Industrial Revolution

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Part

Third Edition

The West: A Narrative History

The West: A Narrative History, Third Edition Frankforter • Spellman

Europe Triumphant:

1815 to 1914

Gustave Caillebotte (French 1848–1894), Paris Street Scene: Rainy Weather, 1877. Oil on Canvas. 831⁄2” × 1083⁄4” (212.2 × 276.2 cm). Charles H. and Mary F. S. Worcester Collection, 1964. 336. Photograph © 2006,The Art Institute of Chicago. All Rights Reserved.

Timeline

Timeline (continued)

Chapter

Third Edition

The West: A Narrative History

The West: A Narrative History, Third Edition Frankforter • Spellman

Industry, Society, and Environment

Key Question: Humans and
Nature in the Industrial Age

Less than two centuries ago, a small fraction of the world's population entered into a new relationship with the natural environment.
The nature of work and the environments in which it was performed changed dramatically in this period, raising new questions about human society.

Key Question: Humans and
Nature in the Industrial Age

Does work in a large, impersonal setting undermine both the dignity of the individual and the integrity of a community?

Women's Work Women workers, with barely enough room to maneuver, stoop over piles of cloth in a vast hat factory in Manchester, England around 1900.

From Rural to Urban
Lifestyles in Europe

In 1800, Europe had just 20 cities with populations over 100,000, but by 1900 almost 150 such cities existed in Europe.
Most Europeans lost their close connection with the natural environment, becoming residents of large cities and grim factory towns, where food was consumed far away from where the farmer had produced it.

From Rural to Urban
Lifestyles in Europe

The Industrial Revolution began first in Britain due to the convergence of key economic, political, and social factors.
Governments aided industrialization with stable currencies, uniform laws, and favorable tariff policies.

Map 18–1 The Industrial Revolution in Europe Industrial growth was dependent on abundant supplies of coal and iron ore. Railroads facilitated the movement of raw materials, finished goods, and people. New manufacturing centers emerged across Western Europe during the nineteenth century.

Agriculture, Demographics,
and Labor

In close contact with the rhythm of nature, Europeans had worked their land for centuries in a manner that was both physically demanding and technologically unsophisticated.
A sustained increase in population throughout the 18th century encouraged farmers to intensify traditional methods.

Agriculture, Demographics,
and Labor

Increased agricultural output was allied to the general peace between 1815 and 1914, as most of Europe avoided the civilian hardships associated with military occupations and conflict.
Inventors and entrepreneurs were inspired to look for ways to increase productive capacity.

Lincolnshire Ox England's “agricultural revolution” of the 1700s enabled it to take the lead in the Industrial Revolution later in the century. The “Lincolnshire Ox” was an enormous, 3,000-pound animal that represented British advances in breeding and other agricultural techniques.

Chicago Packinghouse at the Turn of the Century The meatpacking industry epitomized some of the social ills that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Social reformers like the American socialist Upton Sinclair brought attention to the dangerous and squalid working conditions in packinghouses.

Innovations in Production

The effective employment of steam and coal in place of water power to drive textile machines and operate iron-smelting furnaces meant that centers of production no longer needed to be situated near running water.
Factories were now portable and could be constructed near population centers.

Innovations in Production

The substitution of inanimate fossil fuels (coal and later petroleum) for water power and human energy would transform Europeans' relationship with their environment.
Steam power would revolutionize transportation networks over land (with locomotive engines and railroads) and by sea (with steamships).

Unskilled Labor Operating Power Looms By 1830, the cotton industry had become completely mechanized. Women and children were employed at low wages, and hand weavers were supplanted by unskilled workers.

The Third Class Carriage By the mid-nineteenth century, railway travel featured a variety of accommodations. In this 1862 painting, the artist foregrounds the simple dignity of working-class people crowded into cars equipped with hard, wooden benches. Honore Daumier, French, (1808–79). The Third Class Carriage, Oil on Canvas, H 25.75 x35.5” (65.4 x 90.2 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer Collection 1929, (29.100.129). Photograph © 1992 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Third Class Carriage By the mid-nineteenth century, railway travel featured a variety of accommodations. In this 1862 painting, the artist foregrounds the simple dignity of working-class people crowded into cars equipped with hard, wooden benches. Honore Daumier, French, (1808–79). The Third Class Carriage, Oil on Canvas, H 25.75 x 35.5” (65.4 x 90.2 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer Collection 1929, (29.100.129). Photograph © 1992 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Second-Generation Power
and Industry

During the final decades of the 19th century, a second phase, anchored in the chemical, electrical, and petroleum industries, accelerated the process of industrialization.
The popularity of the portable internal combustion engine increased European demand for oil, and electric light helped inaugurate round-the-clock shift work, again reshaping the lives of the working class in factories.

Second-Generation Power
and Industry

Universities and highly trained specialists took the lead in researching “cutting edge” technologies, and applying them to industrial production.

Key Inventions of the Industrial Revolution

The Social Consequences
of Industrialization

“Workers” were transformed into a “proletariat,” those who were entirely dependent on wage labor for their survival.
Relationships between factory owners and their employees became impersonal and limited to the workplace.

The Social Consequences
of Industrialization

In the factory, the whistle, time clock, and automated machine (that never grew tired), imposed a new discipline that was oppressive and monotonous.
Hired to work long (sometimes 16-hour) shifts, workers were not represented among government officials and faced unprecedented challenges in their daily lives.

Map 18–2 Manchester, England A major textile-producing city, Manchester was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution. In 1800, 75,000 people lived in the city. Fifty years later the population had increased to over 300,000.

Dominion over Nature

Factory life and the use of tireless machines to produce goods changed the relationship between individuals and the natural world.
More than half of Britain's population did not work in agriculture or live in the countryside by 1850.

Dominion over Nature

Preservation of the natural environment was not a public priority, and few inventors considered the harmful side effects of industry.
Dickens described, in fiction, the shattered lives of industrial workers in ugly and unhealthy cities: e.g., his “Coketown” contains a purple, evil-smelling river and smoke-caked brick buildings.

Interior of Crystal Palace The exhibit hall of the Crystal Palace (1851) showcased the latest technology and labor-saving devices of the industrial era.

Women, Children, and Immigrants

In the family economy of rural Europe, women worked in or near the home, but industrialism meant that women could become wage laborers in mills and factories separate from the rest of their household.
Women earned half of what their male counterparts were paid.

Women, Children, and Immigrants

Like children and recent U.S. immigrants, they were thought to be more compliant than native-born adult males and less likely to unionize and agitate for higher wages.

Industrial Empire Aerial view of the Krupp armaments factories in Essen, Germany. Marc Charmet/Picture Desk, Inc./Kobal Collection

Trolley Boys Until child labor laws were enacted and enforced, youngsters were employed in factories and mines. Orphans and pauper children were especially vulnerable to this type of exploitation. In this illustration, young children remove coal from a mine shaft on a trolley. The mine shaft is illuminated by candelight.

Working-Class Organizations and Government Policy

In most industrialized countries, wages were creeping up for the average laborer, but working conditions remained poor.
Despite sporadic victories of organized workers, most of Europe's labor force remained outside of unions by 1914.
The movement for universal primary education was also strongest where industrialization was most entrenched.

Working-Class Organizations and Government Policy

Industrialization may also have been related to the liberalization of political participation, as efforts to improve the lives of the working class appeared most prominently in highly industrialized areas.

Pupils and Teachers The Reverend Thomas Guthrie (1803–1873) was an ardent social reformer in Scotland in the middle of the nineteenth century. Among his many causes, he championed the creation of non‐sectarian schools. Guthrie can be seen here standing at a blackboard, accompanied by a female aid, instructing young pupils at the Ragged School in Edinburgh, Scotland. One of Guthrie's former pupils said that “he was all the father I ever knew.”

Pupils and Teachers The Reverend Thomas Guthrie (1803–1873) was an ardent social reformer in Scotland in the middle of the nineteenth century. Among his many causes, he championed the creation of non-sectarian schools. Guthrie can be seen here standing at a blackboard, accompanied by a female aid, instructing young pupils at the Ragged School in Edinburgh, Scotland. One of Guthrie's former pupils said that “he was all the father I ever knew.”

Key Question Revisited

Prior to industrialization, work had taken place in close connection with the natural environment, as the work routine was regulated by available sunlight, the condition of the soil, and climatic variables.
In the 19th century, these traditional patterns were replaced by a capital-intensive economy based on manufacturing.

Key Question Revisited

Nonrenewable natural resources such as coal and oil were depleted at a fast pace, and renewable resources like water and timber were consumed at an unsustainable rate.
Was industrialization, on balance, worth the environmental costs?