Analyze an instructional situation that is using a personalized learning system (PLS), and identify the benefits and limitations of a PLS for the situation. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

Learning Outcomes

Instructional Software for 21st Century Teaching

Vladgrin/Shutterstock

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Technology InTegraTIon In acTIon MaTh by DesIgn GRADE LEVEL: Middle school • CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Geometry and measurement • LENGTH OF TIME: Two weeks

Phase 1 AnAlysis of leArning And TeAching needs step 1: Determine relative advantage. Ms. Paige was a veteran middle school mathematics teacher who was always able to get a high percentage of her students to pass required state tests, yet she continued to struggle with engaging them in geometry skills. She was always looking for examples to show her students practical appli- cations of geometry concepts in everyday life, but each year she taught she found students were increasingly disinterested. Though they were learn- ing geometry skills and passing tests, she doubted they would remember the concepts or be able to connect these skills to practical problems and situations in the world around them. While perusing the state’s websites to support teaching science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects, she learned of Math by Design, in which students solved geometry and measurement problems by becoming “junior architects” and redesigning a park in an imaginary town called Flossville. She thought that these hands-on activities that required applying geometry skills in a fun environment might have relative advantage for her geometry instruction, since they could stir students’ interest more than just seeing examples.

step 2: assess Required Resources and skills. She spent several hours reviewing the website’s materials and working through each of the unit’s design problems. Though she was a competent geometry teacher, she realized she would have to teach each of the geometry skills in a way that would help students connect them with Flossville design tasks. It made her think about how to sequence and assess concepts in a much different way than she had been used to doing, but the website’s teaching hints and sample lessons were most helpful. She had never worked with a website project before, but she found the site easy to use and intuitive. After her review and reflection, she felt ready to begin planning.

Phase 2 PlAnning for inTegrATion step 3: Decide on objectives and assessments. Ms. Paige also realized that she wanted her students to achieve more with these materials than just pass- ing tests. She wanted the experience to be interesting and challenging in ways that would change their attitudes about geometry. She developed the following outcomes, objectives, and assessments that would help her determine later if she had accomplished her aims:

Outcome: Select and use appropriate geometry concepts to solve graphic design problems. Objective: All students, working in groups, will create correct solutions for assigned Flossville design

problems. Assessment: Score at least 20 out of 25 on a teacher- designed rubric assessing group work and design

solutions.

Outcome: Transfer geometry skills from Flossville to teacher- designed situations. Objective: All students, working individually, will achieve a score of at least 80% on a post- unit test requir-

ing transfer of geometry concepts covered in Flossville to novel design scenarios. Assessment: Teacher- designed, multiple- choice test of 12 scenario items (two scenario items per geom-

etry concept).

Outcome: Demonstrate achievement of state geometry standards. Objective: All students will achieve at least a passing score (80%) on the state- required post- course

geometry test. Assessment: State multiple- choice, post- course geometry exam.

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http://mathbydesign.thinkport.org

Outcome: Enjoy learning geometry skills and appreciate their value. Objective: At least 90% of students will demonstrate improved attitudes toward learning geometry skills. Assessment: A teacher- designed, ten- item survey that students complete anonymously.

step 4: Design integration strategies. Ms. Paige felt that students would find the Math by Design materials most motivating if they did the design tasks themselves using the hints and tutorial explanations, so she would provide very little direct instruc- tion. even though the site was really a problem- solving environment, it had a game- like feel to it, so she resolved to introduce it as a game that students could play as a reward for learning geometry skills. She also felt they would do well with this project after she had taught several of the prerequisite geometry skills, so she would introduce the Flossville activity later in the course. With these aspects in mind, she created the following activity sequence:

Day 1: Introduce to the whole class the environment and its design tasks and illustrate on the whiteboard how to access the hints, calculator, and other features. Tell them that, using the two computers in the classroom, they will work in pairs or groups of three to solve an assigned design task. each of the groups would become “expert” in one of the design tasks and the skills and procedures required to solve them. Then, when the class was able to go to the computer lab, students would work individually on all design tasks, one at a time, with the “experts” on each task assisting them. Each “expert” would be expected to know the design task well enough to answer any questions other students might have. Students would also complete a pre- assessment of geometry attitudes using the survey she had created.

Days 2– 6: The groups begin their work in the classroom. While they work on the Math by Design site, the other students work on assigned review activities and complete makeup work from the previous unit.

Days 7– 9: The whole class goes to the computer lab to work on the other design tasks they have not yet completed. The students act as experts and assist other students with the design tasks.

Day 10: The class completes the post- project assessment and geometry attitudes survey.

step 5: Prepare instructional environment. Ms. Paige knew that working with technology materials required some additional planning, so she did the following to make sure everything needed for the project was in place:

Materials: She made a chart showing which students were assigned to be experts on each of the six design tasks. She also made notes on which geometry skills were required for each task so she could be sure she covered these in her instruction and reviews before students began working with Math by Design. She set up a schedule designating which groups would work on her classroom computers each day.

Computer scheduling: The computer lab was much in demand for students’ general production work (e.g., word processing) and work for other classes, so she met with the computer lab director and explained the project to her before requesting use of the lab for a three- day period.

Parent letter: The Math by Design website provided a letter to send home to parents about the project. She thought it was a good idea to let parents know what students were doing, so she printed out the letters for students to take home. She also posted a copy of the letter on her page on the school’s website.

Backup plans: Since the computer lab sometimes closed unexpectedly due to technical issues, she made some “just-in-case” plans. Her backup plan would be to show the whole class one or more of the short Math in Action videos on the Math by Design website, hold a discussion using the questions the site provided, and follow up by having students work the practice problems the site offered to support each video.

Phase 3 PosT- insTrucTion AnAlysis And revisions step 6: analyze results. Ms. Paige was delighted with the students’ obvious enthusiasm for the Math by Design activities. They especially liked being named experts on a design task and helping “teach” other students how to do it. Some of the students began to bring in and share their own examples of geometry principles and examples they had identified outside the classroom, and the geometry attitudes survey reflected a definite pre-to-post improvement. A couple students asked if she had materials on careers in architecture. The only real prob- lem she noticed was that one of the design tasks was more difficult than others and the “student experts” assigned to it required more teacher assistance. Also, on the post- assessment to measure transfer of skills to design situations similar to Flossville, she found that some geometry skills transferred more than others. There was no difference in the number of students passing the end-of-course geometry test, but that did not surprise her, since most usually passed it.

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step 7: Make revisions. Ms. Paige made a note to remember to make the following changes:

• Assign the more difficult Flossville design task to the best students. • Review and discuss more (aided by Math in Action videos) before post- assessment. • Expand the Flossville project to include other Math by Design environments. • Use the bulletin board in the computer lab to display printouts from the Flossville environment and

describe the geometry standards students had achieved.

ChAPTer 3 Big iDeAs Overview Before you begin reading the rest of this chapter, listen to the Chapter 3 Big ideas Overview. It will give you a two-minute audio overview of main concepts to look for and help prepare you to work through information and exercises to achieve this chapter’s outcomes.

An intrODuCtiOn tO instruCtiOnAl sOftwAre

In the 1960s and 1970s, educators and software developers alike began to pursue the idea that computers could be programmed to teach. Some believed that education would be more effi- cient if computers took over the traditional role of teachers. Some 35 years later, we talk less about computers replacing teachers and more about helping teachers transform the teaching process. This chapter shows how software empowers teachers, rather than replaces them. We begin with some basic definitions and terms for instructional software and the roles these prod- ucts can play in teaching and learning.

Basic Information about Instructional Software Instructional software is a general term for computer programs used specifically to deliver instruction or assist with the delivery of instruction on a topic. Although tool software, such as word processing and spreadsheets, can also enhance or support instructional activities, this text differentiates between tool software and instructional software. Software tools serve many pur- poses other than teaching; instructional software packages are used solely to support instruction and/or learning.

Programming languages as instructional software. Logo was a program- ming language designed especially for educational purposes, which makes it a hybrid type of instructional software, since it merges the capabilities of instructional and tool software. Initially, Logo was used to introduce young children to problem solving through programming, allowing them to explore concepts in content areas such as mathematics, science, and language arts. The work of Seymour Papert (1980) and his colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology popularized Logo in the 1980s. Although not as popular now, Logo and some of its derivative materials are still used for instructional purposes (Feurzeig, 2010; Ratcliff & Anderson, 2011).

A more recent trend along the same lines is having students program their own games to learn science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills like the following, based on Shapiro’s analysis (2013):

• systems- thinking – Basics about how dynamic systems work, a foundation of many STEM topics

• interdisciplinary thinking – Problem solving and how to locate and synthesize relevant information from many sources.

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• user- centered design – How to design systems that reflect what they know about how humans want to interact with software and each other

• specialist language – How to use technical language and symbols from many different areas

• Meta- level reflection – How to explain and defend their ideas, describe issues, create and test hypotheses, and analyze the impact of their software solutions on others

Instructional software terms. In the early days—when the purpose of instructional software was primarily tutoring—it was called computer- assisted instruction (CAI) or course- ware. The term is still in common use, but some kinds of instructional software such as simula- tions, instructional games, and problem- solving software are designed with more constructivist purposes in mind; they support, rather than deliver, instruction. Therefore, teachers also may hear instructional software referred to as computer- based instruction (CBI), computer- based

for Instructional Software Sites

TyPeS oF InSTrUCTIonAL SoFTWAre

Drill and practice Drills in SAT, vocabulary, and math Drills in chemistry Drills in music concepts Drills in language arts skills Drills in history and geography concepts Drills in math concepts Self- test drills for English language learners Flash card creation site

tutorial Technology how-to tutorials Physics tutorials Economics tutorials Chemistry tutorials Math tutorials U.S. government tutorials

simulations Stock market simulation Chemistry simulations Genetics simulations (GenScope)

instructional games Social studies games Civics games Science games Brain Games Jeopardy game- maker and library

Problem solving Memory Challenge Thinkport- STEM Collaborative Triana Open- Source Problem Solving Environment

Additional sites and information found at educational- freeware.com

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ChAPTer 3 | Instructional Software for 21st Century Teaching | 77

learning (CBL), or computer- assisted learning (CAL), or in more generic terms, such as software learning tools.

Software sources. The number of commercial instructional software products has grown so much that new sites have emerged to help teachers, parents, and schools select ones that meet criteria for quality and alignment to Common Core State Standards (CCSS), a reemergence of a trend from the 1980s when availability of instructional software products for microcomputers exploded. Molnar (2013) says that these sites include edshelf, Graphite, PowerMyLearning, and emerging sites like EduStar (based on PowerMyLearning) and Learning List. All of these sites are free except for Learning List, which Molnar says provides additional analysis of both digital and print resources.

Teachers can also tap many sources of free software. See the Open Source Options feature. Also, programs can now be used from virtually any Internet- enabled device (e.g., a microcom- puter, handheld device, or cell phone). Allowing access to software for all students remains an issue. See Adapting for Special Needs for how to address this concern.

Teaching Roles for Instructional Software It used to be easy to classify a software package by the type of teaching function it served— drill- and- practice, tutorial, simulation, instructional game, or problem- solving program. (See descriptions in Table 3.1) But many of today’s software packages or systems fulfill several dif- ferent functions. For example, a language- learning system may have a number of straight drill activities, along with activities that fulfill problem- solving and game functions. Though software teaching functions are distinct, developers tend to use the terms for these functions interchange- ably. Some developers refer to a drill program that gives extensive feedback as a tutorial. Others refer to simulations or problem- solving functions as games.

Software still reflects the same five functions, but in light of current trends toward multiple- function software systems, teachers must analyze a package carefully to determine which instructional function(s) it serves to ensure it supports their specific teaching needs. They may not be able to refer to an entire package as a drill or a simulation, but it is possible and desirable to identify whether it provides, for example, science vocabulary skill practice ( drill- and- practice

Adapting for Special Needs Instructional Apps, Software, and Web resources When selecting apps, software, and web resources for the class- room, teachers, technology specialists, and administrators should be mindful of special needs that may impact student access and engagement. For example, some students may not be able to use the standard mouse and keyboard due to physical disabilities that impair gross and fine motor movement. In these situations, schools will need to provide items such as the following that allow an indi- vidual with a special need to operate the computer with adaptive equipment:

• expanded keyboards, such as Key Technologies’ Intellikeys • Keyboards with guards, such as the Beyond Adaptive website • Adaptive switch interfaces, such as those listed in the

enablemart catalog

Students with sensory impairments may be unable to access software that has not been properly designed to be accessible. Students who are blind use screen- reading software to read them

the information on the screen. Be sure to ask the vendor if the soft- ware is compatible with screen readers such as JAWS (Job Access for Windows and Speech). Students who are deaf will not be able to access information presented in audio format unless the audio is captioned or a text transcript is available. Look for JAWS at the Freedom Scientific website.

Finally, students with cognitive disabilities may encoun- ter difficulty using apps, software, and Web resources that have extensive commands and complex interfaces. In these situations, look for software such as the following that offers simplified user interfaces:

• Scholastic Keys at Tom Snyder, Inc. • Inspire Data at Inspiration, Inc.

For more about accessible software, see the Microsoft’s Developer Networks Designing Accessible Applications website.

—Contributed by Dave Edyburn

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TaBle 3.1 five instructional software functions software function and example Description of teaching uses

Drill and Practice: Brainpop Users can work problems or answer questions and get feedback on correctness—directed teaching strategy

tutorial: etCAi Acts like a human tutor by providing all the information and instructional activities a learner needs to master a topic (i.e., information summaries, explanation, practice routines, feedback and assessment)—directed teaching strategy

simulation: Digital frog Models real or imaginary systems to show how those systems (or similar ones) work to demonstrate underlying concepts—directed or constructivist teaching strategy

instructional game: iCivics Adds game rule to drills or simulations—directed or constructivist teaching strategy

Problem solving: Memory Challenge A. Teaches directly (through explanation and/or practice) the steps involved in

solving problems—directed teaching strategy

B. Gives learners opportunities to learn problem solving strategies— constructivist teaching strategy

Source: Images reprinted by permission of BrainPop (http://www.brainpopesl.com - Brain Pop © 1999–2011. All rights reserved); ETCAI (http://etcai.com); Digital Frog International, Inc. (http://www.digitalfrog.com); iCivics Inc. (http://icivics.com); and The Critical Thinking Company (http://www.criticalthinking.org).

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http://www.brainpopesl.com

http://etcai.com

http://www.digitalfrog.com

http://icivics.com

http://www.criticalthinking.org

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function) and/or opportunities for studying plant growth in action (simulation function). Each software function serves a different purpose during learning and, consequently, has its own appropriate integration strategies.

The first instructional software products reflected the behavioral and cognitive learning theories that were popular at the time. Some software functions (e.g., drill and practice, tutorial) remain focused on directed strategies that grew out of these theories, delivering information to help students acquire and retain information and skills. Later, instructional software was designed to support more constructivist aims of helping students explore topics and generate their own knowledge. Therefore, some software functions (e.g., simulation, games) can be used in either directed or constructivist ways, depending on how they are designed. See Table 3.1 for a summary of the five software functions described in this chapter.

Gagné, Wager, and Rojas (1981) suggested a way to look at software that can help educa- tors analyze a given product with respect to its instructional function(s) and design appropriate integration strategies that make use of these functions. Gagné et al. said that drills, tutorials, and simulations each accomplish a different combination of the Nine Events of Instruction. The nine events are guidelines identified by Gagné that can help teachers arrange optimal “condi- tions for learning” for various types of knowledge and skills. By determining which of the events a software package fulfills, he said, educators can determine the teaching role it serves and where it might fit in the instructional process. This chapter describes both directed and constructiv- ist strategies for instructional software. Look at the top ten feature for good ideas on how to integrate instructional software products of various kinds.

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 3.1 to review what you have learned from reading this section about basic instructional software concepts.

Drill- AnD- PrACtiCe teAChing funCtiOns

Drill- and- practice software functions are exercises in which students work example items, usu- ally one at a time, and receive feedback on their correctness. Programs vary considerably in the kind of feedback they provide in response to student input. Feedback can range from a simple “OK” or “No, try again” to elaborate animated displays or verbal explanations. Some programs simply present the next item if the student answers correctly. Types of drill and practice are sometimes distinguished by how the program tailors the practice session to student needs. Types of drill functions are described below:

• flash card activity—This is the most basic drill- and- practice function, arising from the popularity of real- world flash cards. A student sees a set number of questions or problems,

presented one at a time. The student chooses or types an answer, and the program responds with positive or negative feedback depending on whether the student answered correctly. • Chart fill-in activities—In this kind of practice, students

are asked to complete a whole set of answers (e.g., multi- plication facts) by filling in a chart, usually on a timed basis to test for fluency. Then they receive feedback on all the answers at once.

• Branching drill—In branching drills, a more sophisticated form of drill and practice, the software moves students on to advanced questions after they get a number of questions correct at some predetermined mastery level; it may also send them back to lower levels if they answer a certain number wrong. Some programs automatically review ques- tions that students get wrong before going on to other lev- els. Students may not realize that branching is happening,

▲ A popular use of drill- and- practice software is helping students prepare for high- stakes tests. (Photo courtesy of W. Wiencke)

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since the program may do it automatically without alerting them to this fact. Sometimes, however, the program may congratulate students on good progress before proceeding to the next level, or it may allow them to choose their next activities.

• extensive feedback activities—In these drills, students get more than just correct/ incorrect feedback. Some programs give detailed feedback on why the student got a prob- lem wrong. This feedback is sometimes so thorough that the software function is often mistaken for a tutorial. (See the next section for a description of tutorial functions.) However, the function of a drill is not instruction, but rather practice after instruction. Consequently, drill and tutorial functions have different integration strategies.

Selecting Good Drill- and- Practice Software In addition to meeting general criteria for good instructional software, well- designed drill- and- practice programs should also meet specific criteria:

• Control over the presentation rate—Unless questions are part of a timed review, students should have as much time as they wish to answer and examine the feedback before pro- ceeding to later questions. A student usually signals readiness to go to the next question by simply pressing a key.

• Answer judging—If programs allow students to enter a short answer rather than simply choos- ing one, a good drill program must be able to discriminate between correct and incorrect answers.

• Appropriate feedback for correct and incorrect answers—If students’ responses are timed, or if their session time is limited, they may find it more motivating simply to move quickly to the next question, rather than receiving recognition for correctness. When drills do give feed- back, they must avoid two common errors. First, feedback must be simple and display quickly. Students rapidly tire of elaborate displays, and the feedback ceases to motivate them. Second, some programs inadvertently motivate students to get wrong answers by giving more exciting or interesting feedback for wrong answers than for correct ones. The most famous example of this design error occurred in an early version of a popular microcomputer- based math drill series. Each correct answer got a smiling face, but two or more wrong answers produced a full- screen, animated crying face that students found amusing. Consequently, many students tried to answer incorrectly so they could see it. The company corrected this flaw, but this classic error continues today in other forms.

• Characteristics tailored to young learners—Luik (2011) also offers advice specific to programs for young learners. Recommendations from her study focus primarily on keep- ing instructions and procedures simple and avoid screen elements that could distract them.

Benefits of Drill and Practice Though often disparaged by constructivists as “drill and kill,” the benefits of drill- and- practice software functions have been well established by research. Indeed, its effects were so well docu- mented in the early days of computer- based learning that little current research focuses on it. It long ago became clear that drill activities can allow the effective rehearsal students need to trans- fer newly learned information into long- term memory (Merrill & Salisbury, 1984; Salisbury, 1990). To help them master higher- order skills more quickly and easily, students must have what Gagné (1982) and Bloom (1986) call automaticity, or automatic recall of lower order prerequi- site skills. The usefulness of drill programs seems especially popular among teachers of students with learning disabilities (Graham, Bellert, Thomas, & Pegg, 2007).

Schoppek and Tulis (2010) found that fluency in basic math skills is essential for mathematical problem solving. However, they noted that contemporary mathematics instruction does not empha- size the importance of these skills (p. 239). Their results with third graders showed that even a moder- ate amount of individualized practice with drill software greatly improved both arithmetic skills and problem solving, an impact that continued in follow-up testing three months later. The researchers felt that individualized practice with drill software was a more efficient use of time than other kinds of practice. Drill software has been found to yield equivalent or better benefits when compared to paper- pencil practice, and drill software is both more efficient and often more appealing to students.

Recent focuses on educational accountability and meeting standards that began with the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act has breathed new life into strategies that were once considered

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passé. Even in research circles, some authors have claimed that directed teaching strategies are more effective than minimally guided teaching techniques (Kirshner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). As constructivist methods became more popular in the 1980s and 1990s, the demand for drill- and- practice and tutorial instructional software waned, and use of simulation and problem- solving software increased. Now, directed strategies that drills and tutorials support—strategies that are ideal for preparing students for tests—are once again on the rise.

Although curriculum increasingly emphasizes problem- solving and higher- order skills, teachers still give students on-paper practice (e.g., worksheets or exercises) for many skills to help them learn and remember correct procedures. The following are acknowledged benefits of drill software as compared to paper exercises:

• immediate feedback—When students practice skills on paper, they often do not know until much later whether or not they did their work correctly. To quote a common say- ing, “Practice does not make perfect; practice makes permanent.” If they practice incor- rect answers, students may be memorizing the wrong skills. Drill- and- practice software informs them immediately whether their responses are accurate so they can make quick corrections. This helps both “debugging” (identifying errors in their procedures) and reten- tion (placing the skills in long- term memory for future access).

• increased motivation—Many students refuse to do the practice they need on paper, either because they have failed so much that the whole idea is abhorrent, they have poor hand- writing skills, or they simply dislike writing. In these cases, computer- based practice may motivate students to do the practice they need. Computers don’t get impatient or give dis- gusted looks when a student gives a wrong answer.

• saving teacher time—Since teachers do not have to present or grade drill and practice, stu- dents can practice on their own while the teacher addresses other student needs. The curricu- lum has dozens of areas in which the benefits of drill and practice apply. Some of these are:

• Math facts • Typing skills • English and foreign- language vocabulary • Countries and capitals • Preparation for SAT, ACT, TOEFL, and other high- stakes tests • Musical keys and notations

limitations and Problems Related to Drill and Practice Although drill and practice can be extremely useful to both students and teachers, it is also fre- quently maligned by its critics as “drill and kill.” This criticism comes from the following two sources:

• instructional overuse or misuses—Some authors have criticized teachers for presenting drills for overly long periods or for teaching functions that drills are ill- suited to accomplish. For example, teachers may give students drill- and- practice software as a way of introducing new concepts rather than just for practicing and reinforcing familiar ones.

• Criticism by constructivists—Since it is identified so closely with tradi- tional instructional methods, drill- and- practice software has become an icon for what many people consider an outmoded approach to teaching. Critics claim that introducing isolated skills and directing students to practice them contradicts the trend toward restructured curriculum in which students learn and use skills in an integrated way within the context of their own proj- ects that specifically require the skills.

Despite these criticisms, it is likely that some form of drill- and- practice software will be useful in many classrooms for some time to come. Rather than ignoring drill- and- practice software or criticizing it as outmoded, teach- ers should seek to identify needs that drills can meet and use the software in ways that take advantage of its capabilities. See Figure 3.1 for examples of drill software and a summary of drill features.

Drill and Practice Software Uses

In this video, the principal cites classroom uses of drill- and- practice software across many content areas. What are some of the reasons she cites that this kind of software can be helpful?

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FIGuRe 3.1 Drill- and- Practice Software Functions in Brief

Description of Drill and Practice

Characteristics Criteria for effective Drill software Benefits

• Presents items for students to answer

• Gives feedback on correctness

• Sometimes gives explanation of why answers are incorrect

• User control over presentation rate

• Good answer judging

• Appropriate feedback for correct, incorrect answers

• Gives immediate, private feedback

• Motivates students to practice

• Saves teacher time correcting student work

Vocabulary Practice by BrainPop

Chemistry Formulas by Chemistry Drills.com

Name the Note by Music Drills.com

Practice in word identification: drag each word into the correct category

Practice in creating correct chemical formulas Downloadable app for practicing keyboard note identification

Source: Images reprinted by permission of BrainPop (http://www.brainpopesl.com - BrainPop © 1999–2011. All rights reserved); Meta-Synthesis (http://www .chemistry-drills.com; and Rifftech (http://www.musicdrills.com).

TaBle 3.2 integration strategies and guidelines for using drill and Practice Programs strategy explanation

supplement and/or replace worksheets and homework exercises

Use whenever students lack specific skills that are prerequisite to higher- order ones. The motivation, immediate feedback, and self- pacing can make it more productive for students to practice skills on the computer than on paper.

Prepare for tests Use when students need to prepare to demonstrate mastery of specific skills in important examinations (e.g., for end-of-year grades or for college entrance).

guideline explanation

set time limits Limit the time for drill assignments to 10 to 15 minutes per day to ensure that students will not become bored and that the drill- and- practice strategy will retain its effectiveness. Also, teachers should be sure students have been introduced previously to concepts underlying the drills. Use drills only to debug students’ strategies and helps them retain their grasp of concepts.

use only after teaching the concepts

never use drill to introduce new topics. Use only to debug students’ understanding and help them retain their grasp of familiar concepts.

Assign individually Take advantage of self- pacing and personalized feedback by allowing individual, rather than group, use. If technology resources are limited and all students in a class will benefit from practice in a skill, divide them into small groups to compete with each other for the best group scores, or divide into two groups for a “relay race” competition to see which group can complete the assignment the fastest with the most correct answers.

use learning stations If not all students need the kind of practice that a drill provides, make software one of several learning stations to serve students with identified weaknesses in one or more key skills.

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http://www.brainpopesl.com

http://www.chemistry-drills.com

http://www.musicdrills.com

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tutOriAl teAChing funCtiOns Tutorial software is an entire instructional sequence on a topic, similar to a teacher’s classroom instruction. This instruction usually is expected to be a self- contained instructional unit rather than a supplement to other instruction. Students should be able to learn the topic without any other help or materials. Unlike other types of instructional software, tutorials are true teaching materials. Gagné et al. (1981) said that good tutorial software should address all nine instructional events. Today’s technologies (e.g., Camtasia, Youtube) make video demonstrations possible, and these are often referred to as “tutorials.” However, demonstrations alone do not fulfill software tutorial functions; instructional software tutorials require practice and feedback capabilities.

Also, people may confuse tutorial and drill activities for two reasons. First, drill software may provide elaborate feedback that reviewers may mistake for tutorial explanations. Even software developers may claim that a package is a tutorial when it is, in fact, a drill activity with detailed feedback. Second, a good tutorial should include one or more practice sequences to check students’ comprehension. Since this kind of checking is a drill- and- practice function, teachers reviewing tutorial software can become confused about the primary purpose of the activity.

Tutorials often are categorized as linear or branching tutorials (Alessi & Trollip, 2001):

• linear tutorial—A simple, linear tutorial gives the same instructional sequence of explana- tion, practice, and feedback to all learners regardless of differences in their performance.

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 3.2 to review what you have learned from reading this section about drill and prac- tice software concepts.

using Drill and Practice in Teaching Teachers may take advantage of the benefits of drill- and- practice software to give students prac- tice using isolated skills. Follow the integration strategies and guidelines shown in Table 3.2 to make best use of drill- and practice- programs. Also, an example integration strategy for drill functions is shown in Technology Integration Example 3.1.

Example 3.1

title: Using ratios

COntent AreA/tOPiC: Mathematics—ratios and Proportions

grADe levels: 4-5

iste stAnDArDs•s: Standard 2– Communication and Collaboration; Standard 6– Technology Operations and Concepts

CCss: MATH.CONTENT.4.NF.A.1, MATH.CONTENT.5.NF.A.1, MAth.ConTenT.6.rP.A.1

DesCriPtiOn: one of the activities at Cynthia Lanius’s Mathematics Lessons website provides practice in recognizing

pictured examples of ratios and proportions. After students learn about ratio concepts in the classroom, the teacher may either print out the on-screen exercises or have students access the site on classroom computers. Students also get a sheet to mark down how many they get correct. Students get a 10-minure period to practice the concepts by completing the items, and they check their own correctness by clicking an on-screen tab to reveal each correct answer.

SourCE: Based on online resources at Cynthia Lanius’s Mathematics Lessons website

T e c h n o l o G y I n T e G R a T I o n

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• Branching tutorial—A more sophisticated, branching tutorial directs learners along alternate paths depending on how they respond to questions and whether they show mas- tery of certain parts of the material. Branching tutorials can range in complexity by the number of paths they allow and how fully they diagnose the kinds of instruction a student needs. More complex tutorials may also have computer- management capabilities; teachers can place each student at an appropriate level and get progress reports as each one goes through the instruction.

Tutorials are usually geared toward learners who can read fairly well and who are older stu- dents or adults. Since tutorial instruction is expected to stand alone, it is difficult to explain or give appropriate guidance on-screen to a nonreader. However, some tutorials aimed at younger learners have found clever ways to explain and demonstrate concepts with graphics, succinct phrases or sentences, or audio/video directions and illustrations.

Selecting Good Tutorial Software Being a good teacher is a difficult assignment for any human, let alone a computer. However, to fulfill tutorial functions, teaching is exactly what tutorials are supposed to do. In addition to meeting general criteria for good instructional software, well- designed tutorial programs should also meet the following standards:

• extensive interactivity—Give frequent and thoughtful responses to questions and supply appropriate practice and feedback to guide students’ learning. The most frequent criticism of tutorials is that they are “ page- turners”—that is, they ask students to do very little other than read.

• thorough user control—First, students should always be able to control the rate at which text appears on the screen. The program should not go on to the next information or activ- ity screen until the user has signaled readiness (e.g., by pressing a key). Next, the program should offer students the flexibility to review explanations, examples, or sequences of instruction or to move ahead to other instruction and should also provide frequent oppor- tunities to exit the program.

• Appropriate pedagogy—The program’s structure should provide a suggested or required sequence of instruction that builds on concepts and covers the content ade- quately. It should provide sufficient explanation and examples in both original and remedial sequences. In sum, it should compare favorably to an expert teacher’s presen- tation sequence for the topic.

• Adequate answer- judging and feedback capabilities—Whenever possible, pro- grams should allow students to answer in natural language and should accept all correct answers and possible variations of correct answers. They should also give appropriate corrective feedback when needed, supplying this feedback after only one or two tries rather than frustrating students by making them keep trying indefinitely to answer something they may not know.

• Appropriate graphics and/or video—Most experts say that graphics should be used spar- ingly and not interfere with the purpose of the instruction. Where graphics are used, they should fulfill an instructional, aesthetic, or otherwise supportive function. Video- based tutorials should provide clear, uncluttered demonstrations of procedures.

• Adequate recordkeeping—Depending on the purpose of the tutorial, teachers may need to keep track of student progress. If the program keeps records on student work, teachers should be able to get progress summaries quickly and easily.

Benefits of Tutorials Since a tutorial includes drill- and- practice activities, helpful features include the same ones as for drills (immediate feedback to learners, motivation, and time savings) plus the additional benefit of offering a self- paced instructional experience. Many successful uses of tutorials have been documented over the years. For examples, see Ellington and Hardin (2008), Offner and Pohlman (2010), Criswell, (2011), and Wilson and Wilson (2013).

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Another, more sophisticated kind of tutorial software is intelligent tutoring systems, a kind of branching tutorial software that adapts the sequence of instruction to the needs of each learner. Steenbergen-Hu and Cooper (2013) report encouraging results using such systems designed to teach mathematics.

limitations and Problems Related to Tutorials Tutorials can fulfill many much- needed instructional functions, but like drill and practice, they also attract their share of criticism, including:

• Criticism by constructivists—Constructivists criticize tutorials because they deliver directed instruction rather than allowing students to generate their own knowledge through hands-on projects. Thus, they feel tutorials are trivial uses of the computer.

• lack of well- designed products—The difficulty and expense of designing and devel- oping true tutorial functions make such programs scarcer than other kinds of software. A well- designed tutorial sequence emerges from extensive research into how to teach the topic well. Designers must know what learning tasks the topic requires, the best sequence

FIGuRe 3.2 Tutorial Software Functions in Brief

Description of tutorials

Characteristics Criteria for effective tutorial software Benefits

• Presents an entire instructional sequence

• Is complete, rather than supplemental, instruction

• Includes drill- and- practice functions

• Can be either linear or branching

• extensive interactivity

• Thorough user control

• Appropriate pedagogy

• Adequate answer judging and feedback

• Appropriate graphics

• Adequate record keeping

• Same as drill and practice (immediate, private feedback, time savings)

• offers instruction that can stand on its own

Trigonometry Challenge by etCAi

Laws of Motion by the Physics Classroom

The Constitution by Congress for Kids

Instruction in trigonometry concepts: Sequence of screens gives information on concepts such as the Pythagorean Theorem, followed by practice items with feedback

Instruction in physics concepts: Sequence of screens gives information and animated demonstrations to teach concepts such as newton’s Laws of Motion, followed by practice items

Instruction in aspects of U.S. government: Sequence of screens gives explanation of how the government works, with assessment items to review concepts and check comprehension

Source: A special thanks to the Dirksen Congressional Center for permission to use information and screenshots from Congress for Kids (http:www.congressforkids .net). Images reprinted by permission of ETCAI Products (http://www.etcai.com), The Physics Classroom (http://www.physicsclassroom.com/), and the Dirksen Congressional Center.

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http:www.congressforkids.net

http://www.etcai.com

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/

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for students to follow, how best to explain and demonstrate essential concepts, common errors students are likely to make, and how to provide instruction and feedback to correct those errors. Though programs identified as “video tutorials” have emerged in recent years, most are demonstrations and explanations that may or may not be well- researched, and most do not contain the practice and feedback elements.

• reflect only one instructional approach—True tutorial programs that have adequate feedback are difficult to design because teachers frequently disagree about what should be taught for a given topic, how to teach it most effectively, and in what order to present the learning tasks. For instance, a teacher may choose not to purchase a tutorial with a sound instructional sequence because it does not cover the topic the way he or she presents it. Not surprisingly, software companies tend to avoid programs that are difficult to develop and market. However, use of website- based tutorials is increasing.

Although tutorials have considerable value and are popular in military and industrial training, schools and colleges have never fully tapped their potential as teaching resources. However, recent trends toward combining a tutorial approach with new technologies (online and stream- ing video) are bringing tutorial functions into more common use. See Figure 3.2 for examples of tutorial software and a summary of tutorial features.

using Tutorials in Teaching Tutorial software can serve several classroom needs. This section describes integration strategies to meet each of these needs and offers guidelines and practical tips on how to integrate these strategies in the classroom.

Self- instructional tutorials are becoming more useful in light of new strategies such as the flipped classroom model and easier to develop due to new technologies such as screen- casting, or video captures of actions on a computer screen, usually accompanied by narra- tion (Stagg, Kimmins, & Pavlovski, 2013). The tutorial’s unique capability of presenting an entire interactive instructional sequence can assist in several classroom situations. Follow the integration strategies and guidelines shown in Table 3.3 to make best use of tutorial programs.

TaBle 3.3 integration strategies and guidelines for using Tutorial Programs strategies explanation

self- paced reviews of instruction Use when students are slower to understand concepts and need to spend additional time on them, learn better in a self- paced mode without the pressure to move at the same pace as the rest of the class, and need a review before a test.

Alternative learning strategies Use when students at advanced levels prefer to structure their own learning activities and proceed at their own pace or when they are able use tutorials prior to meeting with a teacher for assessment and/or further work assignments

instruction when teachers are unavailable Use when students surge ahead of their class and the teacher cannot leave the rest of the class to provide advanced instruction, or when no teacher is available for the comparatively few students who need a course (e.g., physics, German, trigonometry, or other lower- demand courses).

guidelines explanation

Assign individually Like drill- and- practice functions, tutorial functions are designed for use by individuals rather than by groups of students.

use learning stations or individual checkout Depending on which strategy it promotes, a tutorial may be used in a classroom learning station or may be available for checkout at any time in a library/media center. Sometimes teachers send students to learning stations with tutorials in order to review previously presented material while the teacher works with other students. (See Technology Integration Example 3.2.)

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siMulAtiOn teAChing funCtiOns A simulation is a computerized model of a real or imagined system that is designed to teach how the system works. Unlike tutorial and drill- and- practice activities, in which the teaching structure is built into the package, learners using simulations usually must choose tasks to do and the order in which to do them. Alessi and Trollip (2001) identified two main types of simu- lations: those that teach about something and those that teach how to do something; they also divide the “how to” simulations into procedural and situational types.

Simulations That Teach about Something Alessi and Trollip (2001) further divide “simulations that teach about something” into two other categories: physical simulations and iterative simulations. These sub- categories are based on how users interact with them.

• Physical simulations. These simulations allow users to manipulate things or processes represented on the screen. For example, students might see selections of chemicals with instructions on how to combine them to see the result, or they might see how various elec- trical circuits operate. More recent investigations of simulation software include the use of three- dimensional models (Kim, 2006).

• iterative simulations. These simulations speed up or slow down processes that usually happen either so slowly or so quickly that students cannot see the events unfold. For exam- ple, software may show the effects of changes in demographic variables on population growth, or the effects of environmental factors on ecosystems. Alessi and Trollip (2001) refer to this type as “iterative” because students can run it over and over again with different values, observing the results each time. Biological simulations, such as those on genetics, are popular since they help students experiment with natural processes. Genetics simula- tions let students pair animals with given characteristics and see the resulting offspring.

Example 3.2

title: Minds on Physics

COntent AreA/tOPiC: Physics—newton’s Laws of Motion

grADe levels: 9– 12

iste stAnDArDs•s: Standard 1– Creativity and Innovation; Standard 6– Technology Operations and Concepts

CCss: ELA/Literacy RST.11-12.7, WHST.9-12.7, Mathematics MP.2, Math.Content.HSN.Q.A.1, Math.Content. HSA- CED.A.4

nstA: HS-PS2-1, HS-PS2-4

DesCriPtiOn: After presenting the topic in the classroom using usual instructional strategies, the teacher assigns the Minds on

Physics (MOP) module at the Physics Classroom website as a mastery learning activity. Students complete the assigned online materials as homework or classwork and submit their encrypted “success codes” to their teacher. The teacher then checks that students have completed them successfully by using a decryption page provided on the site. The teacher then assigns one or more of the online labs to illustrate application of newton’s Laws, and uses the scoring rubric provided to assess students’ write-up(s) of their results.

SourCE: Based on The Physics Classroom materials developed by Tom Henderson at http:// www.physicsclassroom.com/mop/join.cfm

T e c h n o l o G y I n T e G R a T I o n

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 3.3 to review what you have learned from reading this section about tutorial soft- ware concepts.

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http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mop/join.cfm

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Simulations That Teach how to Do Something Alessi and Trollip (2001) divide the “how to” simulations into procedural and situational types. Again, these categories are based on how users are able to interact with them.

• Procedural simulations. These activities teach the appropriate sequences of steps to per- form certain procedures. They include diagnostic programs, in which students try to iden-

tify the sources of medical or mechanical problems, and flight simulators, in which students simulate piloting an airplane or other vehicle.

• situational simulations. These programs give students hypothetical prob- lem situations and ask them to react. Some simulations allow for various suc- cessful strategies, such as letting students play the stock market or operate businesses. Others have most desirable and least desirable options, such as choices when encountering a potentially volatile classroom situation.

The descriptions above clarify the various forms a simulation might take, but teachers need not feel they should be able to classify a given simulation into one of these categories. Simulations usually emphasize learning about the system itself rather than learning general problem- solving strategies. For example, a program called The Factory has students build products by select- ing machines and placing them in the correct sequence. Since the program emphasizes solving problems in correct sequence rather than manufactur- ing in factories, it should probably be called a problem- solving activity rather

than a simulation. Programs such as City Creator, which let students design their own cities, provide more accurate examples of building- type simulations.

Selecting Good Simulation Software Simulations vary so much in type and purpose that a uniform set of criteria is not possible. For some simulations, a realistic and accurate representation of a system is essential, but for others, it is impor- tant only to know what screen elements represent. Since the screen often presents no set sequence of steps, simulations need good accompanying documentation—more than most software. These help the teacher more quickly learn how to use the program and show the students how to use it. See Figure 3.3 for examples of simulation software and a summary of simulation features.

Benefits of Simulations Simulations are more prevalent in science than any other area (Brunsell, & Horejsi, 2012; Eskrootchi & Oskrochi, 2010; Evagoroua, Nicolaoub, & Constantinoub, 2010; Jaakkola & Nurmi, 2008; Lalley, Piotrowski, Battaglia, Brophy, & Chugh, 2010; Urban- Woldron, 2009), but they are also popular in teaching social science topics (Bartels, McCown, & Wilkie, 2013; Iannou, Brown, Hannafin, & Boyer, 2009). Simulations are currently available in other content areas; nearly all are now able to be accessed online. Some updated products combine the control, safety, and interactive features of computer simulations with the visual impact of pictures of real- life devices and processes.

Research comparing simulations to “real” activities often qualify the benefits they report by saying that the impact of simulations depends on how and with whom they are used. For example, in a study of a simulation of environmental concepts, Eskrootchi and Oskrochi (2010) report that, “Simulations do not work on their own; there needs to be some structuring of the students’ interactions with the simulation to increase effectiveness” (p. 236). Gelbart, Brill, and Yarden (2009) found that some students learn more than others from simulations designed to teach genetics concepts. Research on teaching “systems thinking” skills to elementary school students by using environmental simulations (Evagoroua, Nicolaoub, & Constantinoub, 2010) reported good impact on some skills but not others. One common finding is that simulations work best when combined with nonsimulation activities. Urban- Woldron (2009) found that physics simulations were most useful as a follow-up to hands-on activities, and Jaakkola and Nurmi (2008) reported that simulations in electrical concepts had more positive benefits with elementary school children when accompanied by hands-on learning.

However, other studies report unqualified positive results from simulations. Lalley et al. (2010) compared the effectiveness of simulated and physical frog dissections on learning,

Simulated Virtual Science Lab

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retention, and student satisfaction and found no significant differences on any measure. They concluded that the simulated dissection “provides a viable alternative to physical dissection . . . and may be appealing to teachers and students for a number of practical and/or ethical reasons” (p. 189). Iannou et al. (2009) reported that a problem- based simulation designed to teach world

issues made students more motivated to learn social studies than did text- based materials.

Wieman and Perkins (2005) reported research that indi- cates interactive simulations in physics are frequently much more effective than seeing actual demonstrations. They believe that real- life demonstrations and labs include peripheral infor- mation that is not central to the concept being learned. While an expert can easily filter out the “extra” information to focus on the phenomenon of interest, a novice does not even know what to filter out. Thus, the extra information produces confusion and much higher cognitive loads for novice learners.

Depending on the topic and the way it is used, a simulation has potential to provide one or more of the following instruc- tional benefits.

Compress time. This feature is important whenever students study the growth or development of living things (e.g., pairing animals to observe their offspring’s characteristics) or

FIGuRe 3.3 Simulation Software Functions in Brief

Description of simulations

Characteristics Criteria for effective simulation software Benefits

• Models a real or imaginary system

• Can model physical phenomena (e.g., growth), procedures (e.g., dissections), and hypothetical situations (e.g., stock market)

• Users can see the impact of their actions

• System fidelity and accuracy (for some simulations)

• Good documentation to explain system characteristics and uses

• Compresses time or slows down processes

• Gets students involved

• Makes experimentation safe

• Makes the impossible possible

• Saves money and other resources

• Allows repetition with variations

• Allows observation of complex processes

BioLab Fly by Biolab

Stock Market Simulation by national sMs

Digital Frog by Digital frog international

Simulated breeding of fruit flies: Students learn genetics concepts through repeatable experiments

Simulated stock market: Student teams learn how the stock market works by “investing” money and seeing resulting profits and losses

Simulated dissection: Students can “dissect” a virtual frog using digital tools and images

Source: BioLab Fly (http://www.biolabsoftware.com/bls/fly.html) copyright 2011 by Bob Doltar, All Rights Reserved; National SMS’s “Stock Market Simulation”(http:// www.nationalsms.com) illustrations Copyright © by Stock Trak, Inc. National SMS. reprinted by permission; and the Digital Frog (http://www.digitalfrog.com) reprinted by permission from Digital Frog International, Inc.

▲ Simulation software can be used instead of or as a supplement to science lab activities such as dissections. (Photo courtesy of W. Wiencke)

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http://www.nationalsms.com

http://www.digitalfrog.com

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other processes that take a long time (e.g., the movement of the sun across the sky). A simula- tion can make something happen in seconds that normally takes days, months, or longer, so that students can cover more variations of the activity in a shorter time.

Slow down processes. Conversely, a simulation can also model processes normally invisible to the human eye because they happen so quickly. For example, physical education stu- dents can study the slowed- down movement of muscles and limbs as a simulated athlete throws a ball or swings a golf club.

Get students involved. Simulations can capture students’ attention by placing them in charge of things and asking, “What would you do?” The results of their choices can be immedi- ate and graphic. Users can also interact with the program instead of just seeing its output.

Make experimentation safe. Whenever learning involves physical danger, simula- tions are the strategy of choice. This is true when students are learning to drive vehicles, handle volatile substances, or react to potentially dangerous situations. They can experiment with strat- egies in simulated environments that might result in personal injury to themselves or others in real life. For example, the First Responders Simulation and Training Environment (FiRSTE) allows for the training of civilian first responders to respond to attacks employing weapons of mass destruction (Tichon, Hall, Hilgers, Leu, & Agarwal, 2003).

Make the impossible possible. Very often, teachers simply cannot give students access to the resources or situations that simulations can. Simulations can show students, for example, what it would be like to walk on the moon or how to react to emergencies in a nuclear power plant. They can see cells mutating or hold countrywide elections. They can even design new societies or planets and see the results of their choices. For example, one researcher at the University of California– Davis (Virtual Schizophrenia in Second Life, 2007) recreated a mental health treatment ward in a virtual world and gave each of his students a taste of what it means to experience schizophrenia in the real world. As students’ virtual characters walked the hallways, they were overcome by hallucinations, including “the floor disappearing from underfoot, writ- ing on posters that morphs into derogatory words, a pulsating gun that suddenly appears on a table, and menacing voices that laugh.”

Save money and other resources. Many school systems are finding dissections of animals on a computer screen to be much less expensive and just as instructional as using real frogs or cats. (It is also easier on the animals!) Depending on the subject, a simulated experi- ment may be just as effective a learning experience as an actual experiment is, but at a fraction of the cost.

Allow repetition with variations. Unlike in real life, simulations let students repeat events as many times as they wish and with unlimited variations. They can pair any number of cats or make endless spaceship landings in a variety of conditions to compare the results of each set of choices.

Allow observation of complex processes. Real- life events often are so complex that they are confusing—especially to those seeing them for the first time. When many things happen at once, students find it difficult to focus on the operation of individual components. Who could understand the operation of a stock market by looking at the real thing without some introduction? Simulations can isolate parts of activities and control background noise. This makes it easier for students to see what is happening when, later, all the parts come together in the actual activity.

limitations and Problems Related to Simulations Most educators acknowledge the instructional usefulness of simulations. There are some con- cerns, however, including the following:

• Criticism of virtual lab software. Though modern simulation software makes it possible to do simulated labs for topics in biology and chemistry, both the American Chemical Society

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(2008) and the National Science Teachers Association (Davis, 2009; NSTA, 2007) have come out strongly against replacing hands-on, in-class labs with virtual ones, saying that simulations should be used only as supplements to reg- ular labs. The College Board has also indicated that students may not get Advanced Placement (AP) course credit for any courses that substitute virtual labs for hands-on labs.

• Accuracy of models. When students see simplified versions of systems in a controlled situation, they may get inaccurate or imprecise perspectives on the systems’ complexity. For example, students may feel they know all about how to react to driving situations because they have experienced simulated versions of them. Many educators feel strongly that situational simulations must be followed at some point by real experi- ences, a position with which organizations such as the NSTA and the American Chemical Society concur. In addition, many teachers of very young children feel that learners at early stages of their cognitive development should experience things first with their five senses rather than on computer screens.

• instructional misuses. Sometimes, simulations are used to teach concepts that could just as easily be demonstrated on paper, with manipulatives, or with real objects. If students can master the activities of a simulation without actually developing effective problem- solving skills, such applications can actually encourage counterproductive behaviors.

▲ Though modern simulation software makes it possible to do many chemistry and biology lab activities on the computer, both the American Chemical Society and the National Science Teachers Association say that simulations should be used only to supplement, not replace, traditional labs. (Photo courtesy of W. Wiencke)

TaBle 3.4 integration strategies and guidelines for using simulation Programs strategies explanation

in place of or as supplements to lab experiments

Use as replacements for labs when adequate lab materials are not available or for experiments that would be unmanageable or too dangerous in person. Use as supplements to prepare students for actual labs, or as follow- ups with variations of the original experiments without using consumable materials.

in place of or as supplements to role- playing Use when students either refuse to role- play in front of a class or get too enthusiastic and disrupt the classroom.

in place of or as supplements to field trips Use when desired locations are not within reach of the school, and a simulated experience of all or part of the process is the next best thing. Simulations also provide good introductions or follow- ups to field trips.

to introduce and/or clarify a topic Use to provide a nonthreatening (ungraded), get- acquainted look at a new topic and build students’ initial interest in it. Some software helps students see how earlier learning relates to the topic. (Simulations such as Tulane University’s Crisis at Fort Sumter helps students see the impact of events leading up to the U.S. Civil War.)

to foster exploration and process learning Use to emulate in-class science labs and to illustrate and provide practice in using scientific methods

to encourage cooperation and group work Use to interest students in working together on a product. For example, a simulation on immigration or colonization might launch a group project in a social studies unit.

guidelines explanation

Provide usage instruction and guidelines Since simulations are unstructured, students need to know how to make them work and what they are to do with them.

use either with groups or individuals Because they instigate discussion and collaborative work so well, simulations usually are considered more appropriate for pairs and small groups than for individuals. however, individual use certainly is not precluded.

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how to use Simulations in Teaching: Integration Strategies and Guidelines Simulations are considered among the most potentially powerful computer software resources; as with most software, however, their usefulness depends largely on the program’s purpose and how well it fits in with the purpose of the lesson and student needs. Teachers are responsible for recognizing the unique instructional value of each simulation and using it to its best advan- tage. Lee and Guo (2008) offer teacher guidelines for using simulations in physics instruction to achieve the most impact. Real systems are often preferable to simulations, but a simulation is useful when the real situation is too time consuming, dangerous, expensive, or unrealistic for a classroom presentation. Follow the integration strategies and guidelines shown in Table 3.4 to make best use of simulations.

Example 3.3

title: Crisis at Fort Sumter

COntent AreA/tOPiC: U.S. history—Civil War period

grADe levels: 10– 12

iste stAnDArDs•s: Standard 1– Creativity and Innovation; Standard 2– Communication and Collaboration; Standard 4– Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making

CCss: ELA- LITERACY.RH.9-10.5 ELA- LITERACY.RH.11-12.2

ssCs: Theme 2-Time, Continuity, and Change

DesCriPtiOn: Introduce students to the historical simulation website Crisis at Fort Sumter. The simulation outlines the decisions that President Abraham Lincoln had to make concerning Fort Sumter. Tell them to choose one decision on which they disagree with the President, outline what they would have done differently, and write a description defending their alternative solution. They post the description on the discussion board, and the class discusses the merits of the various proposals and the impact each might have made on the situation.

SourCE: Based on an exercise idea submitted at the MerLoT website for use with the Crisis at Fort Sumter simulation website.

T e c h n o l o G y I n T e G R a T I o n

instruCtiOnAl gAMe teAChing funCtiOns

Technology- based games bridge the worlds of gaming, entertainment, and education in an attempt to deliver fun and effective learning. Young et al. (2012) define digital- learning games as those that focus on the acquisition of knowledge and foster “habits of mind” that are academi- cally useful (p. 63). But more simply defined, instructional games are software products that add game- like rules and/or competition to learning activities. Tobias and Fletcher (2012) note that other names for instructional games include computer games, video games, serious games, and educational software.

Even though teachers often use them in the same way as they do drill- and- practice or simulation software, games are considered a separate software function because they have a different instructional connotation to students. When students know they will be playing a game, they expect a fun and entertaining activity because of the challenge of the competi- tion and the potential for winning. Though many writers and researchers tend to conflate

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 3.4 to review what you have learned from reading this section about simulation software concepts.

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games and simulations, Young et al. (2012) emphasizes that “Simulations are designed to model real systems . . . whereas the object of games is to score points and win” (p. 64). Teachers frequently intersperse games with other activities to hold students’ attention or as a reward for accomplishing other activities, even though games, by themselves, can be powerful teaching tools.

It is important to recognize the common characteristics that set instructional games apart from other types of soft- ware: game rules, elements of competition or challenge, and amusing or entertaining formats. These elements generate a set of mental and emotional expectations in students that make game- based instructional activities different from nongame ones.

Devaney (2013) notes that while interest in video games seems to be growing, adoption in schools has been slow. One reason is that because effective educational video games take so much time to develop, there are few good models for teach- ers to see and try out. However, video games of various kinds are emerging from elementary school to high school levels, all designed to immerse young people in alternate worlds for the

purpose of learning various content and skills. She cites examples such as Minecraft, SimCity, Surge EpiGame, and Satisfraction. Other available products include those from a company called Dig-It! Games, which let students learn about ancient civilizations. Finally, she notes that Educade is a free site that links standards- aligned lesson plans with various interactive activities, including video games.

Selecting Good Instructional Games Since instructional games often amount to drills or simulations overlaid with game rules, these three types of software often share many of the same criteria (e.g., better reinforcement for cor- rect answers than for incorrect ones). Hong, Cheng, Hwang, Lee, and Chang (2009) surveyed educators to create a checklist of criteria that determine the educational value of a game. The seven categories they identified included: mentality challenge, emotional fulfillment, knowledge enhancement, thinking- skill development, interpersonal skills, spatial ability development, and bodily coordination. Teachers can use the following criteria to choose effective instructional games:

Appealing and appropriate formats and activities. The most popular games include elements of adventure and uncertainty as well as levels of complexity matched to learn- ers’ abilities.

Instructional value. Teachers should examine instructional games carefully for their value as both educational and motivational tools. Do they meet a need that other formats can- not? While a number of researchers argue for the benefits of educational games, others question their value.

Physical dexterity is reasonable. Teachers should ensure that students will be motivated rather than frustrated by the activities. Unless the object of the game is to learn physical dexterity (e.g., for students with physical challenges), the focus of the game should be learning content- area skills, rather than physical dexterity. For content- area games, the level of physical dexterity should be manageable by all students.

Social, societal, and cultural considerations are addressed. Games may be inappropriate for children if they are not designed with a respectful outlook. For instance, games that call for violence or combat require careful screening, not only to avoid students’

▲ Instructional game software uses students’ natural love of games to lure them into learning. Alice McBroom/Pearson Education

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modeling this behavior, but also because girls often perceive the attraction of these activities dif- ferently than boys do. In addition, games may present females and various ethnic and cultural groups in stereotypical roles. Ideally, teachers should choose games that do not perpetuate stereo- types, while at the same time highlighting positive messages (e.g., peace and friendship) rather than unnecessary violence (e.g., aggression).

Benefits of Instructional Games A classroom without elements of games and fun would be a dry, barren landscape for students to traverse. Successful uses of games have been reported in many content areas (Bai, Pan, Hirumi, & Kebritchi, 2012; Young et al, 2012). Their appeal seems to center around students’ desire to com- pete and play. Though they may provide the same actual function as a drill or simulation, games provide teachers with opportunities for taking advantage of the innate desire to play in order to get students to spend more time on a curriculum topic. Some educators and observers feel strongly that video games hold special promises for improving classroom teaching strategies and making learning more engaging and motivational (Ash, 2011; Corbett, 2010). Recent research focuses on games’ ability to foster what Herold (2013) calls “noncognitive skills" or abilities such as empathy, attention, and tenacity. See Figure 3.4 for examples of instructional game software and a summary of game features.

limitations and Problems Related to Instructional Games Some teachers believe that any time they can sneak in learning under the guise of a game, it is altogether a good thing. However, games are also criticized from several standpoints:

• learning versus having fun. Some schools forbid any use of games because they believe games convince students that they are escaping from learning, thus drawing attention away

FIGuRe 3.4 Instructional Game Software Functions in Brief

Description of instructional games

Characteristics Criteria for effective instructional game

software

Benefits

Crystals of Kaydor by the university of wisconsin- Madison Game to foster empathy and ability to pay attention: Students must successfully interact with aliens

lure of the labyrinth by thinkport Game to apply pre- algebra skills: Students use math skills to locate a missing pet in the labyrinth

Jeopardy review generator by super teacher tools Game to practice any content area skills: Teachers generate content review items for a Jeopardy game

Source: Crystals of Kaydor image © Learning Games Network- LGN (http://www.gameslearningsociety.org); Lure of the Labyrinth (http://www.labyrinth.thinkport .org) reprinted by permission from Maryland Public Television. Copyright © Maryland Public Television; Jeopardy Review Generator reprinted by permission of SuperTeacher Tools (www.superteachertools.com), courtesy of Jason Kries. Copyright © Jason Kries.

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http://www.gameslearningsociety.org

http://www.labyrinth.thinkport.org

www.superteachertools.com

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from the intrinsic value and motivation of learning. Critics also feel that winning the game becomes a student’s primary focus and that the instructional purpose is lost in the pursuit of this goal. Observers disagree about whether “getting lost in the game” is a benefit or a problem. See the Hot Topic Debate, which addresses this issue.

• Confusion of game rules and real- life rules. Some teachers have observed that students can become confused about which part of the activity is the game and which part is the skill; they may then have difficulty transferring their skill to later nongame situations. For example, the teacher’s manual for Sunburst’s How the West Was One + Three * Four game reminded teachers that some students can confuse the math operations rules with the game rules and that teachers must help them recognize the need to focus on math rules and use them outside the game.

• inefficient learning. Although students obviously find many computer games exciting and stimulating, it is sometimes difficult to pinpoint their educational value. Teachers must try to balance the motivation that instructional games bring to learning against the class- room time they take away from nongame strategies. For example, students may become immersed in the challenge of the Spore game series, but more efficient ways to teach evolu- tion concepts may be just as motivating.

• Classroom barriers. In a review of research on video games for instruction, Rice (2007) found six barriers to widespread classroom implementation. These included

negative teacher perceptions toward video games, as well as a lack of sev- eral characteristics required to make best use of these materials: state of the art graphics, adequate computing hardware required to run advanced video games, short class periods that hindered long- term engagement in complex games, real- world affordances, and alignment to state standards. More recent research found that, though most teachers would like to use games for learning, substantial barriers include cost, access to technology resources, and schools’ emphasis on standardized test results (Millstone, 2012).

using Instructional Games in Teaching Instructional games can serve several classroom needs. Follow the integration strategies and guidelines shown in Table 3.5 to make best use of instructional games.

Some schools, such as those with a college preparatory focus, do not allow the use of games of any kind, even those with an instructional purpose. Meanwhile, some game proponents are

saying that education should be using more instructional games to tap into students’ natural love of these formats (Herold, 2013). others say that even noninstructional games can be the basis of school topics like Algebra (Helms, 2013). Is there a compelling case to be made for promoting games to achieve specific educa- tional goals? That is, can games have a pedagogical edge in cer- tain situations that no other strategy does? If so, what? To inform your position, do background reading such as herold’s article “ Video- Game Research Delves into How Children Succeed,” and helms’s article “education and Video Games Are no Longer Enemies.”

Hot Topic Debate Should Students Play Video Games in School?

Instructional Game Software in Algebra

Watch this video and listen to this principal tell how game software can help teach complex algebra skills in engaging ways. As he describes why students liked a particular game app, listen for some of the criteria he used to select it.

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TaBle 3.5 integration strategies and guidelines for using instructional games strategies explanation

in place of worksheets and exercises

As with drill- and- practice software, teachers can use games to help students acquire automatic recall of prerequisite skills.

As a reward The single most common use of games is to reward good work. however, using games as rewards disregards the power of games to be teaching software and limits them to use as a behaviorist tool. Some schools actually bar games from classrooms for fear that they overemphasize the need for students to be entertained.

to teach “noncognitive skills”

Some newer games are designed especially to teach skills such as attention and perseverance, which are useful across content areas.

to teach cooperative group working skills

Like simulations, many instructional games serve as the basis for or introduction to group work. In addition, some games can be played collaboratively over the Internet (e.g., via an Internet- enabled game console). A game’s competitive qualities can present opportunities for competition among groups.

guidelines explanation

use sparingly Use games sparingly so that students learn effectively from them and continue to stay motivated by the game play.

involve all students Make sure that girls and boys alike are participating and that all students have a meaningful role.

emphasize the content- area skills first

Before students begin playing, make sure they know the relationship between game rules and content- area (e.g., math) rules. Students should recognize which rules they will be using in their later work and which are merely part of the game environment. (See Technology Integration example 3.4.)

Example 3.4

title: Do I Have a Right?

COntent AreA/tOPiC: Civics—The Bill of rights

grADe levels: 8– 10

iste stAnDArDs•s: Standard 4—Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making

CCss: ELA- LITERACY.RH.6-8.3 ELA- LITERACY.RH.9-10.6, ELA- LITERACY.RH.11-12.5

nCss: Theme 6-Power, Authority, and Governance

DesCriPtiOn: Using a packet of materials on the Bill of rights, the teacher reads a scenario in which the world has

been destroyed and a “Pamphlet of Protections” must be created to define the rights people will have. Students identify their “top ten” rights from a checklist and the teacher polls the class to see which were selected. The teacher compares this task to the challenge that framers of the Constitution faced and reviews each of the Bill of rights they created. After review and discussion, students apply what they learned with “Do I Have a Right?” online game software. They become lawyers who must decide whether potential clients “have a right.” The more clients they serve, the more cases they win, and the faster the law firm grows.

SourCE: Based on ideas from lesson plan at the iCivics free lesson plans website.

T e c h n o l o G y I n T e G R a T I o n

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 3.5 to review what you have learned from reading this section about instructional game software concepts.

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PrOBleM- sOlving teAChing funCtiOns

Although simulations and instructional games are often used to help teach problem- solving skills, problem- solving software is designed especially for this purpose. Problem- solving soft- ware functions may focus on fostering component skills in or approaches to general problem- solving ability, or provide opportunities to practice solving various kinds of content- area problems. According to Mayes (1992), problem solving is cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when the solution is not obvious. One way to think about problem solving is through three of its most important components: recognition of a goal (an opportunity for solv- ing a problem), a process (a sequence of physical activities or operations), and mental activity (cognitive operations to pursue a solution).

Though most problem- solving literature focuses on skills in solving mathematical prob- lems, research on problem solving covers a wide variety of desired component behaviors. The literature mentions such varied subskills for problem solving as metacognition, observing, recalling information, sequencing, analyzing, finding and organizing information, inferring, predicting outcomes, making analogies, and formulating ideas. Although there are many opin- ions about the proper role of instructional software in fostering these abilities, there seem to be two main approaches:

• Content- area problem- solving skills—Some problem- solving software focuses on teach- ing content- area skills, primarily in mathematics and science. For example, Seo and Bryant (2012) report using a program called Math Explorer to help students learn a systematic approach to solving mathematics word problems. Others are what might be called problem- solving “environments.” These complex, multifaceted packages offer a variety of tools that allow students to create solutions to science- related problems presented by a scenario. One of these is like Alien Rescue developed by the University of Texas (edb.utexas.edu/alien- rescue), which helps students solve problems in science environments. Still others provide opportunities to practice solving specific kinds of math or science problems.

• Content- free problem- solving skills—Some educators feel that general problem- solving ability can be taught directly by specific instruction and practice in its component strate- gies and subskills (e.g., recalling facts, breaking a problem into a sequence of steps, or pre- dicting outcomes). Others suggest placing students in problem- solving environments and, with some coaching and guidance, letting them develop their own heuristics for attacking and solving problems.

The purposes of the two views overlap somewhat, but the first is directed more toward motivating students to attack problems and to recognize problem solving as an integral part of everyday life, while the second aims to help students practice component skills in specific kinds of problem solving.

Selecting Good Problem- Solving Software Qualities to look for in good problem- solving software depend on the purpose of the software. In general, problem formats should be interesting and challenging, and software should have a clear link to developing a specific problem- solving ability. Software documentation should state clearly which specific problem- solving skills students will learn and how the software fosters them. See Figure 3.5 for examples of problem- solving software and a summary of problem- solving features.

Benefits of Problem- Solving Software Research and practice indicates that problem- solving software can help students in at least three different ways:

• Promotes visualization in mathematics problem solving. Research results in mathemati- cal problem- solving skills tend to support the hypothesis that software, such as Geometer’s

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Sketchpad and other software that rely on graphical displays, helps students visualize abstract concepts and, thus, better understand how to solve problems that call for those concepts. For example, Salden, Koedinger, Renkl, Alevne, and McLaren (2010) used a program called Cognitive Tutors that “supports problem solving while . . . providing prompts for problem sub- goals, step- based immediate feedback, and context- sensitive hints” (p. 379).

• improves interest and motivation. Students are more likely to practice solving problems in activities they find interesting and motivating. Some educators also feel that students will become more active, spontaneous problem solvers if they experience success in their initial problem- solving efforts. For example, in reporting research results with problem- based environments such as the Alien Rescue software, Pedersen (2003) found that these environments can be highly motivational, although Samsonov, Pedersen, and Hill (2006) also found that this kind of software was more motivational to higher- achieving students.

• Prevents inert knowledge. Content- area problem- solving environments, such as Thinkport’s Flossville Town Park and Windjammer Environmental Center, can make knowledge and skills more meaningful to students because they illustrate how and where information applies to actual problems. Students learn both the knowledge and its application at the same time. Also, students gain opportunities to discover concepts themselves, which they frequently find more motivating than simply being told concepts.

FIGuRe 3.5 Problem Solving Software Functions in Brief

Description of Problem solving software

Characteristics Criteria for effective Problem solving

software

Benefits

Four different types: 1. Tools to help students solve problems

2. Environments that challenge students to create solutions to complex problems

3. Problems to help develop component problem- solving skills (e.g., recalling facts, following a sequence)

4. opportunities for practice in solving content- area problems

• Challenging, interesting formats

• Clear links to developing specific problem- solving skills or abilities

• Challenging activities motivate students to spend more time on the topic

• Prevents inert knowledge by illustrating situations in which skills apply

Memory Challenge by the Critical thinking Co.

Sequences by the tool factory, inc.

Crazy Machines by viva Media llC

Practice exercises to improve visual memory skills required for reading and math activities

Text- free practice in teaching sequencing by ordering events in a correct sequence

Teaches how to recognize math situations in word problems and use graphic organizers to understand and plan solutions

Source: Memory Challenge reprinted by permission of the Critical Thinking Co. (http://www.criticalthinking.com); Sequences is a Sherston Software product (http:// www.sherstonamerica.com), reprinted by permission; Crazy Machines 2: The Wacky Contraptions Game © FAKT (http:// www.viva-media.com) published by Viva Media, reprinted by permission.

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http://www.criticalthinking.com

http://www.sherstonamerica.com

http://www.viva-media.com

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limitations and Problems Related to Problem- Solving Software Problem- solving software packages are among the most popular of all software functions; how- ever, the following issues are still of concern to educators:

• names versus skills. Software packages use many terms to describe problem solving, and their exact meanings are not always clear. Terms that appear in software catalogs as synonyms for problem solving include thinking skills, critical thinking, higher level think- ing, higher- order cognitive outcomes, reasoning, use of logic, and decision making. In light

TaBle 3.6 integration strategies and guidelines for using Problem solving strategies explanation

to teach component skills in problem- solving strategies

Many problem- solving packages provide good, hands-on experience with one or more of the skills required to use a problem- solving approach. These include identifying and following a logical sequence, identifying relevant information to solve problems, not jumping to conclusions too quickly, and remembering relevant information.

to provide support in solving problems

Some software packages are specifically designed to scaffold students as they practice solving complex problems. For example, Geometer’s Sketchpad helps students draw objects and investigate their mathematical properties.

to encourage group problem solving

Some software provides environments that lend themselves to solving problems in small groups. For example, software at the Thinkport site provides opportunities for collaborative problem solving.

to provide practice in solving problems

Some packages provide opportunities to practice applying problem solving in ways that make it more likely the skills will transfer to real- life situations.

strategies explanation

guidelines for directed teaching

The following six steps can help you integrate problem- solving software for directed teaching:

1. Identify problem- solving skills or general capabilities to build or foster skills in:

• solving one or more kinds of content- area problems (e.g., building algebra equations);

• using a scientific approach to problem solving (i.e., identifying the problem, posing hypotheses, planning a systematic approach); and

• identifying the components of problem solving, such as following a sequence of steps or recalling facts.

2. Decide on an activity or a series of activities that will help teach the desired skills. 3. Examine software to locate materials that closely match the desired abilities, remembering not to judge

capabilities on the basis of vendor claims alone. 4. Determine where the software fits into the teaching sequence (for example, to introduce the skill and gain

attention, as a practice activity after demonstrating problem solving, or both). 5. Demonstrate the software and the steps to follow in solving problems. 6. Build in transfer activities and make students aware of the skills they are using in the software.

guidelines for constructivist teaching

The following seven steps can help you integrate problem- solving software according to constructivist models:

1. Allow students sufficient time to explore and interact with the software, but provide some structure in the form of directions, goals, a work schedule, and organized times for sharing and discussing results.

2. Vary the amount of direction and assistance provided, depending on each student’s needs. 3. Promote a reflective learning environment; let students talk about the methods they use. 4. Stress thinking processes rather than correct answers. 5. Point out the relationship between software activities and other kinds of problem solving. 6. Let students work together in pairs or small groups. 7. For assessments, use alternatives to traditional paper- and- pencil tests.

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Example 3.5

title: Wait for a Date: Calculating Probability with Geometer’s Sketchpad

COntent AreA/tOPiC: Mathematics—Precaluclus

grADe levels: 8– 10

iste stAnDArDs•s: Standard 4—Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making; Standard 6—Technology operations and Concepts

CCss: MATH.CONTENT.HSS.CP.A.1, CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP5

DesCriPtiOn: The teacher presents students with a scenario: “you and a friend arrange for a lunch date next week between 12:00 and 1:00 p.m. However, neither of you remembers the exact

meeting time. each of you arrives at a random time between 12:00 and 1:00 p.m. and waits exactly 10 minutes, then leaves if the other person has not come. Under these circumstances, what is the probability that you two will meet?” Students use a premade Sketchpad model (available at the Geometer’s Sketchpad site) to gather sample data and, by viewing data as points in a plane, they uncover a geometric pattern that allows them to compute a precise probability. Sketchpad also supports activities called “black box tasks” for students with more sophisticated knowledge of the software. In these activities, students use the software to re-create a given figure or deduce underlying properties that two or more objects have in common.

SourCE: Based on lesson plan idea at the Geometer’s Sketchpad website.

T e c h n o l o G y I n T e G R a T I o n

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 3.6 to review what you have learned from reading this section about problem solv- ing software concepts.

of this diversity of language, teachers must identify the skills that a software package addresses by looking at its activities. For example, for a software package that claims to teach inference skills, one would have to see how it defines inference by examining the tasks it presents, which may range from determining the next number in a sequence to using visual clues to predict a pattern.

• software claims versus effectiveness. It would be difficult to find a software catalog that did not claim that its products foster problem solving, yet few publishers of software pack- ages that purport to teach specific problem- solving skills have data to support their claims. When students play a game that requires skills related to problem solving, they do not nec- essarily learn these skills. They may enjoy the game thoroughly—and even be successful at it—without learning any of the intended skills. Teachers may have to use problem- solving software themselves to confirm that it achieves the results they want.

• lack of skill transfer. Although some educators feel that general problem- solving skills, such as inference and pattern recognition, will transfer to content- area skills, scant evi- dence supports this view. In the 1970s and 1980s, for example, many schools taught pro- gramming in mathematics classes under the hypothesis that the planning and sequencing skills required for programming would transfer to problem- solving skills in math. Research results never supported this hypothesis. In general, research tends to show that skill in one kind of problem solving will transfer primarily to similar kinds of problems that use the same solution strategies. Researchers have identified nothing like “general thinking skills,” except in relation to intelligence (IQ) variables.

using Problem- Solving Software in Teaching Problem- solving software can serve several classroom needs. This section describes integration strategies to meet each of these needs and offers guidelines and practical tips on how to integrate these strategies in the classroom. For an example of a problem- solving software that supports both directed and constructivist applications, see Technology Integration Example 3.5.

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PersOnAlizeD leArning systeMs Personalized learning systems (PLSs) are computer- based management programs that (1) assess individual student learning needs using complex algorithms and collections of data across students, and (2) provide a customized instructional experience matched to each student. PLSs are an evolved form of an Integrated Learning System (ILS), a product introduced in the early 1970s that provided assessment, instruction, and reports on student progress. Recent software developments have combined adaptive testing and databases of instructional strategies to enable

systems that can personalize a given student’s path through a topic based on his or her performance. The accountability emphasis that began with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 created a demand for products such as PLSs that can helps teachers assess needs and assign instructional solutions quickly and efficiently. PLSs vary widely in how they work, but three qualities are currently character- istic of all PLSs. Screenshots from two well- known PLS companies, Amplify and Knewton, are used as illustrations:

• Adaptive assessment – Adaptive assessment strategies are the heart of the PLS approach. Students use electronic devices (e.g., computers, tablet) to take tests in a given topic, and teachers get results that enable decisions on what to do next to support learn- ing. For example, Figure 3.6 shows Amplify’s report on progress in sixth and seventh grade probability and statistics standards. It displays results on a progression of skills by difficulty from lower left to upper right. Every skill is mapped by subject to the CCSs. The colors represent levels of mastery.

• Curriculum matched to Common Core state standards – Each report the PLS generates ties to performance on the CCSS that most states have now adopted as their own. Figure 3.7 shows clusters of statistics and probability skills labeled by CCSS and color coded to show a class of strength in each standard. Green indicates that most students have mastered the standard; red indi- cates that it probably needs more instruction.

• reports on individual and group progress – PLSs are able to give summary reports on progress by CCSS for any desig- nated students. For example, Figure 3.8 illustrates individual and class progress on a specific CCSS, which helps teachers know which students have and have not mastered standards and make decisions on next instructional steps for the topic.

• Multiple learning media – Unlike ILSs, which provided all instruction in the same computer- based system, each PLS pre- scription sends students to a variety of materials, many online or electronic. However, the trend seems to be to place more students on digital curriculum to more easily track progress and integrate assessment and instructional solutions. Today’s PLSs are often accessible on handheld devices such as tablets.

Selecting PlSs One way to ensure the appropriate use of PLSs is to have a careful, well- planned initial review and selection process that involves both teach- ers and school administrators. Since PLSs are a new way of thinking about assessment and curriculum, criteria for the selection process are usually based on the ease of implementation and the amount of com- pany support and professional development offered, as well as how the PLS approach supports district and state priorities. See Figure 3.9 for examples of PLS products and a summary of PLS features.

FIGuRe 3.7 Amplify Learning Map Detail by Common Core Standard

FIGuRe 3.6 Amplify Learning Map Showing Progress on CCSs in a Topic Area

FIGuRe 3.8 Amplify report on Progress by Student and Class

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Benefits of PlSs PLSs are becoming popular in school districts for their ability to use a wealth of available data on student performance to produce personal learning solutions by CCSSs, as well as their ability to provide achievement information by student, teacher, class, or school. This approach to diagnosing and selecting materials targeted to learning needs frees teacher time for guiding student learning.

limitations and Problems Related to PlSs Though we know a great deal about ILS impact, PLSs have a shorter track record. Studies of ILS impact have been carried out since they emerged in the 1970s. Initial research seemed promising, but large- scale studies using controlled experimental methods show no significant differences in achievement between classrooms using these systems and those using traditional materials and methods (U.S. Department of Education, 2010; Wijekumar, Hitchcock, Turner, Lei, & Peck, 2009).

Since large- scale research on PLS is lacking, Fletcher (2013) says that both proponents and critics of PLS are stating their cases. He says that learning proponents say that technology has enabled individualized instruction to be delivered to every student at an affordable cost, “to discard the factory model that has dominated Western education for the past two centuries” (p. 65). Critics, however, say that teachers already do the task of matching a student’s strengths and weaknesses to appropriate strategies and materials. “Instead of delegating these tasks to computers, opponents say, we should be spending more on training, hiring and retaining good teachers” (p. 65).

FIGuRe 3.9 Personalized Learning System Functions in Brief

Description of Personalized learning systems

Characteristics Criteria for effective Plss Benefits

• Adaptive assessment

• Progress and curriculum matched to Common Core Standards

• Prescriptions linked to multiple learning media

• ease of implementation

• Good professional development and support in using the systems

• Accurate assessments based on a database of test data across groups

• Links progress and curriculum to CCSs

• Personalized instructional prescriptions matched to student needs

• Summary progress data help meet teacher/district accountability requirements

sample screen: Knewton, inc.

sample screen: Cognitive tutor software

sample reports

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 3.7 to review what you have learned from reading this section about PLS concepts.

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http://www.knewton.com

http://www.carnegielearning.com

the following questions may be used either for in-class, small- group discussions or may initiate

discussions in blogs or online discussion boards:

1. The College Board has joined the American Chemical Society and the National Science Teachers Association in objecting to simulated lab software (e.g., online frog dissections, mixing chemicals) when used to replace in-class, hands-on labs. read the ACS and nSTA statements and analyze the objections they voice. What evidence can you cite to support or refute their positions?

2. The perception that drill- and- practice software is a “drill and kill” activity is based on misuses of the practice activity. What are occasions in which drill and practice does and does not lead to better per- formance? Search for articles like the following and read for background: Jay Greene’s (2010) article “False Claim on Drill and Kill” on the Education Next website; Mary Brabeck’s article “Practice for Knowledge Acquisition (Not Drill and Kill)” on the American Psychological Association (APA) website; and the theories of E. D. Hirsch on various websites.

Summary the following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter.

1. introduction to instructional software • Instructional software (a.k.a., computer- assisted instruction or courseware) are computer programs

that were designed specifically to deliver instruction or assist with the delivery of instruction on a topic.

• Functions fulfilled by instructional software include: drill- and- practice, tutorial, simulation, instruc- tional game, or problem- solving programs.

• Programming languages such as Logo that were designed specifically to teach problem- solving concepts are also considered a kind of hybrid instructional software. Today, programming languages in addition to Logo are used to teach STeM skills that include: systems- thinking, interdisciplinary thinking, user- centered design, specialist language, and meta- level reflection.

• Websites have emerged to help educators select well- designed instructional software products aligned to CCSS. These include: edshelf, Graphite, PowerMyLearning, eduStar, and Learning List.

2. Drill- and- practice software functions—These are programs that provide exercises in which students work example items, usually one at a time, and receive feedback on their correctness. • Types of drill and practice include flash card activities, chart fill-in activities, branching drills, and

extensive feedback activities. • Effective drill and practice includes: answer judging, appropriate feedback for correct and incorrect

answers, and characteristics tailored to young learners. • Benefits include immediate feedback, increased motivations, and saving teacher time. • Limitations and/or problems include instructional misuses and criticism by constructivists. • Integration strategies for drill- and- practice software are to supplement or replace worksheets and

homework exercises and to prepare for tests.

3. tutorial software functions—These are programs that provide an entire instructional sequence on a topic, similar to a teacher’s classroom instruction. • Types of tutorials include linear and branching activities. • effective tutorials include extensive interactivity, thorough user control, appropriate pedago-

gy, adequate answer- judging and feedback capabilities, appropriate graphics and/or video, and adequate recordkeeping.

• Benefits include all the same benefits of drill and practice, as well as self- paced instruction. • Limitations and/or problems include criticism by constructivists, lack of well- designed products, and

the fact that they reflect only one instructional approach.

COllABOrAte, DisCuss, refleCt

3Chapter

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• Integration strategies for tutorial software are to provide alternative learning strategies and to give instruction when teachers are unavailable.

4. simulation software functions—These are programs that provide computerized models of a real or imagined system that is designed to teach how the system works. • Types of simulations include: products that teach about something, which include physical and

iterative simulations; and products that teach how to do something, which include procedural and situational simulations.

• Simulations are most effective when they are used in conjunction with hands-on activities. • Benefits include their abilities to compress time, slow down processes, get students involved,

make experimentation safe, make the impossible possible, save money and other resources, allow repetition with variations, and allow observation of complex processes.

• Limitations and/or problems include: Criticism of virtual lab software, accuracy of models, and misuses of simulations.

• Integration strategies for simulation software are: to use in place of or as supplements to lab experiments, role- playing, or field trips; to introduce and/or clarify a new topic; to foster exploration and process learning; and to encourage cooperation and group work.

5. instructional game functions—These are programs that add game- like rules and/or com- petition to learning activities. • Types of instructional games are the same as for drills and simulations, dependent on the game

format. • Effective instructional games include appealing formats and activities; instructional value; reason-

able physical dexterity; and social, societal, and cultural considerations. • Benefits are the same as for drill or simulation function, as well as offering highly motivating formats. • Limitations and/or problems include learning versus having fun, confusion of game rules and real- life

rules, inefficient learning, and classroom barriers. • Integration strategies for simulation software are to use in place of worksheets and exercises, to

teach cooperative group working skills, and to use as a reward.

6. Problem- solving functions—Software designed especially for the purpose of teaching component skills in problem solving. • Types of problem- solving programs include programs to teach content areas as well as programs to

teach content- free problem- solving skills. • effective problem- solving programs are interesting and challenging, and have a clear link to develop-

ing a specific problem- solving ability • Benefits include abilities to promote visualization in mathematics problem solving, improve interest

and motivation, and prevent inert knowledge • Limitations and/or problems revolve around names versus skills, software claims versus effective-

ness, and lack of skill transfer. • Integration strategies for simulation software are to teach component skills in problem- solving strat-

egies, to provide support in solving problems, and to encourage group problem solving.

7. Personalized learning systems (Plss)—These are systems that test students, summa- rize progress data, and help teachers build provide personal learning strategies for groups of students. • Components of PLSs include adaptive assessment, curriculum matched to Common Core Stan-

dards, and multiple learning media. • Selecting PLSs requires a careful, well- planned initial review and selection process that involves

both teachers and school administrators. • Benefits include their ability to use data to produce personal learning solutions; provide achieve-

ment information by student, teacher, class, or school; and free teacher time for guiding student learning.

• Limitations and problems for PLSs include the fact that research on their effects is lacking.

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1. aPPly What you leaRneD To apply the concepts and skills you’ve read about throughout this chapter, go to the Chapter 3 technology Application Activity.

2. technology IntegRatIon lesson PlannIng: PaRt 1—evaluatIng anD cReatIng lesson Plans

Complete the following exercise using the sample lesson plans found on any lesson planning site that you find on the Internet.

a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the tools or strategies you learned about in this chapter. For example:

• Drill and practice software • Tutorial software • Simulation software • Instructional game software • Problem solving software • Personalized Learning Systems

b. evaluate the lessons—Use the technology lesson Plan evaluation Checklist to evaluate each of the lessons you found.

3. technology IntegRatIon lesson PlannIng: PaRt 2—IMPleMentIng the tIP MoDel

review how to implement the TIP model in your classroom by doing the following activities with the lesson you created in the Technology Integration Lesson Planning exercise above.

a. Describe the Phase 1—Planning activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • Do you have resources and skills you need to carry it out?

b. Describe the Phase 2—Implementation activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • How will you assess your students’ accomplishment of the objectives? • What integration strategies are used in this lesson plan? • how would you prepare the learning environment?

d. Add lesson descriptors—Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, ISTE standards, 21st Century Learning standards).

e. Save your new lesson—Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP model notes.

4. FoR youR teachIng PoRtFolIo—add the following to your teaching portfolio:

• Lesson plan evaluations, lesson plans, and products you created above. • Products of your group’s Hot Topic Debates. • Products of your group’s Collaborate, Discuss, Reflect online or in-class activities.

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After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to:

1. Analyze given instructional or productivity needs to identify which of the “basic three” software tools would be most appropriate to meet the need. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

2. Select word processing uses and integration strategies that take advantage of the software’s unique features and characteristics and reflect what we have learned from research and practice about how it can meet instructional and productivity needs. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

3. Select spreadsheet uses and integration strategies that take advantage of the software’s unique features and characteristics and reflect what we have learned from research and practice about how it can meet instructional and productivity needs. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

4. Select presentation software uses and integration strategies that take advantage of the software’s unique features and characteristics and reflect what we have learned from research and practice about how it can meet instructional and productivity needs. (ISTE Standards•T 2, 3)

Learning Outcomes

Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching T h e B a s i c s u i T e

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PHASE 1 analysis of learning and Teaching needs Step 1: Determine relative advantage. Whenever Ms. Kiley teaches her applied mathematics class for grades 9 through 12, she has teenagers of many ages and ability levels. She wants all of them to have experience applying math skills to real problems they will encounter in their daily lives. She tries to include projects that are interesting and relevant to all of them and that require a combination of research, mathematical problem solving, and production skills. One activity she found that meets all her criteria is called, “Can You Afford Your Dream Car?” She selected this project from a list she found on the Internet and felt it would be a much better way to teach these concepts than she had used before. Almost all of her students are beginning drivers and are interested in car purchases, and, so that they can do calcu- lations quickly and focus on the underlying concepts (e.g., the rela- tionship among down payment, interest rate, and loan period), she would create a template with spreadsheet software for students to use. Each student does Internet research to locate the best price on a car he or she would like to buy. Then they enter the information

into the spreadsheet template and present their findings to the class, answering various questions about loan amounts and car payments.

Step 2: Assess Required Resources and Skills. Ms. Kiley had learned about spreadsheets in a workshop held by her local professional organization, and she learned how to create the template and transfer it to the students’ computers. Then she worked with the spreadsheet in order to get proficient enough with the software to help her students. Each of the lab computers had the basic suite of tool software on them.

PHASE 2 Planning for inTegraTion Step 3: Decide on outcomes, objectives, and assessments. To keep her students on track and to make sure they learn what she has in mind for this project, Ms. Kiley created outcomes, objectives, and assessments to measure their research, problem- solving, and produc- tion outcomes. The outcomes, objectives, and assessments are:

Outcome: Select a car to purchase and complete background research on it. Objective: Each student completes all required steps to select a car to “buy”; completes a list of the

activities required to research and locate comparison information about its price, loan, and features; and enters the information into a spreadsheet template.

Assessment: A checklist with points for each required activity.

Outcome: Do mathematical problem solving. Objective: Each student uses the spreadsheet to answer a series of questions about the amount of the

car loan and the payments at various interest rates and time periods. Assessment: Worksheet questions with points for each one; 80% is passing.

Outcome: Do a final report. Objective: Each student achieves a rubric score of at least 90% on a word- processed report that describes

and illustrates the car, tells why it is a cost- effective purchase, and includes a spreadsheet (based on the template provided) showing how he or she will pay for it.

Assessment: Rubric on report quality and accuracy.

Technology InTegraTIon In acTIon: can you afford your dream car? GRADE LEVEL: Middle to high school • CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Applied math skills • LENGTH OF TIME: One week

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Step 4: Design integration strategies. Ms. Kiley wanted to make sure each student had hands-on experience with the research and production activities and was able to master each of the skills she outlined, so she decided to make this an individual activity. She designed the following activity sequence to carry out the project:

Day 1: Introduce the project. Encourage students to talk about cars they have already purchased or are considering purchasing, and ask them to describe how they went about selecting one and, if they actually bought it, how they decided on a loan amount, term, and payment size. Demonstrate the spreadsheet tem- plate, and show students how the payments and total amount paid change automatically depending on the loan amount, interest, and period entered into the spreadsheet. Review the project checklists and rubrics as well as the timeframe for completing the work. Introduce the problems students are to work using their completed spreadsheets.

Day 2: Take students to the computer lab, and demonstrate some of the sites they may want to use to check out makes and models of cars. Also, demonstrate once again how to use the spreadsheet template. have students do some calculations with the spreadsheet, and answer any questions they have. Let them begin researching cars they want to buy.

Day 3: In the computer lab, allow students to continue their research. Some students may have completed research on their home computers. These students can begin work on their final reports or complete the problem- solving exercise.

Day 4: In the computer lab, allow students to continue work on their reports and the exercises with the spreadsheet template.

Day 5: Back in the classroom, let selected students present their “dream car purchase.” Use the classroom computer workstation to show an online example of the car model and the dealer from which they would buy it. Students who need more time can go to the computer lab.

Day 6: Students turn in their projects and exercises.

Step 5: Prepare instructional environment. The first time Ms. Kiley taught this project, she had to create the spreadsheet template and handouts of the checklists and rubric for students to use. For subsequent times, she had to do the following:

Handouts: Ms. Kiley made copies of the project requirements and grading criteria sheets (i.e., checklists and rubrics) to hand out to students. She also made sure these handouts were online at her classroom website as pDF files, so students could download additional copies if needed.

Software skills: Although Ms. Kiley demonstrated how to use the spreadsheet template, she checked with students individually as they worked in the lab to make sure they knew how to enter the required informa- tion in the cells and could copy and paste their completed worksheet into their report.

Computer scheduling: Ms. Kiley made sure she could have her whole class in the computer lab for the three days she would need it; she also made sure individual students could come to the lab for the two subsequent days to complete their research and reports.

Template copies: Ms. Kiley made sure that a copy of the template was on the classroom website so that students could download it to their own computers at school or even at home, if they liked.

PHASE 3 PosT- insTrucTion analysis and revisions Step 6: Analyze results. Each time she taught the project, Ms. Kiley reviewed students’ work and asked for their comments on how she could make the project even more meaningful. She quickly realized that students who did not have a home computer were at a disadvantage in completing the work in a timely way. She found that, although students usually completed their spreadsheets correctly and could answer questions about them, their reports varied considerably in quality.

Step 7: Make revisions. In light of the fact that not all students had a home computer with the required software, Ms. Kiley made a special effort to help these students during their time in the lab and made sure they knew they could have additional lab time outside class or before or after school to use the classroom workstation. Also, since students’ written reports did not always meet required criteria, she decided to consider other ways of hav- ing students present their work.

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ChApTER 4 BIG IDEAS OVERVIEw Before you begin reading the rest of this chapter, listen to the Chapter 4 Big Ideas Overview. It will give you a two-minute audio overview of main concepts to look for and help prepare you to work through information and exercises to achieve this chapter’s outcomes.

INTRODuCTION TO THE BASIC SOFTwARE TOOL SuITE

In education and, indeed, in most other areas of modern society, three of the most widely used software support tools are word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation programs. Word processing software allows production and revision of text- based information but also allows adding many kinds of graphic elements to text products. Spreadsheets are programs designed to allow storage of numerical data by row– column positions and enable calculations and other manipulations of the data. Presentation software is a program that enables both text and graph- ical information to be organized and displayed as a set of slides. For many professionals in education and other fields, these tools have become an indispensable part of their daily work. They are frequently sold as software suites, separate tool programs placed in the same package and designed to work well together. Teachers choose them not only because they have qualities that aid classroom instruction and help make classroom time more productive, but also because they give students experience with 21st- century tools that they will see again and again in their workplaces.

Why Use Software Tools? Depending on the capabilities of the tool and the needs of the situation, these programs can offer several benefits:

• Improved productivity—Getting organized, producing instructional materials, and accom- plishing paperwork tasks all go much faster when software tools are used. Using a technol- ogy tool to do these tasks can free up valuable time that can be rechanneled toward working with students or designing learning activities.

• Improved appearance—Software tools help teachers and students produce polished- looking materials that resemble the work of professional designers. The quality of class- room products is limited only by the talents and skills of the teachers and students using the tools. Students appreciate receiving attractive- looking materials and find it rewarding and challenging to produce handsome products of their own.

• Improved accuracy—Software tools make it easier to keep precise, accurate records of events and student accomplishments. More accurate information can support better instructional decisions about curriculum and student activities.

• More support for interaction and collaboration—Software tools have capabilities that promote interaction and collaboration among students, allowing input from several people at once. These qualities can encourage creative, cooperative group- learning activities. (For hints on making sure these powerful tools are available to all students, see the Adapting for Special Needs feature.)

Overview of Uses for the “Basic Three” Software Tools Since the early days of microcomputers, word processing and spreadsheet programs have served as two of the most basic components in the teacher’s “technology toolkit.” Database software, a program that allows information to be collected and organized to allow easy retrieval through keyword searching, used to be one of the basic programs. Though still used in education and elsewhere, it is not typically used as part of the basic suite anymore. Instead,

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presentation programs have emerged in its place. As Table 4.1 shows, each of these programs performs specific functions and each helps support specific productivity and teaching/ learning activities. However, the three programs are usually designed to work together. For example, in the Technology Integration in Action Example at the beginning of this chapter, a student completes a spreadsheet that demonstrates a mathematical concept (loan terms), and then he or she inserts this spreadsheet into a word- processed report or presentation.

Overview of productivity uses. These three software products are often referred to as the “basic productivity tools,” because they were among the first such tools to be designed to save time on clerical types of tasks and because they are now the ones that soft- ware companies such as Microsoft most often include in their software suites. In schools, word processing is the most frequently used of the three for productivity purposes, since teachers and students employ it across all subject areas whenever they need to do typed work, such as taking notes or completing a composition or report. Spreadsheet software also enhances teacher and student productivity by allowing more efficient work with numbers, and presentation software helps them organize and communicate complex information more quickly as slides or frames.

Overview of instructional uses. Word processing is used instructionally primarily to support English and foreign language exercises, such as learning vocabulary and punctuation.

TaBle 4.1 an overview of the “Basic Three” software Tools Software Tool Software Functions Sample Products

word processing Example: Microsoft Word Creates documents consisting of pages with text

and graphics Student compositions, poetry, and reports; flyers; simple newsletters; letters

Spreadsheet Example: Microsoft Excel puts numerical information in row– column format;

allows quick calculations and recalculations Budgets, checkbooks, gradebooks, illustrations of mathematics concepts

Presentation Example: Microsoft powerpoint Displays text and graphics (with or without audio

and/or) in a slide show Teacher demonstrations and support for lectures, student projects, book reports, tutorials, and practice items

Adapting for Special Needs Word Processing and Other Basic Software Tools Word processing skills are expected of all students across all subjects and grades. however, some students with disabilities have difficulty with this task because of physical, sensory, or cognitive impairments that interfere with written expression. In order to sup- port struggling writers, educators may use tools like the following that encourage written expression for diverse learners:

• Clicker Writer (available at the Crick Software website)—A word processor that lets students click on letters, words, or short phrases to send into the word processor, so they can write sen- tences without using the keyboard. Ideal for students with autism, intellectual disabilities, or learning disabilities because of the visual supports.

• Co: Writer (at the Don Johnston website)—A word prediction program that helps students who have illegible handwriting, poor

phonetic spelling, a physical disability that makes typing difficult, or difficulty translating thoughts into writing. Ideal for students with learning disabilities or physical disabilities.

• Picture It (at the SunCastle Technology website)—Allows teachers to create picture- assisted reading materials to help struggling readers and writers. Ideal for young children, second language learners, and students with intellectual disabilities.

• Scholastic Keys (formerly called Max’s Toolbox) (Available at the Tom Snyder, Inc. website)—Gives elementary students an early introduction to using Microsoft Office by providing a kid- friendly interface for Word, Excel, and powerpoint. Ideal for young children, second language learners, and students with intellectual disabilities.

—Contributed by Dave Edyburn

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Spreadsheets are used most often for demonstrations in mathematics, science, and business edu- cation areas. They also support instructional activities such as science experiments or social studies surveys. Presentation software has become especially popular in business and journalism to show students how to design graphics and other media that communicate concepts clearly and persuasively. Look at the Top Ten feature for good ideas on how to integrate these basic tools into classroom instruction.

Recent Developments in Software Tools Although software tools have been in existence for many years, they are constantly being updated with new features and capabilities. The following developments have made these tools even more useful in the classroom:

• web- based collaboration tools—There has been a surge of software tools that are now available via the Internet, and many are free of charge. Google Docs, for instance, is a tool that provides users access to online programs for word processing, spreadsheets, and pre- sentations. The site offers easy storage and sorting of documents in a “cloud computing” environment that allows for sharing of documents among multiple users.

• Open- source software— Open- source software, computer software whose source code is made available in the public domain and that permits users to use, change, and improve the software and to redistribute it in modified or unmodified form, is also becoming more popular. Open- source alternatives to many of the most popular programs are now avail- able. See the Open Source Options feature for free productivity software sites.

• Mobile apps—All of the basic software tools are now available on tablets and handheld devices. This portable format makes them easily accessible and flexible to use for both

for Software Tools from the Basic Suite

TYpES FrEE SOUrCES

Suites (all tool software in one site) Feng Office (formerly OpenGoo): fengoffice.com GNOME Office: live.gnome.org/GnomeOffice Google Docs: docs.google.com NeoOffice: neooffice.org Open Office: openoffice.org Simple Groupware: simple- groupware.de

word processing only Abiword: abisource.com writer: why.openoffice.org/images/ writer- big.png Zoho writer: writer.zoho.com

Spreadsheet only Calc: why.openoffice.org/images/ calc- big.png Gnumeric: projects.gnome.org/gnumeric

Presentation Ease: live.gnome.org/Ease/0.1 Prezi: prezi.com/

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teachers and students. Since these basic software tools have been transferred to hand- held format, the devices themselves have become even more functional for school and classroom use.

• web- enabled features—All of the basic software tools now allow insertion of “live” Web page links in documents, and most allow documents to be saved in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), the programming language that creates Web pages, or in other web page formats or as portable document files (PDFs). This makes it even easier to connect documents to web page resources that embellish or add to the document’s content. For example, students may include links in a project report to some of the resources they con- sulted during their research.

• Better file- exchange compatibility—In the early days of software tools, programs were often incompatible. That is, files, or products created in one program, could not be opened in another program. Incompatibility was especially problematic between programs on Macintosh and Windows (PC) computers. This problem limited file sharing and hindered collaborative work, since people often had different computer platforms or types of com- puter operating systems (e.g., Macintosh vs. Windows) and tool programs. Today’s soft- ware tools, both online and on a local computer, are designed to be much more compatible across programs and platforms, making it much easier for teachers and students to transfer documents and to work together on projects.

• Software suites—Because it is usually cheaper to buy several tools as a package rather than separately, tool functions are increasingly used as parts of software suites, which combine several functions such as word processing, spreadsheet, database, and graphics in the same package. There are software suites for all platforms. Apple developed the iWork suite for use on all Apple hardware; it includes Pages for word processing, Keynote for pre- sentations, and Numbers for a spreadsheet. Similarly, Microsoft Office is a software suite for both Macintosh and Windows- based systems and includes Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.

Technology learnIng check Complete TLC 4.1 to review what you have learned from reading this section about the basic software tool suite.

uSING wORD PROCESSING SOFTwARE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Word processing programs allow people to produce typed documents on a computer screen. Although the lines between word processing and desktop publishing have become increasingly blurred, the programs still differ in the way they produce documents. Word processing pro- grams essentially produce documents as a stream of text, whereas desktop publishing software produces them as individual pages. Despite this difference, most word processing programs allow at least some desktop publishing capabilities, such as inserting text boxes and graphics at any location on a page. Table 4.2 summarizes word processing features.

The Impact of Word Processing in education Perhaps no other technology resource has had as great an impact on education as word process- ing. This section reviews the reasons teachers use this software tool and the research that has been done to confirm its impact. Also see Figure 4.1 for an illustration of a word processing template that students could use to do a sample Civil War “daily newspaper,” labeled with word processing capabilities teachers and students find most useful.

Why teachers use word processing. Not only does word processing offer high versatility and flexibility, it also is “ model- free” instructional software—that is, it reflects no

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TaBle 4.2 a summary of Word Processing features Feature Categories/General Benefits Description of Features and Specific Benefits

Basic features save time writing text and make changing text easier and more flexible.

Save documents for later use. Documents saved to disc can be changed without reentering text. • rich Text Format (rTF) removes all or most formatting commands so other word processors

can read the file. • pDF format allows files to be read as formatted documents with Adobe Acrobat Reader. • hTML format allows documents to be placed on the Internet.

Erase and insert. Allows easy insertion of additional letters, spaces, lines, paragraphs, or pages.

Search and replace. One command allows all occurrences of a word or phrase to be changed as specified.

Move or copy text. Allows cutting and pasting (deleting text and inserting it elsewhere) or copying and pasting (repeating text in several places).

Automatic word wraparound. Goes to next line at end of a line without pressing Enter or return. (Also hyphenates words, as needed.)

Desktop publishing features make flyers, reports, newsletters, brochures, and student handouts more attractive and professional looking.

Text alignment. Centers or justifies (right, left, or full).

Change styles, appearance. Allows a variety of fonts, type styles, font colors, margins, line spacing, tabs, and indentations in the same document.

Automatic headers, footers, and pagination. Automatically places text at the top (header) or bottom (footer) of each page in a document with or without page numbering (pagination).

Graphics. Inserts clip art or image files into documents and formats them: some programs allow image editing.

Insert colors, shading, borders, watermarks. Text lines/boxes or graphics can be filled with color or degrees of shading. pages can be bordered or stamped with graphics that appear on every page underneath text.

Tables. Organizes information into rows and columns without using tabs or indentations.

Text boxes. Allows text blocks to be inserted in any location in or around a document.

Shapes and callouts. Allows inserting shapes, callouts, and other figures to enhance documents.

Language features help teachers and students correct their work and do various language, spelling, and usage exercises.

Spell- checker. Compares words in a document to those stored in the program’s dictionary files.

Thesaurus. Suggests synonyms for any word.

Grammar checkers. Review documents for items such as sentence length, frequency of word use, and subject- verb agreement. Also marks phrases or sentences to be corrected.

web features allow teachers and students to connect documents with Internet resources and create Web page announcements, reports, and projects.

Live uRLs. Allows person reading the document to click on text and go automatically to a website. (Note: Web browser must be active.)

Simple web page development. Allows creation of hTML pages.

Support features make using the program easier and more flexible.

Templates. Users can easily adapt preformatted models of resumes, newsletters, and brochures to their own needs.

Voice recognition and speech synthesis: • Receives and enters text via dictated words rather than as typed entries. • Reads words as they are typed.

Merges text with data fields: • Automatically inserts words (e.g., names and addresses) into documents such as letters

(i.e., mail- merges) • Lists of data can be stored within the word processing program or merged from a database.

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particular instructional approach. A teacher can use it to support any directed instruction or constructivist activity. Since its value as an aid to teaching and learning is universally acknowl- edged, word processing has become the most commonly used software in education. It offers many general relative advantages (unique benefits over and above other methods) to teachers and students:

• Saves time—Word processing helps teachers use preparation time more efficiently by let- ting them modify materials instead of creating new ones. Writers can also make corrections to word processing documents more quickly than they could on a typewriter or by hand.

• Enhances document appearance—Materials created with word processing software look more polished and professional than handwritten or typed materials. It is not surprising that students seem to like the improved appearance that word processing gives to their

Hometown Daily Insert day and date here Insert town, state

Today’s News

Page 2: From the Front

Page 3: Letters to the Editor

Page 4: Local News

Battlefield Photographs

Insert list of Page 2 stories

Insert Page 3 letter titles here

(Source: From Library of Congress ) http://memory.loc.gov

Insert list of Page 4 stories

Insert photos and other images

Insert text boxes anywhere

on page

Create templates for use in student

projects

Insert shapes, arrows, callouts

from menu

Use fancy fonts and colors for

special effects

Insert live links in

documents

FIgURe 4.1 Sample Template with highlighted Word processing Features

This sample of a word- processed template was created for a history lesson to engage students in events of the Civil War. Using material they learn in class and obtain online, they create a newspaper as it might have appeared during the Civil War, filled with descriptions of battles, as well as local events. Some of the most useful word processing features used to create this template are pointed out in the figure.

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work. This is especially possible with the many tem- plates that are part of the software suites today.

• Allows sharing of documents. Word processing allows materials to be shared easily among writers. Teachers can exchange lesson plans, worksheets, or other materials on disc and modify them to fit their needs. Students can also share ideas and products among themselves.

• Allows collaboration on documents. Especially since the release of products such as Google Docs and Wikispaces, teachers and students can now create, edit, and share documents synchronously. Ullman (2013) described several strategies schools are using to connect students around the globe and engage them in collaborative document projects in ways that accomplish Common Core State Standards in writing and language.

• Supports student writing and language learning. Adaptive keyboard and voice recognition capabilities

make writing more accessible for students with physical challenges. Word processors also have optional features that support writing in many languages, complete with appropriate spell- checking and diacritical marks.

Research on the impact of word processing. Research on the benefits of word processing in education has yielded more positive results over time. Results of early studies of the effects of word processing on quality and quantity of writing were mixed ( Bangert- Drowns, 1993). Three reviews of research ( Bangert- Drowns, 1993; Hawisher, 1989; Snyder, 1993) found that these differences in findings may reflect differences in researchers’ choices of types of word processing systems, prior experience and writing ability of students, and types of writ- ing instruction evaluated. Generally, word processing seemed to improve writing and attitudes toward writing only if it was used in the context of good writing instruction and if students had enough time to learn word processing procedures before the study began. In a 2003 review of research, Goldberg, Russell, and Cook found that students who use computers during writing instruction produce written work that is about 0.4 of a standard deviation (SD) better than stu- dents who develop writing skills on paper. SD is a statistical unit of deviation or difference from the mean or average score.

When Graham and Perin (2007) compared research results on word processing as an inter- vention to improve writing with other such interventions, they found that with a .55 SD effect, word processing had a greater impact than sentence combining (0.50), inquiry (0.32), prewriting activities (0.32), a process writing approach (0.32), or study of models (0.25), but had less effect than strategy instruction (0.82), summarization (0.82), peer assistance (0.75), or setting product goals (0.70). A subsequent analysis of word processing effects on weaker writers (Morphy & Graham, 2012) yielded greater effects than had been previously found, indicating that weaker writers profit more from word processing use (.52 SD). Table 4.3 summarizes some of the find- ings of all the major research reviews.

Dave and Russell (2010) observe that, though word processing does not always lead to better quality writing, it definitely has had a dramatic impact on the practice of writing. Noting that “drafting and revision were developed out of process theory and research done in the early 1980s . . . when word processing was not as pervasive or standardized as it is now” (p. 406), they find that this technology has altered our very definition of “draft” and made continuous revision a reality. However, they also note that most revisions remain con- cerned primarily with surface- level corrections, such as spelling and grammatical errors, and word processors seem to have had limited effect on promoting global revision, or overall improvements in depth and quality of written communication. “Despite the ease with which global revisions can be made with current word processors, students’ perception of the task of revision may not have changed much in this regard over the last 20 years” (p. 418).

▲ Perhaps no other technology resource has had as great an impact on education as word processing. Even young students can use it to write and revise their work more quickly. Digital Media Pro/Shutterstock

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Dave and Russell also found that students tend not to print out work from word proces- sors to help them revise their drafts as much as they used to, preferring to revise on-screen instead.

Issues in using word processing. Educators seem to agree that although word processing is a valuable application, its use in education can be controversial:

• Questions about what age students should start word processing—Word process- ing software designed for young children is available, and schools can introduce it to stu- dents as young as four or five years old. Some educators feel that word processing will free students from the physical constraints of handwriting, allowing them to develop written expression skills. Others worry that it will make students unwilling to spend time develop- ing handwriting abilities and other activities requiring fine- motor skills.

• The need to teach keyboarding skills—Discussion is ongoing about whether students need to learn keyboarding (“10-finger typing” on the computer) either prior to or in con- junction with word processing activities. Some educators feel that students will never become really productive on the computer until they learn 10-finger keyboarding. Others feel that the extensive time spent on keyboarding instruction and practice could be better spent on more important skills, and that students will pick up typing skills on their own.

• The effects of word processing on handwriting—While no researchers have conducted formal studies of the impact of frequent word processing use on handwriting legibility, computer users commonly complain that their handwriting isn’t what it used to be, osten- sibly because of infrequent opportunities to use their handwriting skills. In addition, cur- sive writing, long a staple in elementary school curriculum, is on the wane, due in no small part to the influence of word processing and other technologies (Supon, 2009). Debate still swirls, however, around the question of whether word processing should replace cur- sive writing (Vacek & Fuhrhop, 2013).

• Impact of word processing on assessment—Some organizations either have students choose between word processing and handwritten formats for answering essay- type test questions, but there is an increasing tendency toward requiring students to take all tests on a computer. This practice introduces several issues. First, some researchers have found that essay graders tend to discriminate against word- processed papers, consistently giv- ing them lower scores than handwritten ones (Mogey, Paterson, Burk, & Purcell, 2010).

TaBle 4.3 findings from reviews of Word Processing in education Hawisher

(26 studies)

(1989)

Snyder

(57 studies)

(1993)

Bangert- Drowns

(32 studies)

(1993)

Goldberg, Russell, & Cook

(14 studies)

(2003)

Morphy & Graham

(27 studies)

(2012)

Better quality of writing No conclusion No conclusion positive results positive results positive results

Greater quantity of writing

positive results positive results positive results positive results positive results

More surface (mechanical) revisions

No conclusion positive results No conclusion Not reviewed Not reviewed

More substantive (meaning) revisions

No conclusion No improve ment No conclusion Not reviewed Not reviewed

Fewer mechanical errors positive results positive results Not reviewed Not reviewed Not reviewed

Better attitude toward writing

positive results positive results No improvement Not reviewed positive results

Better attitude toward word processing

No conclusion positive results Not reviewed Not reviewed positive results

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Educational organizations that allow students to choose either handwriting or word pro- cessing must be careful to establish guidelines and special training to ensure that raters do not inadvertently discriminate against students who choose word processing. Second, schools that require word- processed writing for tests must assure that students are expe- rienced enough with the software so their lack of word processing skill does not affect the quality of their written expression.

• Problems with inadvertent errors—Link (2009) warned that the auto correction feature built into most word processors can replace typed words with ones the software selects as more correct, leading to typos that interfere with intended meaning. For example, Link noted that an important German article appeared in print with every instance of the cor- rect phrase “ DNA- Polymerase” changed to “ DANN- Polymerase.” “Dann” means “then” in German, so the software replaced what it perceived as a misspelling with a known word. Teachers and students must be aware of this built-in feature and either turn it off or proof- read even more carefully.

Teachers and administrators are still deciding how best to deal with these issues. Despite these obstacles, education’s dependence on word processing continues to grow.

Word Processing in the Classroom: Productivity and Teaching Strategies Word processing has a variety of benefits for both productivity and teaching practices. An over- view of both these strategies is given here.

Productivity strategies. Word processing can save teachers preparation time for classroom materials such as handouts or other instructional materials, lesson plans and notes, reports, forms, letters to parents or students, flyers, and newsletters, especially if a teacher uses the same documents every year. For example, a teacher may send the same let- ter to parents each year simply by changing the dates and adding new information. Teachers may want to keep electronic templates or model documents they can easily update and reuse. The following are suggested list of reusable word- processed documents teachers may want to have on hand.

• Beginning of the year welcome letter • Name tags • Permission letters for field trips and other events • Flyers and other announcements • Request for fee payments letter • Fund- raising letter

• Posted flyer of class rules • Letterhead stationery • Periodic student progress letters to parents • Lesson plans and notes • Students information sheets and handouts • Newsletters • Annual reports required by the school • Frequently used worksheets and exercises

Instructional integration strategies for word processing. Research shows that word processing alone cannot improve the qual- ity of student writing but can help students make corrections more effi- ciently; this can motivate them to write more and take more interest in

Word Processing in Writing Instruction

The principal in this video tells how basic word processing supports writing processes. What are some of the word processing features they find useful?

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improving their written work. Some current word processing integration strategies include the following:

• Supporting the learning of writing processes—Students can use word processing to write, edit, and illustrate stories; to produce reports in content areas; to keep notes and logs on class- room activities; and for any written assignments. Using word processing in the classroom can make it easier for students to get started writing as well as to revise and improve their writing. (See Technology Integration Example 4.1.) Teachers can make good use of the track changes feature, which allows one to put typed “red marks” on students’ written works to guide them in how to revise and improve their writing. Teachers can also use comment boxes, a word pro- cessing feature that allows them to insert written notes in margins. AbuSeileek (2013) found that students who received corrective feedback using such features were more likely to elimi- nate targeted writing errors (e.g., sentence fragments and run- ons) than those who did not.

• using a dynamic group product approach—Teachers can assign group poems or letters to vari- ous students, allowing students to add and change lines or produce elements of the whole docu- ment in a word processing program. Using word processing software, students find it easier to share, exchange, and add onto drafts, as well as to work together on written projects at a distance.

• Assigning individual language, writing, and reading exercises—Special word process- ing exercises allow for meaningful, hands-on practice in language use as individual stu- dents work on-screen combining sentences, adding or correcting punctuation, or writing sentences for spelling words. Word processing may also make possible a variety of reading/ language- related activities ranging from decoding to writing poetry and enjoying litera- ture. Identifying and correcting errors becomes a more visual process.

• Encouraging writing- through- the- curriculum—A trend in education is to encourage writ- ing skills in courses and activities other than those designed to teach English and language arts. This practice of writing- through- the- curriculum is in keeping with the emphasis on integrated, interdisciplinary, and thematic curricula. Word processing can encourage these integrated activities. (See Technology Integration Example 4.2.) Its font and graphics features allow students to represent concepts in mathematics, science, and other content areas. Word processors are also available in other languages to support foreign language learning.

Teaching Word Processing Skills: Recommended Skills and activities Students new to word processing must have adequate time to develop skills in using the soft- ware before teachers can begin to grade their word- processed products. Many online tutorials are available for teaching various software packages, but these may not always be accessible to

example 4.1

TITLE: Mystery Writers!

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts, creative writing

GrADe LeveLS: 3– 5

ISTE STANDARDS•S: Standard 1—Creativity and Innovation; Standard 2—Communication and Collaboration; Standard 6— Technology Operations and Concepts

CCSS: CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.rL.3.3, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.W.3.3, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.W.3.6, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.W.4.3.D, CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.W.4.10, CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.RL.5.9, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.W.5.3.A

DESCRIPTION: Students assume the identity of private investigators as they read, solve, and write mysteries in order to learn about the genre and encourage creative writing. The teacher helps students outline the critical elements of a mystery story and allows them to map a sample mystery to illustrate these elements and a story line. Then the teacher introduces nursery rhymes as mystery story- starters (e.g., Why did humpty Dumpty fall off that wall? How did Mother Hubbard’s cupboard become empty?). Students organize their stories with a sticky- note story map, then word process their stories, doing drafts with teacher assistance.

SourCE: Based on a concept in an EducationWorld.com lesson at http:// www.educationworld.com/

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http://www.educationworld.com/T

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students. Also, younger or less independent learners may not have the ability to use these self- instructional methods and may need teacher- led instruction.

For all of these reasons, teachers who would like to use word processing in classroom les- sons may have to introduce their students to word processing and show them the features and uses of the software. Table 4.4 shows a recommended sequence for introducing word processing to students. Note that some features and steps are labeled “optional.” Teachers may choose to introduce these on an as-needed basis or only with older, more experienced students. Also see Figure 4.2 for some tips you can give students just learning word processing. Finally, be sure to see the end-of-chapter pop up activity on how you can use track changes, comment boxes, tables, a thesaurus, and symbols.

FIgURe 4.2 Tips for Teaching Students New to Word processing

The following are useful to tell students or place on a poster where students can see it.

1. Highlight first, then format. If you want to change margins, font, color, or size for some text, highlight it (darken by dragging the mouse over it) FIrST. The software formats only what you highlight.

2. Don’t hit Enter or Return at ends of lines. The software automatically wraps around text at the ends of lines. hitting Enter/Return at the ends of lines will put unwanted spaces in the text.

3. Delete blank lines before you print. Blank lines will not always be evident on the screen but the computer knows they’re there and leaves space for them on a printed page. If you see unexpected blank spaces at ends of pages or anywhere in a printed document, highlight them on the screen and delete them before printing again.

4. Be careful with search and replace. Before changing all instances of a word or phrase to something else, be sure you can predict the result. For example, if you change all instances of the word “TO” to “BY,” remember that some words also contain “TO.” (The word “together” would become “bygether!”)

5. Spell- checking isn’t proofreading. Spell- checking is no substitute for reviewing your paper carefully before you finalize it. For example, “cite” is spelled correctly, but “site” may be what you want.

example 4.2

TITLE: The Language of Jazz—An Integral Part of American history and Culture

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Music/history

GrADe LeveLS: Elementary to middle school

ISTE STANDARDS•S: Standard 1—Creativity and Innovation; Standard 2—Communication and Collaboration; Standard 3— research and Information Fluency; Standard 6—Technology Operations and Concepts

CCSS: CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.Rh.6-8.1, CSS. ELA- LITERACY. Rh.6-8.4, CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.Rh.6-8.8

DESCRIPTION: Students use the Internet to research the history of jazz and the life of one jazz musician and his or her effect on American culture. Then they use word processing software (Microsoft Word ) to create a brochure about their musician and share it with the class. The Microsoft Education website provides step-by-step directions to carry out the lesson and two handouts for students (prepared with Microsoft Word ).

SourCE: Based on a concept in a Lesson Plan from Microsoft Education collection.

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TaBle 4.4 Tips on Teaching students how to do Word Processing (Also go to the internet4classrooms website and look for Word tutorials)

Suggested Steps Tasks under Each Step

Step 1—Prepare for teaching. Arrange for: • A big screen and projection system, or interactive whiteboard (IWB). • A disc or flash drive for each student, or a cloud- based storage location. • Copying sample file(s) onto network or student media. • One computing device per student. • Alternative keyboards or other adaptive devices for students with disabilities.

Create or obtain: • handouts or wall posters on word processing features and common errors.

Step 2—Demonstrate the basics. using a big screen and projection system or IwB, show how to: • Transfer a file to a computing device (if needed). • Open a file. • Move around in a document using the cursor and scroll bars. • Add and delete text; undo changes. • Name, save, and close document.

Point out common errors: • Forgetting to move cursor before typing. • Forgetting about automatic wraparound (pressing Enter or return at end of lines). • Forgetting to save all changes before closing a file.

Step 3—Assign individual practice. Give students a sample word processing file and have them: • Open the file. • Do a list of changes to the file (e.g., inserting spaces, deleting lines, undoing changes). • Name, save, and close document.

Step 4—Demonstrate formatting features.

using a big screen and projection system or IwB, show how to: • Change fonts, styles, and alignment. • Add clip art. • Spell- check the document. • print the document. • Optional: Search and replace procedures. • Optional: Add bullets and numbering.

Point out common errors: • Inserting too many spaces at top or bottom of document (by pressing Enter or return). • Unexpected errors from Search and replace feature (failing to predict results).

Step 5—Assign more individual practice.

Have students open their sample word processing file from Step 3 and do the following: • Change fonts, styles, and alignment. • Add clip art. • Spell- check the document. • print the document. • Optional: Search and replace text. • Optional: Add bullets and page numbering.

Step 6—Demonstrate procedures with new files.

Show students how to: • Open a new file. • Name and save under different names (Save vs. Save As). • Optional: Set up a new document (e.g., set margins and line spacing). • Optional: Do headers, footers, and pagination.

Step 7—Assign more individual practice.

Do the following: • Assign a product for them to copy (for younger students) or create (for older students). • Monitor students as they work and give individual help as needed.

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uSING SPREADSHEET SOFTwARE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Spreadsheets are programs designed to organize and manipulate numerical data. The term spread- sheet comes from the precomputer word for an accountant’s ledger: a book for keeping records of numerical information such as budgets and cash flow. Unlike the term word processing, which refers only to the computer software or program, the term spreadsheet can refer either to the program itself or to the product it produces. Spreadsheet products are sometimes also called worksheets. The infor- mation in a spreadsheet is stored in rows and columns. Each row– column position is called a cell and may contain numerical values, words or character data, and formulas or calculation commands.

A spreadsheet helps users manage numbers in the same way that word processing helps them manage words. Spreadsheet software was the earliest application software available for microcom- puters. Some people credit spreadsheets with starting the microcomputer revolution, since the availability of the first spreadsheet software, Visicalc, motivated many people to buy a microcom- puter for their homes. Spreadsheet features are listed in Table 4.5. Also see Figure 4.3, which shows spreadsheet features used to create a Magic Squares exercise to engage students in number patterns.

The Impact of Spreadsheets in education Like word processing, spreadsheets have seen widespread adoption throughout education. This section gives the reasons for this tool’s popularity and summarizes both the research on using this software and an issue that may affect its integration.

Why teachers use spreadsheets. Spreadsheet programs are in widespread use in classrooms at all levels of education. Teachers use them primarily to keep budgets and gradebooks and to help teach mathematical topics. Spreadsheets offer teachers and students several unique benefits:

• Save time—Spreadsheets save valuable time by allowing teachers and students to complete essential calculations quickly. They save time not only by making initial calculations faster and more accurate, but their automatic recalculation features also make it easy to update products such as grades and budgets. Entries also can be changed, added, or deleted easily, with formulas that automatically recalculate final grades.

• Organize displays of information—Although spreadsheet programs are intended for numerical data, their capability to store information in columns makes them ideal tools for designing informational charts, such as schedules and attendance lists, that may contain few numbers and no calculations at all.

• Support asking “what if” questions—Spreadsheets help people visualize the impact of changes in numbers. Since values are automatically recalculated when changes are made in a worksheet, a user can play with numbers and immediately see the result. This capability makes it feasible to pose “what if ” questions and to answer them quickly and easily.

• Increase motivation to work with mathematics—Many teachers feel that spreadsheets make working with numbers more fun. Students sometimes perceive mathematical con- cepts as dry and boring; spreadsheets can make these concepts so graphic that students express real delight with seeing how they work.

• Research on the impact of spreadsheet use—Although spreadsheets are widely believed to help students visualize numerical concepts better than other, less dynamic tools, few studies have attempted to capture their comparative impact on achievement. Ray (2013) used pre– post achievement data to indicate the impact of “spreadsheet simulations,” or exercises that ask students to collect data in two or more different ways, insert the sets of data on a spreadsheet, and compare the results of the data- collection strategies. He found these exercises improve comprehension of highly abstract concepts in biology. There is

Technology learnIng check Complete TLC 4.2 to review what you have learned from reading this section about word processing features and uses.

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TaBle 4.5 a summary of spreadsheet features Feature Categories/General Benefits Description of Features and Specific Benefits

Basic features make it easier to display and manipulate budget, grade, or survey data; and do mathematics problem solving.

Line up information in rows and columns. Row– column format makes numerical and other information easier to read and digest at a glance.

Do basic calculations. Use formulas in cells to do: • Basic arithmetic functions: adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing. • Weighted averages by combining these functions.

Do complex calculations. Enter formulas in cells to do: • Mathematical functions such as logarithms and roots. • Statistical functions such as sums and averages. • Trigonometric functions such as sines and tangents. • Logical functions such as Boolean comparisons. • Financial functions such as periodic payments and rates. • Special- purpose functions such as looking up and comparing data entries with other

information (e.g., counting the number of grades above a certain number).

Do automatic recalculation. When a number in one cell changes (e.g., a grade), a spreadsheet formula automatically updates all calculations related to that number (e.g., an average grade).

Copy cells. Numbers, formulas, or other information in cells can be copied and pasted to any other cells.

Sort data. Data can be organized alphabetically or numerically.

Search and replace. One command allows all occurrences of a specified word, phrase, number, or formula to be changed.

Formatting features Alignment. Centers or right- or left- justifies cell entries.

Changes styles/appearance. Allows: • A variety of fonts, sizes, font colors, and type styles in the same document. • Cells and graphics to be filled with color or degrees of shading.

Insert automatic headers, footers, and pagination. Allows text to be automatically placed at the top (header) or bottom (footer) of each page in a worksheet with or without page numbering (pagination).

Graphics/interactive features allow spreadsheet data to be shown in more visual formats.

Charting. Creates charts and graphs automatically from spreadsheet data.

Insert graphics or movies. Clip art or other still or moving images can be pasted into cells to illustrate concepts or to change document appearance.

Insert drawn figures. Allows inserting shapes, callouts, and other figures to enhance worksheet appearance.

web features allow teachers and students to connect documents with Internet resources and create Web page announcements, reports, and projects.

Insert “live” uRLs. Allows person using the spreadsheet to click on text and go automatically to a website. (Note: Web browser must be active.)

Save as web pages. Allows worksheets to be displayed online.

Support features make using the program easier and more flexible.

Read and save to other formats. Spreadsheets can: • Read and use other data files such as those produced by Statistical packages for the Social

Sciences (SPSS) software. • Save documents in formats (e.g., tab- delimited) for use in SPSS or other programs.

use templates. Users can easily adapt preformatted models of worksheets (e.g., budgets, checkbooks, and gradekeepers) to their own needs.

also considerable evidence that spreadsheets have proven useful for teaching concepts in many areas, including probability (Beigie, 2010), meteorology (Krall, 2010), business topics (McDermott, 2010), physics (Benacka, 2010), and even sports (Bennett, O’Shaughnessy, & Bedford, 2011). Baker (2013) found that of all the technology skills that those in accounting professions could learn (accounting software, databases, e-mail or Internet, programming, spreadsheets, and word processing), accounting interns felt that spreadsheets are by far the most important. The literature contains numerous testimonials by teachers who have used

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spreadsheets successfully in teaching topics ranging from mathematics to social studies. Wu (2007) found that spreadsheet templates helped students better understand the con- cepts underlying statistical graphs.

Issues in using spreadsheets. Though spreadsheets have a reputation in education for utility and versatility in teaching, they still present more of a problem for many students than do tools such as word processing. Teachers who would employ this versatile software must first address students’ tendency to fear mathematics. They are not afraid to process words, but processing numbers is quite another matter. Teachers usually have to allow time for students to become comfortable with the software and discover that it is an aid to them, rather than a further challenge to their math ability.

Spreadsheets in the Classroom: Productivity and Teaching Strategies Spreadsheets offer benefits for both productivity and teaching practices. An overview of both these strategies is given here.

Productivity strategies. Teachers can use spreadsheets to help them prepare classroom materials and complete calculations that they would otherwise have to do by hand or with a calculator. The most common uses of spreadsheets are for keeping school club and classroom budgets, preparing performance checklists for assessment purposes, and keeping gradebooks.

Each row- column position in a worksheet

is a cell

Formulas automatically add rows and columns (or other numbers)

Formulas can be easily copied

from one cell to others

Information is entered in numbered rows and columns

labeled with letters

FIgURe 4.3 Sample Spreadsheet from a Lesson on Magic Squares

A Magic Square is a square grid of numbers in which numbers in each row, each column, and each forward and backward diagonal add up to the same number. In this example, we inserted a Magic Square created by Ben Franklin into a spreadsheet. The numbers each add to 260. Students insert formulas to discover this principle, then create their own, smaller Magic Square version assigned by the teacher (e.g., a 3 x 3 grid in which numbers add to 15.) Some of the spreadsheet features used to carry out this lesson are shown here.

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The latter use is becoming less common as schools and districts obtain gradebook software for use by all personnel who have to keep and calculate grades.

Instructional integration strategies for spread- sheets. Teachers can use spreadsheets in many ways to enhance learning. The literature, in fact, reflects an increasing variety of applications. Although their teaching role focuses primarily on mathematics lessons, spreadsheets have also effec- tively supported instruction in science, social studies, and even language arts. Current spreadsheet integration strategies include the following:

• Making possible visual teaching demonstrations. Whenever concepts involving numbers can be clarified by concrete representation, spreadsheets contribute to effective teaching demonstrations. Spreadsheets offer an efficient way of demonstrating numerical concepts such as multipli-

cation and percentages and numerical applications, such as the concept of electoral votes versus popular votes. A worksheet can make a picture out of abstract concepts and pro- vide a graphic illustration of what the teacher is trying to communicate. (See Technology Integration Example 4.3.)

• Supporting student products—Students can use spreadsheets to create timelines, charts, and graphs, as well as products that require them to store and calculate numbers. Creating graphic displays of data in a spreadsheet program can save time, particularly when changes or corrections are made to the data.

• Supporting mathematical problem solving—Spreadsheets take over the task of doing arithmetic functions so that students can focus on higher level concepts. By answering “what if ” questions in a highly graphic format, spreadsheets help teachers encourage logi- cal thinking, develop organizational skills, and promote problem solving.

• Storing and allowing analysis of data—Whenever students must keep track of data from classroom experiments or online surveys, spreadsheets help organize these data and allow students to perform required descriptive statistical analyses on them. (See Technology Integration Example 4.4.)

example 4.3

TITLE: How the Electoral College Works—A Visual Demonstration

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Civics, elections

GrADe LeveL: 9

ISTE STANDARDS•S: Standard 2—Communication and Collaboration; Standard 3—research and Information Fluency; Standard 4—Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making

CCSS: MATH.CONTENT.HSS.ID.A.2, CCSS.MATH.CONTENT. HSS.ID.A.3

NCSS THEMES: Thematic Standards: 6 – power, Authority, and Governance; Disciplinary Standards: Civics and Government;

DESCRIPTION: After the class holds a mock election and assigns electoral votes to each class in the school based on enrollment numbers, the teacher creates a spreadsheet to match the list of classes and their popular and electoral votes. Students enter data on election results, and the teacher displays the spreadsheet on a large monitor so the whole class can see the results as they are entered. Through this activity, students are able to see that if a very few of the popular votes in key areas are changed, the results of the election would be reversed. The class discusses these results as well as the possibility that a candidate could win the popular vote and lose the electoral vote.

SourCE: Based on a concept from the Getting into the Electoral College lesson at the NCTM Illuminations site: http:// illuminations.nctm.org.

T e C h n O l O g y I n T e g R a T I O n

▲ Spreadsheets can let students visualize math concepts, solve numerical problems, and experiment with mathematics principles. Sean Nel/Shutterstock

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example 4.4

TITLE: Comparing the Weather in Two Locations

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Science, weather

GrADe LeveL: 8

ISTE STANDARDS•S: Standard 1—Creativity and Innovation; Standard 2—Communication and Collaboration; Standard 4— Critical Thinking, problem Solving, and Decision Making

CCSS: CCSS.MATh.CONTENT.8.Sp.A.1, CCSS.MATh. CONTENT.8.F.B.5, CCSS.MATH.PrACTICE.MP5

NSTA: MS-ESS2-1, MS-ESS2-5, MS-ESS3-5

DESCRIPTION: Students work in small groups to gather weather data from NOAA’s National Weather Service website on two cities the teacher assigns them. They enter the data on a spreadsheet and do calculations to determine temperature and rainfall averages for given periods of time. They compare the two cities’ weather patterns and analyze them to determine reasons for the differences they find. Finally, they report on their findings to the class.

SourCE: Based on a concept in a lesson plan at the Hotchalk website: http:// www.lessonplanspage.com

T e C h n O l O g y I n T e g R a T I O n

• Projecting grades—Students can be taught to use spreadsheets to keep track of their own grades. They can do their own “what if ” questions to see what scores they need to make on their assignments to achieve desired class grades. This simple activity can play an important role in encouraging students to take responsibility for setting goals and achieving them.

Teaching Spreadsheet Skills: Recommended Skills and activities Just as with word processing, students new to spreadsheets must have time to develop skills in using the software before teachers can begin to grade their work. Some lessons require stu- dents to know only the most basic operations, as shown in Step 2 of Table 4.6. Other activities require students to create their own spreadsheets and formulas, as shown in Step 4. In the latter case, if students are not able to use the online tutorials that are available for teaching spread- sheet software, teachers can use the strategies outlined in Table 4.6. Even when teaching these advanced concepts, teachers may choose to introduce more complex functions and features on an as-needed basis, depending on the requirements of the lesson.

uSING PRESENTATION SOFTwARE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Presentation software is designed to display information, including text, images, audio, and video, in a slideshow format. It took the place of photo slides presented in a slide projector and, like the technology it replaced, was originally designed to accompany and support market- ing presentations and business training and reports. But like word processing and spreadsheet software, it quickly made the transition from business to education and home use. Though Microsoft PowerPoint was not the first such software, and though there are many other pack- ages available for sale and as open- source options, the name PowerPoint is often used inter- changeably with presentation software, much as the brand name Kleenex is often used instead of facial issue.

Technology learnIng check Complete TLC 4.3 to review what you have learned from reading this section about spreadsheet features and uses.

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TaBle 4.6 Tips on Teaching spreadsheets (Also see Spreadsheet tutorials)

Suggested Steps Tasks under Each Step

Step 1—Prepare for teaching. Arrange for:

• A big screen and projection system, or interactive whiteboard (IWB) • A disc or flash drive for each student, or a cloud- based storage location • Copying sample file(s) onto network or student media • One computing device per student • Alternative keyboards or other adaptive devices for students with disabilities

Create or obtain: • handouts or wall posters on spreadsheet features and common errors

Step 2—Demonstrate the basics. using a big screen and projection system or IwB, show how to:

• Transfer a file to a computing device (if needed). • Open a spreadsheet file from a storage location or medium • Select a worksheet to work on in the file by clicking a tab at the bottom. • Select any given cell location by row– column position.

Then demonstrate: • Spreadsheet “magic”: Show how it recalculates automatically when a number is changed.

Finally, show how to: • Enter new information into a cell. • Format given cells for appearance and as various kinds of numbers. • Change column width. • Copy information in a cell down the column or across a row.

Point out a common error:

• Forgetting to highlight cells to be formatted before selecting a format option.

Step 3—Assign individual practice. Give students a sample spreadsheet file on disc and have them: • Open the file. • Make changes to the file (e.g., insert new data, copy down a column or across a row,

format cells). • Name, save, and close the document.

Step 4—Demonstrate formatting features.

using a big screen and projection system or IwB, show how to: • Create a formula to add numbers in a column. • Copy a formula across the row to add numbers in other columns. • Optional: Functions such as SUM and AVErAGE. • Optional: Charting functions. • Optional: Adding graphics and UrLs.

Point out common errors with formulas: • Forgetting to place the cursor in the cell where you want the formula • Pressing the right Arrow key (instead of the return or Enter Key) to leave the cell while

creating a formula (Show that this action adds something to the formula, rather than exiting the cell.)

• Including the formula cell itself in the formula’s calculation (i.e., circular reference error)

Step 5—Assign more individual practice.

Have students open their sample spreadsheet file from Step 3 and do the following: • Enter and format various new formulas. • Optional: Create a chart based on the data. • Optional: Add a graphic and/or a UrL.

Monitor students as they work, and give individual help as needed.

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Slides or frames created in this software are usually presented in the order in which they appear in the slideshow product. However, presentation software also has features allow hyper- media capabilities, permitting the display of frames in any order by clicking on links or “but- tons.” Presentation software features are summarized in Table 4.7.

The Impact of Presentation Software in education Why teachers use presentation software. Though presentation software is generally used in the same way in education as it is in business, to support speakers (teachers and students) as they present information to listeners, it has evolved additional uses in education that make it a more complex, multipurpose classroom tool. Current uses are described later in this chapter. Presentation software offers educators the following benefits:

• Helps organize thinking about a topic—When teachers or students create a presentation with this software, it helps them think through what they will say and in what order they should present information. Though using presentation software does not ensure an organized, coherent talk, its emphasis on sequencing and breaking information into component parts can promote a more organized approach. Use of presentation software can allow a teacher to illustrate and provide students with practice in information organization skills.

• Enhances the impact of spoken information—When a pre- sentation product is well designed, it supports and supplements what the speaker says, using graphics and multimedia to give illustrations and drive home points with images and sound.

• Allows collaboration on presentations—Working together on presentations of project work or research results gives students important practice in collaborative skills. It also allows students to contribute in a variety of ways to the product, rather than just in writing; for example, some may focus on text message design and some on selecting and creating appropriate graphics.

Research on the instructional uses of presentation software. This soft- ware is a much- studied technology, and researchers have looked at its impact on both educational processes and outcomes. Jordan and Papp (2013) reviewed and summarized the body of research on the impact of PowerPoint. They found that while overall findings show no impact on desired outcomes, they were also able to demonstrate that impact depends almost exclusively on how it is used. They cite several limitations and problems of less- then- effective uses, including the following:

• Overuse or improper use of bullets and lists can cause problems for learners as they process information they are hearing.

• Sometimes students focus so much on the slides they neglect other important information or sources.

• They can be a loss of “connection” between the person presenting the slides and the listen- ers when the focus is on the slides and not on the concepts behind them.

• Slideshows tend to be used the same way across all audiences, leading to a single teaching style that may not be appropriate for everyone.

• Many people who create slideshows do not have a good grasp of visual design principles that would help them achieve better results.

These findings indicate that creating and using presentation software effectively requires substantial background in specific pedagogical and visual design principles. Like the other basic tools, presentation software is easy to use but difficult to use well as a teaching tool.

Issues in using presentation software. Use of presentation software has pro- duced strong reactions by several observers. Issues related to presentation software use include:

▲ Presentations offer a way to engage students with sound and images. (Photo by W. Wiencke)

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TaBle 4.7 a summary of Presentation software features Feature Categories/

General Benefits Description of Features and Specific Benefits

Basic features allow display of frames or slides of information in a set sequence.

Create a slideshow made of separate frames. Frame-by-frame organization breaks up information into logical units that can be presented one at a time.

Add frames with various formats. Frame styles can be different on each page; styles can range from a blank frame to one with locations marked for where text and graphics should be inserted.

Copy and paste slides. Slides can be added by duplicating other slides.

Add speaker notes to slides. helps users plan what to say as each frame is presented.

Search and replace. One command allows all occurrences of a specified word or phrase to be changed as specified.

Display features allow various ways to view slideshows.

Display in various ways as single frame. Displays a slide that either: allows changes to be made on it before presentation, or a full- screen display during a presentation.

Display as storyboards. Shows all frames at once for review and/or changing frame sequence.

Formatting features allow variation in text spacing and frame appearance.

Format font size and type. Allows text variety to enhance frame appearance.

Format background color. Allows each frame to have different background color to better highlight information and focus viewers’ attention.

Graphics and interactive features make frames have more impact and utility.

Insert images. Clip art from a library that comes with the software and includes photos and animations; or images from other sources.

Insert drawn figures. Allows inserting shapes, callouts, lines, or other figures to enhance frame appearance or to help illustrate concepts.

Insert videos and animations. Allows inserting short videos to supplement slide information from text and images or GIF animations, primarily for gaining attention.

Insert charts and graphs. Allows creation of charts or graphs to insert on frames to illustrate concepts.

Insert products created in other software. Allows word- processed text or spreadsheet products, including charts and graphs, to be added to frames.

Interactive buttons or “hotspots.” Links can be inserted to allow users to “jump” to other parts of the presentation out of the order in which slides are stored in presentation.

web features allow teachers and students to connect frames to Internet resources

Insert “live” uRLS. Allows person displaying the presentation to click on text or images and go automatically to a website. (Note: Web browser must be active.)

Save presentations as web pages. Allows presentations to be accessed and displayed online.

Support features make using the program easier and more flexible.

use templates. Users can add information to already formatted files that come with themed graphics already on each slide.

Save to other formats. presentations can be saved as pDFs to allow use as documents or as read- only presentations for sharing with others.

Print presentations. presentations can be printed with varying numbers of slides per page and given to listeners for following and note- taking.

use timed slideshows. presentations can be set up to display frames automatically using timing settings or to play narration or music during the show.

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• Impact of presentation software on information presented—Tufte (2003) famously said that “Power corrupts; PowerPoint corrupts absolutely.” He is among those who feel that presentation software makes people focus on the slides, rather than the message, saying that “rather than supplementing a presentation, [PowerPoint] has become a substitute for it” (p. 3). See the Hot Topic Debate feature for more on this issue.

• Impact of presentation software on teaching style—There are also complaints about the effects that using slide- based software has on teaching style and impact. Adams (2006) said that using PowerPoint makes educators reshape what they present in a way that is inconsistent with developing higher- level skills. On the other hand, Elliott and Gordon (2006) said that proper use of presentation software can support constructivist activities and promote higher- level thinking and “deep understanding” (p. 34).

Criticisms of this tool seem best addressed by teachers becoming more aware of the most effective uses of presentation software. Klemm (2007) offers several tips for avoiding uses of presentation software that make them a “trap for bad teaching” (p. 121). These include show- ing only a few slides at a time before having students apply the information, having some slides with no text (images or diagrams only), moving around the room while showing slides, taking the last slide off the screen when moving on to student work, and not giving out hard copies of slides.

Presentation Software in the Classroom: Productivity and Teaching Strategies The benefits that presentation software offers are primarily to teaching practices. This section offers an overview of these strategies, as well as how to make time spent with presentations more productive.

Productivity strategies. Since presentation software is designed specifically for presenting information, it has no real productivity applica- tions. However, PowerPoint presentations can be made more productive by following the design and usage rules listed in Figure 4.4, as well as Klemm’s (2007) guidelines, given previously.

Instructional integration strategies for presentation software. Since presentation software can support instruction in any content area, the literature reflects many examples of effective uses. Presentation strategies began when software allowed only electronic slide shows, sequences of frames with clip art and text, displayed in a linear way. When it became possible to add complex graphics and video sequences to frames, they evolved into popular multimedia authoring tools. Then, when presentation software began to offer branching and links to external information such as Internet sites, this tool became a

Student use of Presentation Software

In this video, a principal talks about how presentation software may be used with other tools to help students communicate their project work. What other tools does he advocate that students use with presentation software to communicate their work?

In a 2003 article entitled “PowerPoint is Evil,” Edward Tufte said that “the powerpoint style routinely disrupts, dominates, and

trivializes content. Thus powerpoint presentations too often resemble a school play—very loud, very slow, and very simple.” The New York Times published an article entitled “We have Met the Enemy and he Is powerpoint.” What characteristics serve to make presentations with powerpoint or other software less than helpful? What guidelines can you cite to make sure such presenta- tions are helpful?

Hot Topic Debate Is Powerpoint Really Evil?

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hypermedia environment. Today’s presentation software also allows authors to add click- able buttons or hot spots to jump to any location in the presentation, giving users control of what they want to see and when they can see it. This expanded the number and type of integration possibilities for students and teachers.

For large classes and other groups, presentation software products typically are used in conjunction with computer projection systems, which may include large, high- definition monitor panels, digital projectors and wall- mounted screens, or systems that operate as

TaBle 4.8 comparison of design criteria for Projected and individual Presentations Criteria for Presentations Projected to Groups Criteria for Presentations used by Individuals

use large type—So it can be seen from the back of the room (usually 32-point or more)

Type may be smaller—For viewing on an individual’s computer

Minimize text on each frame—Use text mainly to focus attention on main points

More text on each frame is okay—If product is for tutoring, more text may be needed

Avoid using fancy fonts—These may be unreadable Same criterion

Avoid using gratuitous graphics, clip art, and sounds—These interfere with understanding when used only for decoration

Same criterion

use graphics, not just text—These help convey messages Same criterion

All of the following are qualities that can greatly enhance readability, audience engagement, and/or communication of content during a powerpoint or Keynote presentation.

1. use large type—Use at least a 32-point font; use a larger type size if the audience is large and a long distance away from the presenter. Smaller type (no less than a 20-point font) may be used to provide citations, references, and sources, which are typically positioned in the lower- left or -right corner of the appropriate slide.

2. Contrast the text and background colors—The audience cannot see text that is too similar in hue to the background on which it appears. Use text with high contrast to the background (e.g., dark text on light- colored backgrounds, white text on dark- colored backgrounds).

3. Minimize the amount of text on each frame—Use text to focus attention on main points, not to present large amounts of information. Summarize ideas in brief phrases and make sure that you, not the projection screen, are the focus of the presentation. In other words, use the presentation to enhance, strengthen, and expand upon points that are outlined briefly on each frame.

4. Keep frames simple—Frame designs should be simple, clear, and free of distractions. Too many items on one frame can interfere with reading, especially if some items are in motion. In addition, try to employ photographs and images in place of lengthy text when describing a context or event. Finally, try to minimize the number of bullet points (not to exceed three to five points) on each individual slide.

5. Avoid using too many “fancy” fonts—Many fonts are unreadable when projected on a screen. Use a plain sans serif (straight lines with no “hands” and “feet”) font for titles and a plain serif font for other text. Avoid using more than three different fonts throughout the presentation to maintain consistency of headings, body text, and pull- out text.

6. Avoid using gratuitous graphics and clip art—Graphics interfere with communication when used solely for decoration. Use graphics to help communicate and expand upon the content, not for the sake of using graphics alone.

7. Avoid using gratuitous sounds—Sounds interfere with communication when used solely for effect. They should always help communi- cate the content and not be used as a transition effect.

8 use graphics, not just text— Well- chosen graphics can help communicate messages. Text alone does not make the best use of the capabilities of presentation software. however, with the ever- increasing ease of finding and downloading images and media from online sources, it is important to introduce concepts of copyright and fair use, require students to document where materials come from, and teach them how to cite the proper sources in their presentations.

9. Present in a dark room—Frames can fade away if the room is too bright. Make sure to cover windows and turn off lights during a presentation.

10. Avoid reading text aloud—Do not read what the audience can read for themselves. Use text to guide the main points of discussion. This will help you focus on presenting to the audience as opposed to speaking at the screen. remember, you—not the PowerPoint—are doing the presenting.

FIgURe 4.4 Guidelines for Designing Presentations with Presentation Software

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stand- alone devices. All of these devices enlarge the image produced by the software by pro- jecting it from a computer screen onto a wall screen. However, some integration strategies with interactive presentation hypermedia call for products to be used by individuals working at their own computers. Many of the criteria that are appropriate for projected presentations are not required for individual ones. See Table 4.8 for a comparison of group and individual design guidelines.

Current integration strategies for presentation software include the following:

• Presentation of information summaries—By far the most popular use of these tools is for supporting and strengthening classroom presentations. Teachers use them to focus student attention and guide note- taking.

• Demonstrations of materials for discussion—In this strategy, the teacher displays a complex diagram such as an electrical circuit or light spectrum, or a series of examples such as works of art, types of animals, or instruments in an orchestra. This is an ideal way to focus student attention while explaining important concepts or pointing out essential features.

• Presentation of illustrative problems and solutions—Projection with presentation soft- ware is useful when the whole class needs to see example problems and how to solve them (e.g., in mathematics or chemistry) prior to doing their own problems.

• Automatically- forwarding practice screens—Many teachers set up automatic presenta- tions of spelling or vocabulary words or objects to identify (e.g., lab equipment, famous names or places) to run automatically in the classroom, knowing that students’ eyes are drawn to the moving slides.

• Assessment screens—When teachers need students to identify pictures of items (e.g., lab equipment, famous people), presentation screens can enable visual assessment strategies.

• Brief or full tutorials—Teachers can create brief tutorials with presentation software. These can be used for reviews of simple concepts (e.g., grammar rules) or “how-to” procedures (e.g., steps to carry out a lab, computer software demonstrations) that allow students to work independently, either for in-class work or make up work. They may also be used to prepare for tests. See an example in Figure 4.5. Full tutorials are complete instructional sequences that usually have practice items following an explanation, which makes interactive buttons especially useful. The program can then branch to different feedback depending on the answer the user selects.

• Book reports—Instead of presenting book reports verbally or as written summaries, it is becom- ing increasingly common for students to report on their reading using presentation slideshows. Teachers often design a standard format or tem- plate, and students fill in the required information and add their own illustrations.

• Game- based reviews—Interactive presentations based on popular games like Jeopardy have become increasingly popular ways to review skills or content. (See Figure 4.6 for an example game.) The buttons inserted on the screens send users to various items and can also send them to frames with answers and feedback. The Super Teacher Tools site has a large and useful collection of games in a Jeopardy format that review content for a variety of content topics ranging from mathematics to history.

• Interactive storybooks—With this strategy, stu- dents document existing stories or write their own so they can be read interactively by others. Those reading these hypermedia stories can click on vari- ous places on the screen to hear or view parts of a

FIgURe 4.5 Example Frame from Biology Tutorial Created with presentation Software

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story. This format also lets students go beyond one basic sequence and create their own branches and endings to stories. Candreva (2010) described this strategy as a way to reinforce and enhance children’s literacy skills. Thesen and Kira- Soteriou (2011) used a free software called Photo Story 3 (listed in the Open- Source Options fea- ture) to allow students to create their own digital stories. They, too, felt it was a powerful way to enrich all young students’ literacy skills. Technology Integration Example 4.5 illustrates the use of these “talking storybooks.”

• Student presentations of project work—The most powerful strategy for integrating presentation software is for students to create individual or small- group presen- tations to document and display results of research they have done and/or to practice making persuasive presenta- tions. Having learners become the designers and experts of content, in the end presenting their work to the class, can serve as a powerful technology integration lesson for any domain of learning. Franklin (2008) described a les- son that has each student choose a chemical element to

learn about and create a PowerPoint presentation to teach others. Henson (2008) used a similar strategy to have students research animal behavior and present their find- ings. McVee, Bailey, and Shanahan (2008) told of students using PowerPoint to help display their interpretation of poems. Schwebach (2008) describes how students used PowerPoint to present their capstone research projects. O’Hara and Pritchard (2008) found that students who created interactive PowerPoint products to illustrate new vocab- ulary words were more active and engaged than other students and demonstrated greater understanding of words and concepts they studied. PowerPoint- type presentations have become so popular for classroom projects that many assessment rubrics for them are now available online (see especially Kathy Schrock’s listing of PowerPoint rubrics (Also, see Technology Integration Examples 4.6 and 4.7.)

FIgURe 4.6 Example Jeopardy Game Created with presentation Software

example 4.5

TITLE: Talking Books Enhance Literacy for Kids with Special Needs

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts, literacy

GrADe LeveLS: Elementary students with physical disabilities

ISTE STANDARDS•S: Standard 1—Creativity and Innovation

CCSS: CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.RF.K.1.A, CCSS. ELA- LITERACY. rF.2.3, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.rF.3.4, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY. rL.3.1, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.SL.4.2, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.SL.5.5

DESCRIPTION: When students cannot read independently because of their physical difficulties, their reading development is

often delayed. They may not be able to turn pages of a book or turn back to reread a page they enjoy, so they always have to ask someone else to do these things for them. The result is less reading and poorer overall literacy. By making popular children’s books into electronic format with powerpoint, students can access these books using a variety of computer access aids. They turn “pages” by activating a switch with whatever part of their body has the best voluntary control.

SourCE: Based on a concept from “Creating Talking Books in PowerPoint” at http:// atto.buffalo.edu/registered/Tutorials/talking Books/ powerpoint.php.

T e C h n O l O g y I n T e g R a T I O n

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example 4.6

TITLE: Cave Drawings

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social studies (history), art

GrADe LeveL: 6– 8

ISTE STANDARDS•S: Standard 1—Creativity and Innovation; Standard 2—Communication and Collaboration

CCSS: CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.rH.6-8.3, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY. Rh.6-8.7

NCSS THEMES: Thematic Standards: 1 - Culture and Diversity; 2 - Time, Continuity, and Change; 3 - People, Places, and Environments; Disciplinary Standards: 1- history

DESCRIPTION: Students learn about prehistoric man and the messages left in caves from that time. The teacher displays a presentation with example drawings. Students discuss the messages being communicated in pictures. Then, they try their hand at “drawing messages.” The lesson wraps up with a discussion on similarities between cave drawings and television, magazines, or newspapers. Students can also create a newspaper advertisement using only pictures and/ or symbols, then see if others can guess the topic of the advertisement.

SourCE: Based on a concept in Cave Drawing lesson plan at Teachnology website: http:// www. teach- nology.com/.

T e C h n O l O g y I n T e g R a T I O n

example 4.7

TITLE: here’s My hero

CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts and technology

GrADe LeveLS: 4– 5

CCSS: CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.rI.4.3, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.rI.4.9, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.rI.5.7, CCSS. ELA- LITErACY.W.4.2.B, CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.W.4.4, CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.W.5.7

DESCRIPTION: Students identify a historical figure they regard as a hero and make a presentation about him/her to share with the class. They gather images and data from the Internet to add to their slides. They use powerpoint features to format their slides, create a timeline of significant events in their hero’s life (organizational chart), and insert a table comparing themselves to their hero. Before making their presentations, they learn how to organize speaker notes for their slides and rearrange slides for maximum impact during the presentation.

SourCE: Based on a concept in a lesson plan at the TechnoKids website: http:// www.technokids.com/ computer- curriculum/junior/ powerpoint- lesson- plans- technohero.aspx.

T e C h n O l O g y I n T e g R a T I O n

Teaching Presentation Software Skills: Recommended Skills and activities If students are to develop their own presentations, as is required in some of the integration strate- gies described in this chapter, they must have time to learn the software before their products are graded. Ideally, they will have time to play with the software and explore its capabilities. However, direct instruction may be a more efficient use of classroom time. If students are not able to use the online tutorials that provide direct instruction in how to use presentation software (see link in Table 4.9), teachers can use the strategies outlined in Table 4.9 to teach this software. Teachers may decide to teach other functions and features of presentation software gradually over time, depending on the needs of the lessons.

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http://www.teach-nology.com/

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TaBle 4.9 Tips on Teaching students how to create Presentations (Also see PowerPoint tutorials)

Suggested Steps Tasks under Each Step

Step 1—Prepare for teaching. Arrange for: • A big screen and projection system or interactive whiteboard (IWB). • A disc or flash drive for each student, or a cloud- based storage location. • Copying sample file(s) onto network or student media. • One computing device per student. • Alternative keyboards or other adaptive devices for students with disabilities.

Create or obtain: handouts or wall posters on presentation software features and common errors.

Step 2—Demonstrate the basics using a sample prepared presentation.

using a big screen and projection system or IwB, show how to: • Open a sample slideshow. • page through the frames using the slide- bar and thumbnail views. • See all frames at once in slide sorter format. • Get from one view to another using menus or icons at bottom of screen.

Then demonstrate: • how to display the slideshow as a presentation.

Finally, show how to: • Create an additional slide at any location in the presentation. • Select a slide format from those available. • Add text to the slide and format it. • Add clip art from a library. • Add an image from a hard drive or a flash drive.

Step 3—Assign individual or small- group practice.

Give students a sample presentation file and have them: • Open the file. • Do a list of changes to the file (e.g., add new slides, insert text and images). • Name, save, and close the document.

Step 4—Demonstrate advanced features.

using a big screen or projection system, show how to: • Add transitions to slides. • Optional: Insert shapes and lines. • Optional: Add WordArt or charts. • Optional: Do notes. • Optional: Do headers and footers for handouts. • Optional: print handouts.

Step 5—Assign more practice. Do the following: • Assign a product for them to copy or experiment with (for young students) or create (for older students). • Monitor students as they work and give individual help where needed.

Step 6—Demonstrate interactive features using a sample interactive presentation.

Demonstrate: • how buttons work to “jump” from various locations. • how to insert a button. • how to storyboard using slide sorter option.

Step 7—Assign more practice. Do the following: • Assign a product for them to copy or experiment with (for young students) or create (for older students). • Monitor students as they work and give individual help as needed.

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Technology learnIng check Complete TLC 4.4 to review what you have learned from reading this section about presentation software features and uses.

The following questions may be used either for in-class, small- group discussions or may initiate

discussions in blogs or online discussion boards:

1. In his New York Times blog post, “Ending the Curse of Cursive,” John Tierney quoted Vanderbilt pro- fessor Steve Graham: “If every young child had a computer to write on, and the keyboards were built for young children, and we provided instruction to help them type fluently, then the need for handwrit- ing would be questionable.” Do you agree with Dr. Graham that we should eschew teaching cursive writing in favor of focusing on word processing instruction? What arguments could be made for and against this substitution?

2. In an article, “Spreadsheets Across the Curriculum,” for the ICT in Education website, Freedman responded to critics who say that spreadsheets are, by their very nature, boring. Freedman maintains that spreadsheets can be interesting and exciting, depending on how you use them. For example, she assigned students to do a party plan and decide how many bottles of “fizzy drink” and other supplies were needed and how much they could purchase within a given budget. She also gives examples of how spreadsheets can add interest to studies that are not usually thought of as “numerical” For exam- ple, counting, plotting, and comparing the instances of jokes or murders in various Shakespearean plays. Can you create other ways to use spreadsheets in various content areas to create learning activities that are both important and engaging to students?

COLLABORATE, DISCuSS, REFLECT

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▲ The most powerful strategy for integrating presentation software is for students to create individual or small-group presentations to document and display results of their research and/or to practice making persuasive presentations. (Photo courtesy of W. Wiencke)

The effectiveness of interactive presentations depends largely on the designer’s authoring skills. The most common error in presentation hypermedia is when links fail to work as intended. Using and teaching two design steps can prevent this.

1. Lay out frames using sticky notes or the slide sorter option, and make notes on each interactive button to show where users go to when they click it.

2. Try out the finished product and/or have others try it out, and go through it, taking various paths through the slides. Make sure all buttons work and send users to the locations the buttons indicate, no matter which frame students come from in the presentation.

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Summary The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter.

1. Overview of the “Basic Three”—Three software tools that are usually part of the basic suite of programs most people buy are: word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation software. • Benefits of these programs include improved productivity, appearance, and accuracy, and more

support for interaction and collaboration. • Developments since these products were first made available include Web- based collaboration

tools, open- source software, mobile tools, Web- enabled features, better file- exchange compatibility, and software suites.

2. word processing is a software tool that allows people to produce typed documents on a computer screen. • Word processing benefits include saving time, improving document appearance, allowing easy

exchange of work, allowing collaboration, and support for student writing and language learning. • Word processing issues include questions about the age students should start word processing,

necessity to teach keyboarding skills, effects of word processing on handwriting, impact of word processing on assessment, and problems with inadvertent errors.

• Word processing productivity applications include creating handouts or other instructional materials, lesson plans and notes, reports, forms, letters to parents or students, flyers, and newsletters.

• Word processing instructional integration strategies include supporting the learning of writing pro- cesses; using a dynamic group process approach; assigning individual language, writing, and read- ing exercises; and encouraging writing through the curriculum.

3. Spreadsheets are software tools designed to organize and manipulate numerical data. • Spreadsheet benefits include saving time, organizing displays of information, and increasing motiva-

tion to work with mathematics. • Spreadsheet productivity applications include keeping club and classroom budgets, preparing per-

formance checklists, and keeping gradebooks. • Spreadsheet instructional integration strategies include making possible visual teaching demonstra-

tions, supporting student products, supporting mathematical and “what if” problem solving, storing and allowing analysis of data, and projecting grades.

4. Presentation programs are software tools that are designed to display information, including text, images, audio, and video, in a slideshow format. • presentation software benefits include helping organize thinking about a topic, enhancing the impact

of spoken information, and allowing collaboration on presentations. • presentation software issues include the impact of presentation software on information presented

and teaching style. • presentation software integration strategies include presentation of information summaries, demon-

strations of materials for discussion, presentation of illustrative problems and solutions, automatically forwarding practice screens, assessment screens, brief or full tutorials, book reports, game- based reviews, interactive storybooks, and student presentations of project work.

4Chapter

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1. APPly WHAt you lEARnED To apply the concepts and skills you’ve read about throughout this chapter, go to the Chapter 4 Technology Application Activity.

2. tEcHnology IntEgRAtIon lESSon PlAnnIng: PARt 1—EvAluAtIng AnD cREAtIng lESSon PlAnS

Complete the following exercise using the sample lesson plans found on any lesson planning site that you find on the Internet.

a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the tools or strategies you learned about in this chapter. For example:

• Word processing software tools • Spreadsheet software tools • presentation software tools

b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist to evaluate each of the lessons you found.

3. tEcHnology IntEgRAtIon lESSon PlAnnIng: PARt 2—IMPlEMEntIng tHE tIP MoDEl

Review how to implement the TIp model in your classroom by doing the following activities with the lesson you created in the Technology Integration Lesson planning exercise above.

a. Describe the Phase 1—Planning activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • Do you have resources and skills you need to carry it out?

b. Describe the Phase 2—Implementation activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom:

• What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • how will you assess your students’ accomplishment of the objectives? • What integration strategies are used in this lesson plan? • how would you prepare the learning environment?

c. Describe the Phase 3—Evaluation/revision activities you would do to use this lesson in your classroom: What strategies and/or instruments would you use to evaluate the success of this lesson in your classroom, in order to determine revision needs?

d. Add lesson descriptors—Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, ISTE standards, 21st Century Learning standards).

e. Save your new lesson—Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP Model notes.

4. FoR youR tEAcHIng PoRtFolIo Add the following to your Teaching portfolio:

• Lesson plan evaluations, lesson plans, and products you created above. • products of your group’s hot Topic Debates. • products of your group’s Collaborate, Discuss, Reflect online or in-class activities.

Technology InTegraTIon WorkShoP

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After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to:

1. Identify the uses and contributions to teaching and learning of each of the seven categories of software tools. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

2. Select a materials generator software tool that would most effectively support a given teaching and/or learning task. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

3. Select data collection and analysis software tools that would most effectively support a given teaching and/or learning task. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

4. Select a testing software tool that would most effectively support a given teaching and/or learning task. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

5. Select a graphics software tool that would most effectively support a given teaching and/or learning task. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

6. Select a planning and organizing software tool that would most effectively support a given teaching and/or learning task. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

7. Select a research and reference tool that would most effectively support a given teaching and/or learning task. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

8. Select a content- area software tool that would most effectively support a given teaching and/or learning task. (ISTE Standards•T 1, 2, 3, 5)

Learning Outcomes

Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching B e y o n d t h e B a s i c s

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Phase 1 analysis of learning and teaching needs step 1: Determine relative advantage. Mr. Lipe is a fifth grade teacher who has great difficulty getting his young students to share his passion for poetry. He tried vari- ous teaching approaches, but many students remained indifferent, and few are interested enough to read or write poems after the unit is over. When he taught mathematics activities, he had found that using his interactive whiteboard made it easier to engage students, especially if they played a part in illustrating and practicing con- cepts. He felt that with the right kinds of activities, he might also engage them in learning about and writing poetry. From a blog for teachers, he learned about some online materials to help teach poetry, some of which could be used with interactive whiteboards and allowed students to publish their work online. After reviewing the materials, he decided to restructure his poetry unit around these activities. He would display the online “poetry engine” on the white- board to illustrate several types of poems that kids can write, and it would also allow students some initial practice in writing poems. After more practice in pairs and small groups, each would have to write one poem of each kind, with or without the poetry engine, and each would be allowed to publish one poem on the website.

step 2: assess required resources and skills. Mr. Lipe felt he knew a great deal about writing poetry, since he had had good instructors in his under graduate program and was a poet himself. But after three years of unsuccessful efforts to engage his students in poetry writing, he felt less confident in his ability to motivate young people on this topic. To improve his instructional approaches, he read through a variety of blogs and online materials looking for ideas on how to teach poetry better. After reading these materials and blogging with colleagues who gave him good leads, he felt more confident that the new approach would be much more motivating to students.

Phase 2 Planning for integration step 3: Decide on objectives and assessments. To help him see if students were achieving what he hoped in the poetry unit, Mr. Lipe created objectives and assessments to measure students’ progress in poetry skills, as well as their attitudes toward poetry. The outcomes, objectives, and assessments were:

Outcome: Write three different poems reflecting three different poetry genres. Objective: After participating in the practice activities, each student writes three poems in correct format,

using either a poetry engine or writing on the word processor, and provides an illustration for at least one. Assessment: A rubric of criteria and points.

Outcome: Feel more positively about poetry. Objective: At least 80% of students express interest in reading or writing additional poems, as reflected in

comments to the teacher or poems they offer. Assessment: Teacher observation.

step 4: Design integration strategies. Mr. Lipe knew that the initial activities would be group based, followed up by individual ones. He designed the following sequence of activities to be done in one hour each day for one week:

Technology InTegraTIon In acTIon SharIng a PaSSIon for PoeTry GRADE LEVEL: Grades 4– 5 • CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts, poetry • LENGTH OF TIME: An hour each day for 6 days

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an image to mind for any of them. Tell students that they can write, illustrate, and publish poems of their own. Demonstrate the poetry engine on the whiteboard and let students come to the whiteboard and prac- tice generating poems of each genre in front of the class. Tell students they may bring a favorite poem to share with the class the next day, if they like.

Day 2: Allow student practice and sharing. Ask one or two students to share the poem they found or wrote. Show students the part of the site on which students can publish their work. Tell them that by the end of the week, they will write three poems and select one to publish. Display and discuss the rubrics on the whiteboard. Allow students to work in small groups with the three classroom computers using the poetry engine. Other students work on illustrations that can accompany poems, writing other poems, and on reviewing books of popular poetry for young people. Facilitate their work and answer questions, as needed. Ask them to begin thinking about which poem they would like to upload to the site in order to become a published poet. Tell students that some of them may share one of their own poems with the class each day of this week.

Day 3: Continue practice and sharing. Ask a few students to share the poems they wrote the day before, and remind students they may bring a poem to share with the class the next day. Continue work with the poetry engines and seatwork on illustrations and reading and writing additional poems.

Day 4: Continue practice and sharing. Ask more students to share their poems by displaying them on the whiteboard and talk about their poetry ideas. Ask students to change or move around words in ways that improve the poems. encourage them to express their thoughts about poetry and what they like and don’t like about it. remind them that they must select only one poem to publish.

Day 5: Select and publish poems. Ask more students to share their poems. Allow students to begin publishing their selected poems on the classroom computers, while other students complete work on their poems and illustrations.

Day 6: Complete work. Ask more students to share their poems. Finish publishing all poems to the site. Give students a handout to give to parents with the website where they may find their child’s published poem.

Post- unit activity. Arrange for a poetry reading event where children get to read aloud their published poems.

step 5: Prepare instructional environment. The first time Mr. Lipe taught this project, he created the rubric and student and parent handouts, and he created a whiteboard file to allow touch- screen use of the poetry engine display. For subsequent times, he had to do the following:

Prepare for whiteboard displays: He selected the images to display from the computer and checked to make sure the whiteboard was working with the software file he would use with the poetry engine.

Prepare classroom computers: He checked each of the classroom computers and made sure the poetry website was in the Bookmarks/Favorites list.

Make handout copies: He made copies of the students’ rubric and parent handouts.

Phase 3 Post- instruction analysis and revisions step 6: analyze results. Mr. Lipe was delighted with the response from his students. Nearly all of them completed all three required poems, and most were in good shape. In the weeks following the unit, about 50% of them asked how they could write or read more poems. Though he didn’t meet his own criterion of 80% of the students, he felt he was on the right track with this approach. Several parents had contacted either him or his principal express- ing their delight with their child’s published poems.

step 7: Make revisions. Though the unit generally went smoothly, there was not enough time in the six days for all students to pub- lish their poems, and some students needed more time to complete their work. Also, not all students had the opportunity to read a poem in front of the class. Since these were the most motivational of the activities, Mr. Lipe decided to schedule a computer lab day to do uploading of poems and allow students to continue reading a poem each day until everyone had a chance.

Source: Based on a concept presented in Scholastic’s Writing with Writers: Poetry activities and resources.

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CHApTer 5 BIg IDeAS OvervIew Before you begin reading the rest of this chapter, listen to the Chapter 5 Big Ideas Overview. It will give you a two-minute audio overview of main concepts to look for and help prepare you to work through information and exercises to achieve this chapter’s outcomes.

IntrODuCtIOn tO Other SOftwAre SuPPOrt tOOlS

An ever- increasing number of software tools are available that go beyond what many people think of as the “basic” capabilities of word processing, spreadsheets, and presentation soft- ware. These additional materials serve teachers and students in a variety of ways, making possible many kinds of freedom in the classroom. These tools vary greatly in their purposes and the benefits they offer. Since teachers should choose them for the qualities and benefits they bring to the classroom, rather than simply because they are available, this chapter will focus on unique features and classroom needs each of them can meet. The tools described in this chapter range in importance from nearly essential to “nice to have,” and in function from presenting instruction to supporting background tasks that make a classroom run smoothly. Depending on the tool and the needs of the situation, a software support tool can offer the following benefits:

• Improved efficiency and productivity • Improved appearance of product • Better accuracy and timeliness of information • More support for interaction and sharing

Types of Software Support Tools This chapter describes seven general categories of software support tools. Table 5.1 provides examples of software products under each of the following categories:

• Materials generators—Help teachers and students produce instructional materials on paper and online.

• Data collection and analysis tools—Help teachers collect and organize information to provide feedback and support decision making.

• testing and grading tools—Help teachers collect and track assessment information to measure student progress.

• graphics tools—Allow manipulation of images to illustrate documents and Web pages. • Planning and organizing tools—Help teachers and students conceptualize, organize, and

communicate their ideas. • research and reference tools—Let students look up information in electronic versions

of encyclopedias, atlases, and dictionaries. • Content- area tools—Support teaching and learning activities in various subject matter

areas.

Recent Developments in Software Support Tools Although some of these tools have been in existence for many years, they are constantly being updated with new features and capabilities. The following developments have made these tools even more useful in the classroom.

• Mobile devices—Handheld devices such as tablets and cell phones have made software tools even more portable and accessible to teachers and students, and this more portable format has made software tools even more popular.

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• web and cloud availability—Though a few software tools continue to be packaged and sold on discs, most are now available only as downloads from the Internet. Others aim for maximum access with cloud computing, which is storage outside one’s own computer on servers that are accessed through the Internet.

• Software suites—Just as word processing, spreadsheets, and presentation software are packaged together as “software suites” in order to combine their capabilities and make them easier to use together, other software tools are also available in packages matched to various needs. For example, if a teacher wanted to do complex print publications, Adobe’s Creative Suite Design Standard combines high- end desktop publishing soft- ware (Adobe InDesign) with Adobe Photoshop (image editor), Adobe Illustrator (draw- ing software), and Adobe Acrobat (portable document software). If the goal was designing full- featured Web pages, Adobe’s Creative Suite Web Premium package would include Adobe Dreamweaver and Adobe Fireworks. While these highly capable suites are fairly expensive for educators, other software suites (as well as separate software tools) are available as free downloads (see Open- Source Options).

Table 5.1 overview of software tool categories tool Category and uses example Software tools

Materials generators allow creation and use of documents, Web pages, and various lessons and exercises

• Desktop publishing software • Web design software • Interactive whiteboard software • Worksheet and puzzle generators • Iep Generators • Graphic document makers • pDF and forms makers

Data collection and analysis tools make it easier to collect and process data to provide feedback and support decision making

• Database software • Online survey software • Statistical packages • Student information systems • Student response systems

testing and grading tools allow collection and tracking of assessment information to measure student progress

• electronic gradebooks • Test generators and rubric generators • Computer- based testing systems

graphics tools allow creation of illustrations for use in documents and Web pagess and create visual data summaries

• Draw/paint programs • Image editing software • Charting and graphing tools • Media collections • Word cloud generators

Planning and organizing tools help organize ideas for writing and discussion; help organize, plan, and schedule activities

• Outlining and concept- mapping software • Lesson planning software • Calendars; scheduling and time- management tools

research and reference tools help students research on assigned topics; assist with using correct spelling and word use

• Online encyclopedias • Digital atlases and mapping tools • Digital dictionaries and thesauruses

Content- area tools support tasks specific to content areas such as technology education, music, reading, science, math, social studies, and foreign languages

• MIDI tools: music editors and synthesizers • CAD systems • reading tools • MBLs/CBLs • GpS/GIS systems • Online language translators

Technology learnIng check Complete tlC 5.1 to review what you have learned from reading this section about the categories of software tools.

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uSIng MAterIAlS generAtOrS Materials generators include desktop publishing software, Web page editors, whiteboard activity software, worksheet and puzzle generators, IEP generators, graphic document makers, and PDF and forms makers. A summary of these, with sample products and classroom uses, is shown in Table 5.2. Also see here a summary of free software tools in Open Source Options.

for Software Tools Beyond the Basics

TypeS Free SOurCeS

Materials generators

Scribus: scribus.net NVu Web design software: nvu.com Puzzle maker: discoveryeducation.com/ free- puzzlemaker/ Certificate maker: certificatemaker.com PDFforge PDF maker: pdfforge.org PageBreeze forms maker: formbreeze.com

Data collection and analysis tools

Listing of free statistical software: freestatistics.info/en

Testing and grading tools

Gradebook (Engrade): engrade.com Test generator: mytest.vocabtest.com Rubric maker—RubiStar (use program to create a rubric or use pre- made rubrics): rubistar.4teachers.org

Graphics tools Inkscape graphics editor: inkscape.org Tux Paint drawing software for kids: tuxpaint.org Gimp image editing software: gimp.org Charting/graphing tools: educational- freeware.com Free WAV sound files: thefreesite.com/Free_ Sounds/ Sourceforge font collections: sourceforge.net/projects/worldfonts Open font library: launchpad.net/openfontlibrary Free animations: free- animations.co.uk

Planning and organizing tools

OpenSIS student information system: opensis.com SchoolForge SIS: schoolforge.net Parent– teacher conference scheduler: ptcfast.com

Research and reference tools

GoldenDict: goldendict.org/ Lingoes: lingoes.net/ Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org

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Desktop Publishing Software It is perhaps ironic that one of the most useful and widely used of the technology tools is one that communicates information in a traditional medium: the printed page. By allowing teachers and students to design elaborate printed products, however, desktop publishing tools give them the important advantage of complete control over a potentially powerful form of communication. This control over the form and appearance of the printed page is the defining quality of desktop publishing, a term coined in 1984 by Paul Brainerd, founder of the Aldus Corporation, to mean using a combination of software, microcomputers, and printers to allow individuals to be their own publishers.

Desktop publishing versus word processing software. Though desktop publishing software and word processing software are different tools, it is possible to do some kinds of desktop publishing with word processing software. Just as with desktop publishing soft- ware, word processing programs allow users to mix text and graphics on each page. The primary difference between word processing software and desktop publishing software is that the latter is designed to create documents as separate pages that are then linked together; the user clicks on an icon representing each page, and only one page or facing pages display. On the other hand, word processing “flows” pages in a continuous stream through a document; the user scrolls down to view pages in the document. Because desktop publishing software allows pages to be viewed as separate units, it provides more flexibility with the placement and format of both text and graphics on individual pages.

You can use any available word processing software package to create most of the desktop publishing products you want to produce in a school environment (e.g., classroom brochures and newsletters). The more advanced layout features offered by desktop publishing software (e.g., elaborate layering of text and graphics elements) are needed only if you are teaching students how to design and lay out large, complex documents such as newspapers and books.

Example classroom applications. Desktop publishing software can be used for many of the same classroom activities and products as word processing software. Desktop

Table 5.2 overview of Materials generators tools tool Category example Software tools

Desktop publishing software: Students create their own letterhead, brochures, flyers/posters, newsletters, newspapers, and books

• Microsoft publisher • Adobe InDesign and pagemaker • Quark express

web page design software: Teachers design Web pages or websites to give information or house often- used links or lessons such as webquests; students design Web pages to learn the skill or to display results of project work or research

• Adobe Dreamweaver • Microsoft WebMatrix

whiteboard activity software: Teachers create lessons for use with interactive whiteboards

• Notebook (for use with Smart Boards) • ActivStudio or ActivInspire (for use with Prometheus Boards)

worksheet and puzzle generators: Teachers create puzzles and worksheets to allow skill practice

• Crossword puzzle Maker • Worksheet Works • Quia Web

IeP generators: Teachers create individual education plans (IEP) for special education students

• Iep Online and easyIep • Iep planet • IEP4U

graphic document makers: Teachers and students create awards, recognitions, flyers, cards, and other decorated documents

• print Shop Deluxe • Smart Draw

PDf and forms makers: Teachers and students create documents in Portable Document Format (PDF) and create forms that can be completed online

• Adobe Acrobat pro • pDF Maker pilot • Cute pDF • FormArtist professional

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publishing is the strategy of choice, however, to produce elaborate, graphic- oriented docu- ments (e.g., flyers and posters, brochures, newsletters and magazines, and books and booklets), and teachers can structure some highly motivating classroom projects around these products. Instructional benefits for desktop publishing include increases in children’s self- esteem when they publish their own work, heightened interest in writing and in motivation to write for audi- ences outside the classroom, and improved learning through small group collaboration. Here is a list of common classroom applications and ideas for implementing them:

• Practice in grammar, spelling, and communication—The activity of creating a flyer or brochure can become an opportunity to learn about designing attractive and interesting communications and to apply language usage skills.

• Methods of reporting research findings—Popular examples of using desktop publishing projects to report on students’ research include creating travel brochures that report on student exploration during field trips, descriptions of the local region, and creative descrip- tions of organizations or activities. Sometimes this type of activity represents the culmina- tion of a large project, such as a series of science experiments or a social studies research unit; sometimes it is a way for every student to contribute writing for a class project. All of these projects are highly motivational to students, and they attract “good press” for the teacher and the school.

• Opportunities for creative works—Even very young students are thrilled to produce and display their own personal books, which sometimes represent work produced over the course of a school year. Sometimes the books show creative works resulting from a competition; frequently, examples of students’ best work are collected for a particular topic or time period. Students can sell their publications as a fund- raising activity, but this kind of project also reaps other benefits for students of all abilities. Teachers report that getting published increases students’ pride in their work and makes them want to spend more time on it.

Criteria for effective desktop publishing. Desktop- published products have greater impact and communicate the author’s intent more clearly if they reflect some fairly sim- ple design criteria. These include:

• using a limited number of typefaces (fonts)—Unusual typefaces or fonts can help direct the eye toward text, but too many different fonts on a page can be distracting, and some fancy fonts are difficult to read.

• using different fonts for title and text—To aid the reader, use a serif typeface (a font with small curves or “hands and feet” that extend from the ends of the letters) for text in the main body of the document. Use a sans serif typeface, a font without extensions, for titles and headlines.

• using appropriate sizes for type—Make the type large enough to assist the reader (e.g., younger readers usually need large point sizes), but not too large to dominate the page.

• Avoiding overuse of type styles—Breaking up text with too many style changes interferes with reading. Avoid excessive underlining, boldfacing, and italics.

• Matching text and background colors—Use white or yellow type on a black block to add drama. Avoid color combinations that can be difficult to read (e.g., orange on green or red on blue).

• using visual cues—Attract reader attention to important information on the page by using frames or boxes around text; bullets or arrows to designate important points; shading of the part of the page behind the important text; different text styles (e.g., boldface or italic type); and captions for pictures and diagrams.

• using white space well—There is a saying in advertising that “white space sells.” Don’t be afraid to leave areas in a document with nothing in them at all to help focus attention on areas that do contain information.

• Creating and using graphics carefully—Use pictures and designs to focus attention and convey information, but remember that too many elaborate pictures or graphic design ele- ments can be distracting.

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▲ Teachers may use interactive whiteboard activity software to develop lessons in which students move objects around on the whiteboard or touch the screen to select or enter answers. (Photo courtesy of W. Wiencke)

• Avoiding common text format errors—Common desktop design pitfalls include using irregularly shaped text blocks and angled type, both of which are difficult to read.

• Avoiding common text break errors—Use desktop publishing software features to con- trol for widows and orphans (leftover single words and phrases at the tops or bottoms of pages) and excessive hyphenation.

Web Design Software Although educators and others can create Web pages and websites using a high- level program- ming language called HTML (which stands for hypertext markup language), it is easier and faster to use a tool called Web design software. Also known as Web page editors, these tools are authoring programs that allow people to create Web pages in the same way they would use word processing to create documents. They insert text, graphics, and hypermedia links to create the pages, and the editor software automatically creates the HTML that allows the pages to be linked together and placed on the Internet.

Teachers and students can use Web design software to create Web pages for both instruc- tional and productivity applications. Some common uses include:

• Classroom news, activities, and resources—Many teachers use HTML editors to cre- ate their own classroom websites. These are multipurpose sites with items ranging from announcements and information about current curriculum to locations from which stu- dents and/or parents may download handouts or homework. They can also have links to Internet sites that teachers know they will be using often to support instruction. For exam- ple, if they use certain puzzles and games to provide student practice, they can have part of the site that has links to these activities.

• web- based lessons—Teachers can use HTML editors to create their own instructional activities students can do on the Web. More details and examples of these lessons will be presented in Chapter 7.

• Student- produced work—Teachers may choose to have students create Web pages instead of documents to show off their creative work or research results. Students find it very moti- vating when they realize that their work will be available online and can be seen by others.

Interactive Whiteboard activity Software An interactive whiteboard is a display screen connected to a computer and digital projec- tor and allows information projected on the screen to be manipulated with special pens or one’s hands. Some systems also allow drawings or notes from a given session to be saved

and brought back later. The most popular interactive white- boards are Prometheus’ Promethean ActivBoard and SMART Technology’s SMART Board. A related device also developed by Prometheus is the SMART Table Interactive Learning Center, which is an electronic table with a touch- screen surface that several students can give input to at the same time. Each brand of interactive whiteboards comes with its own programs, called interactive whiteboard activity software, that allows teachers to author and display lessons for use with the systems. For example, the interactive whiteboard activity software used with a SMART Board is called Notebook (see Figure 5.1), and the programs used with the Promethean ActivBoard interac- tive whiteboard are called ActivStudio and ActivInspire. The programs come with a resource bank of images, graphics tools, and text tools that teachers can use to author programs in much the same way as they would use PowerPoint’s program and resources to create slides. Whiteboard activity software is required to give whiteboard lessons their interactive quali- ties. For example, teachers may use it to develop a lesson that

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allows students to move objects around on the whiteboard or touch the screen to select or enter an answer to a mathematics problem.

Companies that market interactive whiteboards pro- vide the software as a free download to those who purchase their whiteboards. Whiteboards have become very popular in schools, so this chapter includes a list of top ten ways teach- ers can use them as well as a Hot Topic for Debate that focuses on their use. For a sample lesson designed with this kind of software tool, see Technology Integration Example 5.1.

Worksheet and Puzzle Generators Teachers also use software to produce worksheets, in much the same way as they do to generate tests. Worksheet genera- tors help teachers produce exercises for practice rather than test items. Like test generator software, worksheet generator software prompts the teacher to enter questions of various kinds, but it usually offers no options for completing exercises on-screen or for grading them. In many cases, test generator software and worksheet generator software are similar enough to be used interchangeably, and some packages are intended

for both purposes. Puzzle generators automatically format and create crosswords, word search puzzles, and similar game- like activities. The teacher enters the content, and the software formats the puzzle. Refer to Table 5.2 for popular worksheet and puzzle generation sites. Common uses of worksheet and puzzle generators include:

• Practice for lower level skills, such as math facts • Cloze exercises (comprehension exercises with certain words removed and students fill in

the blanks) • Exercises to review words and definitions

Individualized education Program (IeP) Generators The increased emphasis on school and teacher accountability means more paperwork on stu- dent progress, and teachers of students with special needs seem to have the most paperwork requirements of all. Federal legislation, such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), requires that schools prepare an individualized educational program, or IEP, for each special needs student. These IEPs

In her February 2011 (vol. 8, no. 2) article in the Teacher.Net Gazette, “Top 10 Ways to Use Interactive Whiteboards in Elementary

Classrooms,” yenner says that interactive whiteboards are a break- through technology, making possible a variety of new ways to engage students and make teachers’ work more efficient. However, other authors are more critical. One post in the Innovative educator blog gave “10 Reasons to Ditch the Board,” saying whiteboards have few additional capabilities to make them worth the money. Do inter- active whiteboards have unique and powerful characteristics that energize teaching and learning, or are they being oversold? What evidence can you cite that they have (or have the potential to have) substantial impact on teacher practice and student outcomes?

Hot Topic Debate Do Classrooms Need Interactive Whiteboards?

FIGuRe 5.1 Sample Screen from SmartBoard Notebook Software

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serve as blueprints for each special student’s instructional activities, and teachers must pro- vide documentation that such a plan is on file and that it governs classroom activities. IEP generator software assists teachers in preparing IEPs (Wilson, Michaels, & Margolis, 2005). Like test and worksheet generators, IEP generators provide on-screen prompts that remind users of the required components in the plan. When a teacher finishes entering all the nec- essary information, the program prints out the IEP in a standard format. Some IEP genera- tion programs also accept data updates on each student’s progress. See also the Adapting for Special Needs feature.

Graphic Document Makers Graphic document makers are software tools that simplify the activity of making highly graphic materials, such as awards certificates and greeting cards. They offer sets of clip art and predesigned templates to which teachers and students can add their own content. For example, teachers have found certificates to be a useful kind of recognition. Certificates congratulate stu- dents for accomplishments, and the students can take them home and share them with parents and friends. Most certificate makers include numerous templates for various kinds of achieve- ments, a feature that makes teachers prefer them over word processing software for these kinds of tasks. You can select the template that is appropriate for the kind of recognition intended (e.g., completing an activity, being a first- place winner) and enter the personal information for each recipient. Also, students frequently find it motivating to use these packages to design their own certificates, cards, and flyers. The most popular of these document makers is Printshop (Broderbund). This and similar software tools are listed in Table 5.2. Though graphic docu- ment makers are still being used, word processing and drawing software packages now offer many of the same advantages, including a variety of templates for various awards.

PDF and Forms Makers Portable Document Format (PDF) file software, created by Adobe, permits the viewing and sending of documents as images. Since they are viewed as images, the PDF document displays all of the formatting and design elements (e.g., margins, graphics) of the original document without requiring access to the software used to create it. Adobe Acrobat Pro or a similar program is used to create these files, but Adobe also provides free software to read documents saved in PDF for- mat (Adobe Reader). PDF software is often used in conjunction with forms makers such as PDF Maker Pilot, a software tool that creates documents and Web pages with forms that can be filled in on-screen. Teachers find forms makers useful because they make it easier to create forms to

Example 5.1

tItle: The road to revolution

COntent AreA/tOPIC: Social studies, history

grADe levelS: 9– 12

ISte StAnDArDS•S: Standard 1—Creativity and Innovation; Standard 2—Communication and Collaboration; Standard 6— Technology Operations and Concepts

CCSS: CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.RH.9-10.2, CSS. ELA- LITERACY. RH.9-10.3, CCSS. ELA- LITERACY.RH.11-12.6

nCSS theMeS: Thematic Standards: 1- Culture and Diversity; 3 - People, Places, and Environments; 6- Power, Authority, and

Governance; Disciplinary Standards: 1 - History

DeSCrIPtIOn: Students listen to scenarios of events leading up to the revolutionary War as the teacher displays information about the events on the whiteboard. As a whole group, students choose what they would do in response to each event. each choice leads them to the next event where they see results of their choices. In the end, they reach the point where Britain closes Boston Harbor, and students must decide whether they identified most with Loyalists, patriots, or Neutralists.

SourCE: Based on a concept from the Smart exchange lesson “The road to revolution” at http:// exchange.smarttech.com.

T e c h n o l o G y I n T e G R a T I o n

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CHApTer 5 | Technology Tools for 21st Century Teaching—Beyond the Basics | 149

collect information from students, parents, or faculty or to implement surveys as part of research projects. Formatting even the simplest form can be time consuming on a word processor. These software tools structure the process and make the design simple to accomplish. As teachers create these forms, they can store them as templates for later use, perhaps with revisions.

as students enter middle school, the demands of changing class- rooms and teachers each hour challenge the organizational abilities of even the best students. Suddenly, they have to do assignments in many different subjects and must have books and folders to keep track of each subject. Fortunately, most middle schools have a school- wide system (e.g., assignment notebooks, folders, homework- help Web pages) to help students get organized and keep track of all that they are supposed to know and do. However, by October each year some students are “organizationally failing,” which makes it difficult for them to do well in their classes.

While staying organized and keeping track of important details is a lifelong challenge for everyone, difficulties with memory stor- age and retrieval is a fundamental characteristic of many individuals with learning disabilities. As a result, it is important to help these students find an information management system that is highly effective for them. Many of the following organizational tools have features that offer benefits to these students. However, please note that tools alone will not help students overcome deficits in organiza- tion and planning. Teachers and parents must commit to monitor the use of the tools and teaching new strategies to that the student can maximize the power of the tool.