Introduction to Special Education

Teaching Science to Students with Disabilities (updated July 2003)

What strategies can be used for teaching science to students with disabilities?

Teachers in inclusive classrooms regularly face the difficult task of having to modify the curriculum to reach all of their students, many of whom have special needs. Students with disabilities, whether physical, emotional, or cognitive in nature, respond to the curriculum differently from other students.

For example, depending on the disability itself and other factors affecting their ability to succeed academically, students may need modifications such as advance and graphic organizers, instructional scaffolding, additional practice and time to complete assignments, and/or alternative media (e.g., large-print materials, audiotapes, or electronic materials). Without specific modifications, the standard curricular materials can be inadequate for these students, and too frequently they can find themselves blocked from access to essential aspects of the curriculum. Teachers must adjust the materials or their presentation to break down the barriers and assist these students in learning.

The IDEA Amendments of 1997 require that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum. This legislative requirement makes the accessibility of curricular materials an issue of even greater importance than it otherwise would be. To meet the goal of equal access to the curriculum for everyone, to enable each student to engage with his or her lessons in a meaningful way, teachers must be prepared to provide useful alternatives in terms of both curricular materials and instructional delivery. Well-adapted materials without an effective method of teaching are practically useless, but with the proper tools and instructional methods, a good teacher encourages each member of the class to participate directly in the learning experience.

(From Preface, ERIC/OSEP Mini-Library on Adapting Curricular Materials. 1999. Volume 1, Toward Successful Inclusion of Students with Disabilities: The Architecture of Instruction; Volume 2, Adapting Reading and Math Materials for the Inclusive Classroom (Kindergarten through Grade Five); and Volume 3, Adapting Language Arts, Social Studies, and Science Materials for the Inclusive Classroom (Grades Six Through Eight). Mini-Library available from CEC.)

Improving the Organizational Skills of Students with Learning and Attention Problems By Elgen H. Hillman

Students with disabilities (specifically learning, attention, and behavior problems) often have difficulty with organization. Whether the students are in kindergarten or high school, they may have difficulty finding their materials or homework and need help completing tasks and organizing objects and ideas.

To help these students, teachers must teach the “how” and “why” of organization, as well as the process, and provide routine and consistency.

Prompts Help Students Have the Right Materials To begin this process, teachers should incorporate concrete prompts and picture cues in their classroom. In elementary school, pictures of books, pencils, calculators, and other tools students need can be placed at the front of the room. This can be adapted for high school. Pictures of the materials students need for class will help them determine the supplies to get from their lockers before class starts.

In addition, colors and symbols can help students learn in which order assignments should be completed and where and when to turn in assignments. For example, teachers can establish color-coded folders for homework in each subject area. If students finish their assignment early, they place it in the appropriate folder immediately or as soon as they get to school in the morning.

Colors can also help students decide what work to complete first. Set up a simple system to cue students as to the immediacy of an assignment:  Red -- do immediately, Green – homework, and Yellow – work with partner.

For these processes to work, they need repetition. Establishing a consistent routine or process for assigning and collecting class work and homework is essential.

Assignment Folders and Class Notebooks Assignment folders and class notebooks can help students organize coursework and assignments. Assignment folders/notebooks can include sections or pockets for work “To Be Completed,” “Completed,” and a “Calendar or Assignment Log.”

One can hear teachers exclaiming, “They can’t get the notebook organized.”  However, with time and effort from everyone, students can learn to keep the notebook organized. The key is daily reinforcement and assistance from everyone-–teachers, student, and parents. All of the student’s teachers need to incorporate the notebook into their classes.

The notebook can also help students bring the appropriate materials to class. It should include a plastic utensils pouch or pocket file folder that holds pens, pencils, erasers, and other necessary items. Students should have subject-specific pouches for classes as well. Math might include a protractor, calculator and ruler, while English may require a dictionary and thesaurus.

Time Management Students also need to be taught how to manage their time. They can use their assignment or class notebooks to learn this skill. When presenting work or assignments, the teacher should:

· Introduce the assignment in an organized, consistent way. 

· Help students assess the time they will need to complete the assignment.

· Include a task-specific analysis of a plan to complete the assignment. 

· Schedule time to complete the work.

To help students with these tasks several steps are required. First, teachers should present assignments with details, due dates, and, if necessary, color codes. Next, they should give students some class time to begin the homework. During this period, teachers should help students keep track of the time and how many problems they complete. This will help students schedule an appropriate amount of time to complete the assignment. Teachers can also help students understand the best way to make “to do” lists in their calendar and how these lists help them complete assignments. Large assignments should be broken down into separate tasks. Students should schedule time in their assignment books to work on each task. When they have completed a task or assignment, they should check it off.

Practice What You Preach Establishing a routine, developing appropriate student pacing, and assembling lists are organizational tools that help students and teachers. Teachers need to keep organizational strategies in mind when they plan instruction. First, teachers need to clearly establish and communicate the desired behavior or goals. Next, they should create and use daily and weekly schedules. This modeling helps students understand and appreciate time. Third, teachers should help students monitor where the class is in relation to the schedule and note what has been completed. Fourth, schedules and routines should be posted in an accessible and visible place. Finally, allow students some time at the end of class to prepare for their next class.

It bears repeating that strategies work best if they are part of the everyday routine for everyone in the class. All students can benefit from a well organized, time-managed, and orderly classroom.

 

Elgen H. Hillman is a professor at the University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg. She is a member of the Mississippi CEC.

 

Behavior Disorders/Emotional Disturbances Students who have emotional and behavioral disturbances exhibit significant behavioral excesses or deficits. These terms refer to patterns of behavior that depart significantly from the expectations of others. In recent years, "behavioral disorders" has gained favor over "emotional disturbance" as a more accurate label leading to more objective decision-making and fewer negative connotations.

IDEA defines serious emotional disturbance (SED) as "a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree, which adversely affects educational performance: An inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems."

The federal definition includes children who are diagnosed as schizophrenic, but excludes socially maladjusted children "unless it is determined that they are seriously emotionally disturbed."

WHAT ARE TYPICAL PATTERNS OF DISORDERED BEHAVIOR? There is considerable agreement about general patterns or types of disordered behavior. Achenbach suggests two discrete patterns that he calls "externalizers" (aggressive, disruptive, acting out) and "internalizers" (withdrawn, anxious, depressed). Quay identifies the following dimensions: CONDUCT DISORDERS (aggression, disobedience, irritability); PERSONALITY DISORDERS (withdrawal, anxiety, physical complaints; IMMATURITY (passivity, poor coping, preference for younger playmates); and SOCIALIZED DELINQUENCY (involvement in gang subcultures).

WHAT ARE THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS? Multidisciplinary educational teams, including parents, must design programs to meet the individual behavioral and academic needs of identified SED students. Most students can benefit from supportive treatments provided in regular programs. For others, at least temporary placements in special classrooms, schools, or institutional programs may be appropriate.

Special programs usually attempt to provide a structured environment where students experience a high degree of success; rules and routines are predictable; and students are consistently rewarded for appropriate behavior. Behavior management techniques, such as positive reinforcement, token economies, contracting, and time-out, which rely on direct measurement and monitoring of behavioral change, are commonly used in SED programs. The assessment and systematic teaching of social skills through modeling, discussion, and rehearsal are frequently used to help students increase control over their behavior and improve their relations with others. In addition, supportive therapies involving music, art, exercise, and relaxation techniques, as well as affective education, individual, and group counseling are sometimes employed to improve self-understanding, self-esteem, and self-control.

Blindness and Visual Impairment

About one in 1,000 school-aged children has a visual impairment. Most children who are visually impaired have low vision, meaning they use vision for learning along with some tactile and auditory adaptations. About 10 percent of children with visual impairments are blind; they have insufficient vision to help them learn, and their education depends on tactile and auditory methods.

Educational Curriculum

Children with visual impairment often require adaptations to access the general educational curriculum. For the student with low vision, these may include increased contrast and color highlighting, lighting adaptations, varied time requirements, optical devices, and auditory materials. A student who is blind may use Braille, tactile adaptations such as raised maps, speech access, use of real objects and materials, and auditory descriptions. Students with visual impairments may also benefit from instruction in orientation and mobility skills that are not part of the standard curriculum.

Other curricular areas important for students who are visually impaired include instruction in daily living skills, career development, communication literacy, use of assistive technology, use of functional vision, and social skills.

Reading and Information Access

Students who are visually impaired may read using one or more of the following methods:

· Standard print, which can often be read comfortably with decreased viewing distance or by using a hand magnifier or other optical devices.

· Enlarged print

· Braille

· Auditory learning, in combination with the above media or as the primary medium

The Learning Media Assessment is often used to identify a primary and secondary media for a student to use for reading and other learning activities. To be most efficient, a visually impaired student should have several ways of reading and writing.

Use of Vision

Most students with visual impairments are able to use vision for some activities. Use of vision in regular activities can be determined by a functional vision evaluation, completed by a certified teacher of visually impaired children. This assessment should include recommendations for adaptations, services, and instructional skills that will help the student learn to use vision appropriately.

The learning environment can be adapted to encourage efficient use of vision for individual learners as recommended on the functional vision evaluation. Adaptations may include

· High contrast in materials, usually best achieved by black on non-glare white background

· Color contrast or highlighting

· Even, steady lighting without glare

· Reading stands or reading positions that allow reduced viewing distances

· Use of low vision devices as prescribed by a low vision clinical evaluation, conducted by an eye specialist with low vision background:

· monoculars and telescopes for distance viewing

· hand-held or stand magnifiers that can be used for near point tasks; and

· use of technological adaptations such as closed circuit televisions (CCTVs) or screen enlargement programs for computers

Use of Senses Other Than Vision

Students who do not use vision will rely on tactile and auditory materials. Braille is the most efficient tactile code used for reading, produced in standard paper and book form, and it can be written and read using portable note takers with Braille displays or computer output. Rapid Braille readers can read as fast as print readers.

In addition, students who are blind will need opportunities for direct experiences with materials and objects.

Most students with visual impairments rely on auditory information for some part of their learning. Books on tape or CD, spoken output from the computer, and use of tape recorders for memos provide a quick means of access.

Educational Models

The most common model for providing necessary adaptations is the assignment of an itinerant teacher to serve the student directly in the regular classroom or to provide consultation to the educational team. This professional obtains specialized materials and textbooks, conducts assessments related to the visual impairment such as the functional visual evaluation, and collaborates with the educational team.

In some cases, children with visual impairments are educated in separate classrooms or specialized schools. Some specialized schools encourage short-term placements for students who need to work on a specific skill such as orientation and mobility or assistive technologies.  Specialized schools may offer summer programs that allow students with visual impairments to socialize with peers who have common experiences.

Children with visual impairments vary widely in their learning abilities and needs, and educational support from a professional in visual impairment is vital in their learning. As they grow older, it is important for them to have contact with adults who are visually impaired and to have the opportunity to participate in regular work experiences.

This publication is a product of the ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education are in the public domain and may be freely reproduced and disseminated, but please acknowledge your source. This digest was prepared with funding from the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), U.S. Department of Education, under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0026. The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of IES or the Department of Education.

 

Children with Communication Disorders

What is a Communication Disorder?

Children with communication disorders have deficits in their ability to exchange information with others. A communication disorder may occur in language, speech, and/or hearing. Language difficulties include spoken language, reading and/or writing difficulties. Speech encompasses such areas as articulation and phonology (the ability to speak clearly and be intelligible), fluency (stuttering), and voice. Hearing difficulties may also encompass speech problems (e.g., articulation or voice) and/or language problems. Hearing impairments include deafness and hearing loss.

Communication disorders may result from many different conditions. For example, language-based learning disabilities are the result of a difference in brain structure present at birth. This particular difficulty may be genetically based. Other communication disorders stem from oral-motor difficulties (e.g., an apraxia or dysarthria of speech), aphasias (difficulties resulting from a stroke which may involve motor, speech and/or language problems), traumatic brain injuries, and stuttering, which is now believed to be a neurological deficit. The most common conditions that affect children's communication include language-based learning disabilities, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactive disorder, cerebral palsy, mental disabilities, cleft lip or palate, and autism spectrum disorders.

Characteristics of Children with Communication Disorders

A child with a communication problem may present many different symptoms. These may include difficulty following directions, attending to a conversation, pronouncing words, perceiving what was said, expressing oneself, or being understood.

Problems with language may involve difficulty expressing ideas coherently, learning new vocabulary, understanding questions, following directions, recalling information, understanding and remembering something that has just been said, reading at a satisfactory pace, comprehending spoken or read material, learning the alphabet, identifying sounds that correspond to letters, perceiving the correct order of letters in words, and possibly, spelling. Difficulties with speech may include being unintelligible due to a motor problem or due to poor learning. Sounding hoarse, breathy or harsh may be due to a voice problem. Stuttering also affects speech intelligibility because the child's flow of speech is interrupted.

Many communication problems can be improved by therapy. Some problems may never be "cured," but children can learn new strategies to overcome their difficulties. Some children may be able to overcome their deficits as they grow older (mild language delays), while others may compensate by communicating through electronic means.

Educational Implications of Communications Disorders

A strong relationship exists between communication and academic achievement. Language and communication proficiency, along with academic success, depend on whether students can match their communication to the learning-teaching style of the classroom. Students with communication disorders are capable of high academic success if they learn the classroom's social, language, and learning patterns. Teachers and speech-language pathologists should focus their attention on classroom interactions and the language and communications used in the school to help students learn to communicate in these environments. Explicit language and communication planning as well as non-deliberate language use (e.g., unconscious choice of language) are important features of the school and class environments.

Learning Disabilities

Individuals with LD generally have average or above average intelligence, yet they often do not achieve at the same academic level as their peers. Weaker academic achievement, particularly in reading, written language, and math, is perhaps the most fundamental characteristic of  LD. Significant deficits often exist in memory, metacognition, and social skills as well.

Reading

Individuals who have LD in reading have difficulties decoding or recognizing words (e.g., letter/sound omissions, insertions, substitutions, reversals) or comprehending them (e.g., recalling or discerning basic facts, main ideas, sequences, or themes). They also may lose their places while reading or reading in a choppy manner.

Another term used for reading disabilities is dyslexia. Dyslexia is best understood as a type of reading disability. During early childhood, children with dyslexia have difficulties learning spoken language. Later they have trouble decoding and spelling words and, consequently, are likely to experience comprehension problems also. A reading disability affects every aspect of an individual's life, from the early years of school when children learn to read, to later years when students are expected to read in order to learn specific content, and into the community, home, and workplace where every person needs to acquire and understand written information.

Written Language

For students with LD, problems in written language can occur in handwriting, spelling, sentence structure, vocabulary usage, volume of information produced, and organization of written ideas.  Many students with LD in reading also have difficulty writing, since both areas are language-based.

Math

Poor math achievement may appear in difficulties differentiating numbers and copying shapes, recalling math facts, writing numbers legibly or in small spaces, and relating math terms to meaning. Other weak areas may include abstract reasoning and metacognition, including identifying, using, and monitoring the use of algorithms to solve math problems.

Memory

Some people with LD have weaknesses in working memory. They have difficulty processing information so that it can be stored in long-term memory. Difficulties in working memory can lead to difficulties in long-term memory when a person needs to search for and retrieve knowledge.

Metacognition

Individuals with LD may have deficits in metacognition, the awareness of how one thinks and the monitoring of one's thinking.  Many individuals with LD do not know many effective cognitive strategies for acquiring, processing, storing, and demonstrating understanding of information.

Social and Behavioral Characteristics

Students with LD may demonstrate social or behavioral challenges. Some exhibit fewer socially acceptable behaviors than peers, are unable to predict consequences for behaviors, misinterpret social cues, or are less likely to adapt their behavior to different social situations. Coupled with academic weaknesses, this experience can lead to lowered self-perceptions of competence or worth. Others who have LD have difficulty sitting at a desk for long periods to attend to tasks and may develop social or behavioral problems in response to their frustration with learning tasks.

Prevalence

More than 50 percent of the students receiving special education services in the United States have LD. The number of students identified as having LD and receiving special education services has more than doubled since the original passage of IDEA in 1975. Some educators estimate that between 5 and 10 percent of children between ages 6 and 17 have LD.

Program Options

Most students with LD receive the majority of their education in the general education classroom. However, a continuum of school services should be available to meet each individual student's needs. Support in the general education classroom can exist in the form of a special educator co-teaching with or serving as a consultant to the general educator. Students may also receive services in a resource room or a special classroom. In addition, special schools are available for students whose needs cannot be met in the regular school. The Individualized Education Program team determines where a student with learning disabilities will receive special education services.

Traumatic Brain Injury

A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an injury to the brain caused by the head being hit by something or shaken violently. This injury can change how the person acts, moves, and thinks. A traumatic brain injury can also change how a student learns and acts in school.

The term TBI is used for head injuries that can cause changes in one or more areas, such as: thinking and reasoning, understanding words, remembering things, paying attention, solving problems, thinking abstractly, talking, behaving, walking and other physical activities, seeing and/or hearing, and learning.

When children with TBI return to school, their educational and emotional needs are often very different than before the injury. Their disability has happened suddenly and traumatically. They can often remember how they were before the brain injury. This can bring on many emotional and social changes. The child's family, friends, and teachers also recall what the child was like before the injury. These other people in the child's life may have trouble changing or adjusting their expectations of the child. The following tips may assist teachers in working with these students:

· Find out as much as you can about the child's injury and his or her present needs. Find out more about TBI.

· Give the student more time to finish schoolwork and tests.

· Give directions one step at a time. For tasks with many steps, it helps to give the student written directions.

· Show the student how to perform new tasks. Give examples to go with new ideas and concepts.

· Have consistent routines. This helps the student know what to expect. If the routine is going to change, let the student know ahead of time.

· Check to make sure that the student has actually learned the new skill. Give the student lots of opportunities to practice the new skill.

· Show the student how to use an assignment book and a daily schedule. This helps the student get organized.

· Realize that the student may get tired quickly. Let the student rest as needed.

· Reduce distractions.

· Keep in touch with the student's parents. Share information about how the student is doing at home and at school.

· Be flexible about expectations. Be patient. Maximize the student's chances for success.

Mental Retardation

Mental retardation is as a statement about an individual's present level of functioning, with two primary features:

· Limitations in intelligence

· Limitations in adaptive behavior

The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), offered the following definition of mental retardation in 2002 in its 10th edition of the AAMR reference manual on definition and terminology (Luckasson, Borthwick-Duffy, Buntinx, Coulter, Craig, Reeve, et al.):

Mental retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills.

This disability originates before age 18.

An accurate diagnosis of mental retardation requires three components:

· An IQ score of approximately 70 or below

· A determination of deficits in adaptive behavior

· Origins of the disability prior to age 18.

Levels of Mental Retardation

Traditionally mental retardation has been divided into four levels of severity, based largely on IQ scores:

· Mild mental retardation, IQ scores from 70 to 55/50

· Moderate mental retardation, IQ scores from 55/50 to 40/35

· Severe mental retardation, IQ scores from 40/35 to 25/20

· Profound mental retardation, IQ scores below 25/20

Typically these levels are used more in clinical settings. In school settings, terms such as "severe disabilities" or "profound disabilities" are more commonly found.

Causes

Individuals with mild mental retardation typically do not have any specific physical or medical cause for the limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. In these cases the cause is more likely to be heredity, early environment, or some combination thereof. One exception to this is fetal alcohol syndrome, wherein women who drink alcohol during their pregnancies are at high risk of giving birth to babies with mild to severe intellectual impairment, as well as other problems such as ADHD. As a general rule, the more severe the mental retardation is, the more likely it is to have an identifiable medical or physical cause. These include chromosomal abnormalities such as Down Syndrome and Fragile X, metabolic disorders, and other conditions that result in insult and injury to the brain and central nervous system.

Characteristics In general, people with mental retardation are less efficient at learning than are other people. This impairment in learning efficiency is roughly consistent with overall IQ level. Specific cognitive deficits often exist in such areas as memory, attention, or language.

In addition, individuals with severe mental retardation are more likely to have brain damage, which in turn is associated with such physical disabilities as cerebral palsy and seizure disorders (epilepsy) and their associated physical characteristics.

Educational and Adult Programs IDEA entitles every child with mental retardation from age 3 through 21 to a free appropriate public education through an individualized education program (IEP).

Students diagnosed with mental retardation and receiving special education services should be provided with access to the general education curriculum, so they can interact with and learn from and alongside typical classmates. This can be achieved through accommodations and modifications to the classroom's curriculum and instruction. Special attention should be given to the development of functional academic skills for these students. Functional academics refer to reading and mathematics skills that are used frequently in everyday life (e.g., reading signs or instructions, counting change, or taking measurements).

As these individuals move to secondary education settings, the curriculum should take on a stronger career preparation and life skills emphasis. It is increasingly expected that adults with mental retardation will work in inclusive work settings alongside typical workers with supports provided there as needed, and that these individuals will live in residential programs that represent the sorts of homes that most people live in.

This publication is a product of the ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education. ERIC Digests are in the public domain and may be freely reproduced and disseminated, but please acknowledge your source. This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0026. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or the Department of Education.