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Boyhood rituals always mark the end of puberty and childhood, and the start of manhood. It is for this reason that male initiation is still so prevalent in South African society, since any man, no matter his age, will always be considered immature and a child if he has not undergone initiation. This view is, however, changing. Fotozone

Birth the door to life

Some of the most emotional times in any woman's life occur during pregnancy and childbirth. Every precaution is taken to ensure the health of both the newborn infant and the mother, before and after birth. Rituals play an important part in maintaining this prosperity, especially if it is a woman's first pregnancy.

There exist a myriad of taboos and rules that a woman has to follow, and each of these could be likened to a phase in the process of initiation. Among certain tribes a woman will be relieved from her duties at a certain stage of pregnancy and cared for by her mother and other older women who are past menopause. She will be secluded in her hut, washing herself with special herbal infusions and eating only certain foods.

When a woman goes into labour, charms and magic spells are usually applied for protection and offerings made to the ancestors to appease them, should they be angry for any reason and want to jeopardise the birth. As soon as the baby is born, it is taken away from the mother by an older woman and given a watery porridge to eat - its first taste of earthly food. This is done to strengthen the newborn child, as well as to bind him to his new existence.

Both the mother and child will be ritually washed with herbs to signify the entrance into a new state. For a woman, birth is a very important event, initiating her into a higher status within the community. This is especially true if it is a woman's first child. She will receive a special name, usually meaning "mother of…". After giving birth, a woman has become a mother - someone who has wisdom and authority - and only then has she been fully initiated into womanhood.

Rites of passage

The most common initiation practices in South Africa are the rites de passage (rites of passage) of pre-adolescent boys and girls. These take place annually in some cultures or every third or fourth year in others. It is usually a mass ceremony, lasting from one or two weeks to about three months, though individual initiation ceremonies do exist - normally among girls.

Initiation into manhood

In the past initiation schools were held when boys reached adolescence, that is, between ten to fourteen years of age. With the introduction of formal schooling the average age of a male initiate may now range from seventeen to twenty-one, and is usually done after matriculation and before further studies or formal work. The length of some of these initiation schools had also been affected by the education system, having been reduced from as long as one year to less than one week.

Boyhood rituals always mark the end of puberty and childhood, and the start of manhood. It is for this reason that male initiation is still so prevalent in South African society, since any man, no matter his age, will always be considered immature and a child if he has not undergone initiation. This view is, however, changing, especially in urban communities where Western influence is fast encroaching on traditional values. In the majority of South African cultures that practice initiation similar rituals are performed. These rituals may be divided into two stages: the work period and the veld period.

Although details differ in all the cultures, the work period is one of instruction in the ways of manhood. Often the young boys will live in a chief's kraal for the duration of this period and work for him, tending his cattle, goats and fields. They also have their own secret language, which they only use among themselves. Usually in the evenings they are given lessons on behaviour, and their traditions are taught to them through stories.

This phase of the initiation process lasts from a few days to several months, after which the boys then enter the second phase of their initiation.

This is the best-known phase of the initiation, as well as the most often witnessed. During the veld period schoolboys of a certain age group or range come together to live in the bush. Here they undergo their final transformation from boys into men, and they endure extreme discomfort and hardship to prepare them for adulthood.

Among the Sotho-, Venda-, Ndebele- and Xhosa-speaking tribes, the initiates are taken "into the mountains", which actually means to be concealed. No women or children are allowed to watch or follow the boys as they leave their homes. When they reach their camp they have to build their own shelters out of grass, wood, branches, or anything they can find. The initiates are taught tribal laws, customs, respect for their seniors and the art of war by the older men; they also have to learn how to hunt and fend for themselves.

The veld schools normally end when the boys are circumcised, thus cutting them free from their childhood. In some cultures, circumcision takes place at the beginning of the veld school. In 1780 Shaka replaced initiation schools and abolished circumcision among the Zulu in favour of training the young boys in the art of war, thus preparing them for his expansionist military reign (or Difaqane).

Initiation into womanhood

Female initiation in South Africa can take on the form of either communal ceremonies or individual occasions. The most common communal ceremonies are those of the Venda vusha and domba, the Swazi reed dance and the Ndebele and Pedi bojale. The Zulu, Xhosa and other Nguni cultures (except the Ndebele) all have ceremonies that are more individual - with initiation taking place as each individual reaches puberty.

With the onset of her first menarche cycle, a girl has to attend these initiation ceremonies. There she will be instructed in matters relating to sexual behaviour, tribal etiquette, wifely duties, married life and agriculture. The teaching of these matters is left in the hands of the most senior women in the village, as the custodians of tradition.

Unlike the boys' initiation, which takes place outside in the field, the girls are usually housed in a special hut built for the occasion. These huts are situated in or near the chief's kraal. During this period the girls are secluded, sometimes smeared with white or ochre clay, and forbidden to speak with any male person. Strict dietary rules exist during this time and the girls endure almost merciless discipline.

After the initiation period the girls receive new clothes from their mothers, shave off their hair and receive new names signifying their adult status. Unlike the greater part of Africa, female circumcision and clitoridectomy (female genital mutilation) is not practised in any South African culture. The initiates pass from childhood into adulthood with dignity and self-respect.

Death - return to the ancestors

The last form of initiation any person may go through - apart from initiation as a healer or diviner (see information box) - is that of death. It is the final passage of time, succeeding old age. The belief in life after death is evident among all cultures in South Africa. To die means to become an initiate of the ancestors (Badimo/ AmaDlozi). After death a person becomes a spiritual entity that may decide on earthly matters, cause good or bad luck, preside over a good harvest and protect children.

When a person dies, an elaborate funeral is held to start the process of initiation into the spirit world. It is long farewell occasion, singing the praises of the deceased and asking him or her to remember those left behind. The deceased person's spirit (Moya/ Isitunzi) lives close to its old home for a short while before it finally moves to the spirit world. To facilitate this, another ceremony must be held, which may be considered the final stage of incorporating the spirit into the world of the ancestors. If this last ceremony is not performed properly, the spirit-turned-ancestor could become angry and cause misfortune.

Johan Nel