Research Paper
harryycool
ImpactofICTonPolicies.pdf
Martina Eckardt
The Impact of ICT on Policies, Politics, and Polities
– An Evolutionary Economics Approach to
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
2014
Andrássy Working Paper Series No 32
ISSN 1589-603X
1
The Impact of ICT on Policies, Politics, and Politi es
– An Evolutionary Economics Approach to
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
A former version of this paper was presented at the conference
“A Political Crisis in Europe – Direct Democratic Answers”, Budapest, 3.-5. May 2012
Martina Eckardt*
Abstract
Information and communication technologies (ICT) are shaping our everyday lives
both as consumers as well as in the work place. But it is of a rather recent date that
ICT also show a more than trivial impact on the political sphere, which is characterized
by collective decision-making. Assessing the potential influence of ICT on policies,
politics and polities thus is the focus of this paper. It becomes even more difficult,
because ICT are not a set of uniform technologies, but consist of a number of separate
technological components which are still evolving. This paper provides a clear
conceptual approach in analyzing and evaluating the on-going processes of change at
the different levels ICT brings about. By applying an evolutionary economics approach
we discuss ICT in regard to its potential with respect to policies, politics and polities.
We firstly ask what impact ICT have on policies as the outcome of the policy-making
process under given political institutions. Secondly, we analyze what influence ICT
have on the policy-making process itself, again assuming given political institutions
defining this process. Finally, we also touch the question what impact ICT have on the
underlying constitutional institutions, defining the polity. We conclude with a summary
and an outlook on further research questions.
Topics: Information and Communication Technology, Policy Innovations, Public
Economics
JEL-Classification: H11, L86, O31, P34
2
The Impact of ICT on Policies, Politics, and Politi es
– An Evolutionary Economics Approach to
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
Martina Eckardt
2014
Andrássy Working Paper Series No. 32
ISSN 1589-603X Edited by the Professors and Readers of Andrássy Gy ula University, Budapest This series present ongoing research in a preliminary form. The authors bear the entire responsibility for papers in this series. The views expressed therein are the authors’, and may not reflect the official position of the University. The copyright for all papers appearing in the series remains with the authors. Author’s address and affiliation: Prof. Dr. Martina Eckardt Andrássy Universität Budapest Pollack Mihály tér 3 H-1088 Budapest E-Mail: [email protected] © by the authors
3
1. Introduction
Information and communication technologies (ICT) are not new. For some decades
now they have been shaping our everyday lives both as consumers as well as in the
work place. ICT provided us – and are still doing so – with new goods and services as
well as with new ways of producing them. But it is of a rather recent date that ICT also
show a more than trivial impact on the political sphere, which is characterized not by
market relations but by political, and that is collective decision-making.
During the so-called “Arab Spring” in 2011 Twitter proved very prominent in mobilizing
people in autocratic regimes, thus furthering processes of democratization in the Arab
world. It raised a lot of hopes and fuelled a lot of optimism as to the direct democratic
potential of applying ICT in politics. Now the latest news on the widespread collection
of information by secret services from democratic states like the UK and the US on
other democracies like Germany, France and the EU show quite the opposite face of
ICT. ICT open up new ways of endangering data privacy, thus also putting civil liberties
at risk. In this way eventually it also jeopardizes political rights and thus the basis of
democracy.
Assessing the potential influence of ICT on policies, politics and polities becomes even
more difficult, because ICT are not a set of uniform technologies, but consist of a
number of separate technological components. To make things even more
complicated, these single components are still in a process of fundamental change.
ICT are still not mature technologies, but such that are characterized by ongoing
innovations. Since such innovation processes are in turn shaped by economic factors,
any attempt to make a prediction of the overall impact of ICT on politics is doomed to
failure.
Stated that how then can we proceed? Of course, there is an obvious need to assess
the potential impact of ICT on the political system. Therefore this paper provides a
clear conceptual approach that assists in analyzing and evaluating the on-going
processes of change at the different levels ICT bring about. To this end we apply an
evolutionary economics approach which enables one to deal with open-ended
innovation processes. Section 2 introduces this approach and applies it to ICT. In
section 3 we discuss ICT in more detail in regard to the direct democratic potential with
respect to policies, politics and polities. We firstly ask what impact ICT have in this
respect on policies as the outcome of the policy-making process under given political
institutions. Secondly, we analyze what influence ICT have on the policy-making
process itself, again assuming given political institutions defining this process. Finally,
we also touch the question what impact ICT have on the underlying constitutional
institutions, defining the polity. Section 4 summarizes and provides an outlook on
4
further research questions.
2. ICT from an Evolutionary Economics Perspective
Evolutionary Economics explicitly deals with the generation and diffusion of
innovations (Nelson 1995, Fagerberg/ Mowery/ Nelson 2005). As Schumpeter (1952)
stated innovations include both novel or improved products and services, novel or
improved production processes (incl. technologies / material), novel or improved forms
of organization and novel markets. Carrying out any of such kind of innovation is part
of entrepreneurial activity. This is not confined to “entrepreneurs” as leaders or
managers of companies, but takes place whenever someone (re-)combines known
elements in a novel way. This might be the outcome of a deliberative process, but can
also result from chance – due to the creativity inherent in any human action.
Accordingly, innovations are ubiquitous, leading to the permanent generation of new
varieties of products and services in the economic sphere, but also to new varieties of
policies and even to the permanent generation of novel legal rules generated, for
example, in the course of jurisdiction. Besides this permanent stream of gradual
change, there are also more radical innovations leading to breaks with traditional
paths. However, evolutionary economics shows that even with a radical new
technology it takes time until people have learned how to utilize its potential to its
fullest.
Evolutionary economics refers to a variation-selection-retention approach (Fagerberg
2005, Metcalfe 1998). It enables one to make statements about the potential results of
such on-going innovation processes, which are characterized both by chance and
intention despite their openness. With respect to the underlying variation processes
one analyzes what impact different forms of innovation systems, for example, have on
generating innovations. But not all innovations are viable. Whether they are adopted,
depends on the relevant selection environment. The selection mechanisms in place
decide on which novel varieties “survive”. Thus, the latter are not superior in any
absolute sense, but only relatively, that is with respect to the selection mechanisms in
place at a given time and for a given selection environment. But even for such a
“successful” innovation to be replicated over time, some kind of retention mechanism
must be in place preventing that its characteristics are not “forgotten”.
When applying this approach to markets, companies are the actors generating
innovations in the form stated above by competing for consumers’ buying power. The
relevant market delimits the selection environment, with the kind and intensity of
competition defining the selection mechanism. Depending on the market cycle, market
structure and the respective goods and services supplied, competition can take
5
different forms, like for example competition for price, quantity or quality, with different
outcomes on monopolistic or oligopolistic markets. Consumers finally decide on which
goods and services are successful by at the same time rewarding and punishing
companies by (not) purchasing their products. Successful products “survive” over time
in markets, because companies react to the incentives set by consumers. Companies
which make money with their products keep on offering them over time. In contrast to
that, less successful companies change their behaviour. They might either adopt a
variant of the successful products, thus imitating other companies, or generating novel
types themselves. Thus, a process of innovation and imitation takes place, leading to
a steady change in the composition of the products but also of the companies in the
relevant market.
Technological change proves most important for economic development over the last
200 years. According to Dosi (1982, 151f.) a technology consists of “a set of pieces of
knowledge, both directly ‘practical’ (related to concrete problems and devices) and
‘theoretical’ (but practically applicable although not necessarily already applied), know-
how, methods, procedures, experience of successes and failures and also ... physical
devices and equipment. ... (T)echnology, in this view, includes the ‘perception’ of a
limited set of possible technological alternatives and of notional future developments.“
The different forms a technology can take are, however, not arbitrary, but constrained
by the underlying technological paradigm. It “embodies strong prescriptions on the
directions of technical change to pursue and those to neglect“ (Dosi 1982, 152). Within
a given technological paradigm over time the actually realized technical solutions
constitute a trajectory. This is “the pattern of ‘normal’ problem solving activity ... on the
ground of a paradigm” (ibid.). This whole evolutionary process again is characterized
by innovations, where “(a)n innovation is typically one step in a sequence of
innovations within a particular technological regime. Post-innovative improvements
play a vital role in increasing the rate of diffusion within existing applications, and
extending the technology to new applications“ (Metcalfe 1988, 562).
When analysing in more detail such process of technological change, one finds that
there are a lot of different actors and institutions cooperate. Complex technologies are
the outcome of national systems of innovation. These are “(t)he network of institutions
in the public- and private-sectors whose activities and interactions initiate, import,
modify and diffuse new technologies” (Freeman 1987 according to OECD 1997, 10).
As a consequence, there are strong interdependences between technological,
economic and political / institutional change over time.
Such co-evolution also plays an important role in regard to information and
communication technologies (ICT) (Freeman/Louca 2001, Fransman 2010). To grasp
6
the potential impact of ICT on direct democracy, one has to correctly capture its main
components. In this paper we follow the approach taken by Fransman (2010, 21ff.),
who perceives the whole ICT sector as a kind of ecosystem, thus allowing for complex
interactions between a number of heterogeneous agents. According to him reference
to six functional layers are best suited to describe the current structure of the ICT sector
(see Table 1). The basic layer consists of networked elements, which provide
telecommunication equipment as well as computer hard- and software. They feed into
the networks of layer 2, which are increasingly substitutable. With the Transmission
Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), connection between hitherto separate
networks became possible; leading to the emergence of new firms offering new
services (layer 3 to 5). But only with the supply of easy to navigate software (browsers)
(layer 4), the possibility to use different networks over the TCP/IP-interface became
widespread. The actors on all these layers differ. However, there is permanent
interaction between them, with market processes and thus economic incentives
dominating.
Table 1: The six-layer ICT system by Fransman (2010)
Layer Function with selected sectors (company examples in parentheses)
Layer 6 Final consumption
Layer 5 Content, applications and services (e.g. Yahoo!, eBay, YouTube, Amazon, Skype)
Layer 4 Middleware, navigation (browsers), search and innovation platforms (e.g. Google, Baidu)
Layer 3 Internet connectivity: Internet access and service providers (e.g. Tiscali, Orange, T-Online)
TCP/IP - Layer
Layer 2 Network Operating:
1) Core network operators: Telecom operators (fixed and mobile), TV cable operators, Broadcasters (terrestrial, satellite), Others (electricity firms, e.g.)
2) Access network operators: fixed, cellular mobile, other wireless 8e.g. BT. France Télécom, Vodafone)
Layer 1 Networked Elements:
1) Devices: Microprocessors, memories; others (e.g. intel, AMD; NEC; TSMC)
2) Systems: Telecoms equipment incl. routers and servers, computer hardware and system software, consumer electronics incl. mobile phones, digital cameras etc. (e.g. Ericsson, Alcatel-Lucent, Samsung)
Source: Own composition according to Fransman (2010, 32, exhibit 2.4).
Although the origin of the ICT system goes back to the emergence of the telegraph
and telephone in the late 19th century, it was not until after the Second World War that
important innovations in a number of quite different and back then separate industries
were made. This shaped the ICT trajectory that we experience these days. But only
from 1995 on a new era started characterized by the widespread use of the internet
(see Appendix 1 in Fransman 2010 for a concise overview of the main technological
innovations underlying the ICT sector). In addition, in the current period consumers
7
acquire a new function as “co-evolving innovators” with respect to content, applications
and services (Fransman 2010, 50 and Figure 1). This is quite in contrast to the
traditional role of consumers as passive clients, which they still are in regard to the
services provides by network operators (Fransman 2010, 50f.).
Figure 1: Consumers’ role in the ICT system
Source: Own composition according to Fransman (2010, 39, exhibit 3.4).
Traditionally consumers are primarily a source of revenue for companies, finally
deciding on the success of firms through their decisions on which goods and services
to buy. With ICT consumers assume more and more additional functions. They
become co-producers by providing knowledge and information to suppliers and finally
even assume the function as co-innovators by creating content (see Table 2). “Through
its aggregative and interactive properties, its widespread availability and its low cost
and ease of use, the internet has incorporated final consumers as never before into
the innovation process, not only in the ICT ecosystem but in the economy as a whole”
(Fransman 2010, 51). In the following section we take a closer look what implications
these developments have in regard to the application of ICT in the political system.
Table 2: The changing role of final consumers
1. As sources of revenue
2. As user-feedback providers (e.g. von Hippel 1998)
3. As sources of knowledge (e.g. open source software, Wikipedia)
4. As sources of information (e.g. Web 2.0)
5. As content creators
6. As conversers (e.g. social networking, blogging)
7. As activist citizens
Source: Fransman (2010 51, exhibit 3.7) (original emphasis).
3. The Impact of ICT on Policies, Politics, Politie s
Collective decision-making on what goods and services to produce by the state as
opposed to individual decision-making between consumers and producers on markets
8
is the decisive characteristic of the political system in contrast to the economic system.
While section 2 has shown the complexity of ICT, matters become even more
complicated when analysing the impact of ICT on the political system. Therefore, we
proceed as follows. First we ask what impact ICT has on the outcome of the political
system that is on public policies. In the next step, we analyse its influence on the
political decision-making process, while still taking the underlying political institutions
as given. Finally, we take a short look also at its potential impact on the constitutional
dimension, that is on the polity.
3.1 ICT and Policies: the Domain of eGovernment
The public provision of goods and services (= policies) is the main output of the political
decision-making process. As in regard to goods and services produced by private
companies (eCommerce), ICT are also used by public bureaucracies. Over the last
years the term eGovernment became in use to characterize this (Promberger/
Bernhart/ Früh 2010). There exist a widespread number of definitions of eGovernment.
According to the EU Commission (2003, 7) it “is defined (…) as the use of information
and communication technologies in public administrations combined with
organisational change and new skills in order to improve public services and
democratic processes and strengthen support to public policies.”
As in the economic sphere, ICT are applied in the interaction between government
agencies (G2G) as well as between government agencies and the citizens (G2C), or
government agencies and businesses (G2B). ICT assist in supplying public goods and
services. (One way) information, is provided, for example by websites of cities or public
agencies. (Two way) communication enables citizens or business to use email or other
communication services for interacting with public bureaucracies. Finally, ICT can be
used for transactions, too, that is for complete services delivery (Promberger/ Bernhart/
Früh 2010, 10ff.). A necessary prerequisite for this is investment in both adequate
hardware and software by public administrations. This entails the adaptation of given
ICT solutions provided by the industry to the special needs of public actors as
compared to private businesses. As a consequence innovations are generated which
encompass not only content, applications and services but also require adaptations in
the other layers as stated in Table 1 above. Besides, to successfully implement new
technologies in an organization, complementary organizational changes must take
place. Accordingly, organizational change and skill development are a necessary
supplement. Such innovation processes are not freely available; they consume
resources and take time. As with all innovation, there is no guarantee for them of being
successfully implemented. Thus, introducing ICT for providing public services entails
a trial-and-error process sinceno blueprint exists, at least for the first-mover
9
bureaucracies.
Moreover, there is co-evolution of ICT applications in public administrations and its
impact on the public service provision. In the course of implementing ICT to provide
public goods and services, the special needs and restrictions given by public
administrations and their tasks have to be taken into account. Since the same holds
for the technical restrictions provided by ICT, their implementation also has feedback
effects on how to carry out the public policies in the future. Accordingly, by adopting
ICT both the technology evolves as well as the way in which public goods and services
are provided. In addition, ICT also enable to provide new variants of the public goods
and services supplied. Thus, innovations occur both in the production process as well
as in regard to public goods and services. The current trajectory of ICT application in
public administration is characterized by four stages, with the US being ahead of other
countries (see Table 3 and Yun/ Opheim 2010 for a discussion of factors affecting the
diffusion of ICT in the US).
Table 3: Stages of implementing ICT in public administrations
1. Billboard stage
2. Partial service-delivery stage
3. Portal stage with fully executable and integrated service delivery
4. Interactive democracy stage
Source: Own composition according to West (2005, 8f.).
To assess the impact of ICT on public goods and services, both economic and political
science criteria are available. The former refer to the costs for and the quality of
producing public goods with the help of ICT as well as to the rate of innovations
generated by adopting ICT. In regard to the latter access to the goods and services
thus provided (‘digital divide’), accountability and legitimacy are most important.
Implementing ICT in public policies entail both positive and negative effects, which
differ among different policies, but also for the same policy over the short- and the long-
term. Therefore, no clear-cut overall assessment is possible.
What impact has ICT on direct democracy when applied to the supply of public goods
and services? One of the main effects of ICT is the resulting strong reduction in
information and transaction costs. This also holds in applying it to public policies. As a
consequence, ICT enables the provision of tailor-made public goods and services
which better match the preferences of the citizens. When used in this respect, it
achieves one of the main aims of direct democracy that is, to take into account citizens’
individual preferences. In contrast to direct democracy, however, which relies on
collective decision-making, applying ICT to the provision of public policies involves
single citizens. Thus, it allows taking into consideration individual preferences without
10
having to take recourse to unanimity or majority rules, which all have their own
problems when used in collective decision-making (Mueller 2003). Accordingly, insofar
as ICT increases the scope for providing tailor-made public goods and services, it
increases citizens involvement more adequately than with the support of direct
democratic means.
3.2 ICT and Politics: the Domain of eGovernance
ICT not only affects public policies, which are one of the main outcomes of the political
process, but this very process of policy-making itself. Governments elected by the
public for a limited time period are the main agent in putting forward legislation in
representative democracies. Accordingly, getting elected is one of the main goals of
political parties.
Figure 2: The process of policy formation
Source: Own composition according to Meier/Slembeck (1998).
However, politics cannot be reduced to regular election campaigns. According to
Figure 2 politics is a process of policy formation, in which individual preferences are
aggregated by means of collective decision-making. Only after successfully mobilizing
for one’s individually perceived problem, it enters the legislative level.1 There it
competes with other issues for attention in the collective decision-making process in
parliament. Only if its supporters are successful in putting it on the collective agenda,
eventually legislation will be enacted and implemented. For this to happen, not only
political parties, but interest group and the media play a decisive role.
Problems differ in regard to the number of people affected and the degree to which
1 In this section we assume that a representative democratic political system exists.
11
they might raise concerns among voters and/or the public. When taking these two
dimensions into account, the – simplified – classification in Table 4 holds. Chances are
best to be successful in the policy formation process for interest-group problems with
only a rather small group of people being affected, however to a high degree, like e.g.
trade unions. In contrast to that chances are poorest for structural problems where a
huge number of people are affected but only to a low degree, like e.g. consumer
protection or environmental issues.
Table 4: Classification of collective problems
Degree of concern
Number of people affected Low High
Few Elite problem Interest-group problem
Many Structural problem Crisis problem
Source: According to Meier/Slembeck (1998, 74) (emphasis added by the author, M.E.).
To analyse innovation and change in politics, the evolutionary economics approach is
useful, too. Like in markets political entrepreneurs play an important role in creating
innovations. These also refer both to the outcome of the policy-formation process
(policy innovations as compared to product innovations) as well as to the process itself
of how politics takes place (process innovations). What innovations are successful
depends on the respective selection environment and the resulting selection
mechanisms. In regard to the former constitutions set the ultimate restrictions under
which the process of normal policy-making takes place. According to Persson/Tabellini
(2002, 481) “(p)olitical constitutions are viewed as incomplete contracts laying down
the rules for how to appoint political decision makers on behalf of the voters and how
to allocate decision-making authority, or control rights, among them.” Within the scope
thus given by a particular constitution, rules of the game evolve over time, resulting in
the set of selection mechanism in place which define the outer bounds on how politics
is carried out under a given constitution. Both the particular way in which politics takes
place as well as its outcome, that is the different policies it generates, are characterized
by strong path dependences. These ensure a certain kind of stability over time despite
the on-going generation of innovations by political entrepreneurs in the course of policy
formation.
Terms like eGovernance or eDemocracy are in use in regard to the impact of ICT on
politics, referring to different effects of ICT on collective decision-making. According to
the UNESCO eGovernance is characterized by “the public sector’s use of information
and communication technologies with the aim of improving information and service
delivery, encouraging citizen participation in the decision-making process and making
12
government more accountable, transparent and effective” (UNESCO 2013).
ICT affect politics in different ways over its whole cycle (see Frissen et al. 2007 for a
concise overview). On the one hand ICT are used by already established political
parties, interest groups, or media to support their activities. Thus, ICT are just another
means to communicate with supporters and potential voters to increase mobilization.
To this end applications, content and services are developed to fulfil the respective
tasks in the policy formation process. In this way, ICT is used by parties also to reach
additional voters (i.e. usually younger voters with higher educational background).
Twitter and Facebook, along with the homepages of party candidates and politicians
are well-known examples. Besides, electoral campaigns also rely increasingly on ICT
assistance, thus supplementing advertising campaigns in the traditional print as well
as radio and television media. There are some signs that ICT are favourable for
oppositional parties in election campaigns, since it is a low cost instrument for reaching
large groups of the electorate. This also seems to hold in regard to more extremist
parties, which are rather at the margin of the political spectrum. While access to print
and TV media seems to be more restricted for them, ICT provide a low cost alternative
for disseminating their points of view (see for example Barlai 2013 on the use of the
internet by the extremist right-wing Austrian FPÖ and Hungarian Jobbik).
In addition to that, ICT also give way of new actors entering the political arena. The
most prominent example are the Pirate parties. Currently Pirate parties are active in
more than 40 countries , the first was founded in Sweden in 2006 (Wikipedia 2013a).
Pirate parties’ programmes focus on issues directly linked to ICT like “civil rights, direct
democracy and participation, reform of copyright and patent law, free sharing of
knowledge (open content), information privacy, transparency, freedom of information
and network neutrality” (Wikipedia 2013b). Besides, Pirate parties not only apply ICT
for externally mobilizing support (i.e. voters) for their subjects, but for internal collective
decision-making as well. To this end “Liquid feedback” has been developed, which
provides a tool to combine direct and representative democracy in novel ways for
decision-making within the party (Interaktive Demokratie 2013). Although Pirate parties
have been very successful in some countries and elections so far, the problems they
encounter on their way of party formation are a good example of the limitations of ICT
when applied to policy-making. Obviously, additional (and perhaps not only
complimentary) skills are necessary for successfully mastering institutionalization of a
new political movement.
Many representative democracies also know direct democratic elements, often at
different jurisdictional levels. ICT also lead to a decrease of mobilizing people for taking
part in such supports such direct democratic referenda or initiatives. Through the
13
impact on reducing information costs, ICT are again a means to improve transparency
and the knowledge base for people taking part in such votes. By this ICT do not have
a different effect in regard to direct democratic activities when compared with
representative democratic activities.
3.3 ICT, Polities and Regime Shifts
So far we have assumed the underlying constitution, which defines the basic rules
under which policy-making takes place, both to be democratic and given. However, in
2012 there are only 61% of the 195 countries worldwide classified as electoral
democracies (118 in total), while there was a maximum of 123 in 2005 and 2006
(Freedom House 2013, 27). Shifts between different political systems are a widespread
experience. Usually they entail also changes in the underlying constitutional rules. This
holds in particular when there is a shift from authoritarian to democratic regimes and
vice versa.
With the so-called Arab Spring a wave of protest and a number of regime shifts took
place in the Arab region from the end of 2010 on. The online communication service
‘Twitter’ gained particular importance in the protests in Moldavia (2009), Iran (2009/20),
Tunisia (2010/11) and Egypt (2011). We are far from fully understanding the dynamics
of revolutionary regime shifts. However, ICT played an important role in mobilizing the
opposition and feeding the resulting dynamics (For an interesting analysis see John/
de Sterck 2012). Again, the properties of ICT in reducing information costs and in
providing low-cost communication made it so effective.
In addition to its effects on regime shifts, ICT also allow more profound changes in
policy-making in democratic political systems, too. For example, it makes available a
much broader set of direct democratic elements. Instead of applying a (qualified)
majority rule in referenda or initiatives, more sophisticated decision rules could be used
at low costs which could capture individual preferences much better than it is the case
with the rules currently in place. However, creating such genuinely new democratic
regime variants requires modifications of the underlying constitutional rules. While the
Pirate parties can be seen as agents aiming for such a change, so far there are no
majorities for such profound constitutional changes in sight. Furthermore, there are still
a number of technical problems which have to be resolved to guarantee that there are
no manipulations of votes in elections that rely on ICT.
Finally, one has to keep in mind that ICT also entail risks for both political rights and
civil liberties. Due to the decrease in information costs ICT also reduce the costs of
collecting large volumes of information. This in turn increases the risk that a variants
of surveillance states might develop, leading to the generation of novel dependences
14
and a reduction of freedom and liberties.
4. Conclusion
The main feature of ICT is to provide information and to communicate it at much higher
speed and at much lower costs over time and space than it was possible with mere
analogous modes of communication. Accordingly, the resulting information and
communication costs decrease enormously in the areas where ICT are used, leading
to a decrease in search and transaction costs. Besides, with ICT digital production
technologies can be used, substituting analogous technologies, both manual work as
well as brain-work. Thus, like in the economic sphere, the use of ICT in providing public
goods and services reduces production and transaction costs, implying efficiency
gains. Moreover, ICT also influence the political transaction costs of public policy-
making. In addition, ICT could also result in changing the underlying institutions
shaping the political process so as to make further improvements possible.
Having stated this, however, we have to answer in the negative the question raised in
the title of this paper. As section 2 shows, the development of ICT is a complex one,
including a number of different technologies. The exploration of the underlying
technological paradigm seems to be far from being exhausted. Therefore, also in the
near future further innovations are to be expected, which might change the current
state of ICT completely, adding additional services and applications to the already
existing ones. Accordingly, it would be misleading to speak about a “digital revolution”.
The developments we experience are the result of an on-going process of gradual
modifications and changes (‘recombinations of already known elements’ in the
Schumpeterian sense), while at the same time being of a very profound nature, too.
The same holds the more so, when it comes to the application of ICT in the political
system. Here too, we are far from a revolution caused by ICT notwithstanding the
prominent role ICT played in the Arab spring.
However, both in regard to policies, politics and polities the application of ICT lags
behind its use for commercial purposes. This is not surprising when taking into account
that in markets competition between large numbers of companies for consumers’
purchasing power pushes companies’ efforts to use ICT for generating product and
process innovations. In contrast to that, states have a monopoly when it comes to
supplying public goods and services to its citizens. This is the more so as there are
only few substitutes available for citizens. Accordingly, the lower rate of innovations
generated by ICT is not surprising. But since further innovations in ICT are driven
mainly by economic incentives resulting from its application in the commercial sphere,
the resulting spill-overs to ICT application in the political system ensure an on-going
15
evolution there, too.
References
Barlai, M. (2013), Politischer Extremismus und Populismus in Europa - Fester Bestandteil einer E-Öffentlichkeit? FPÖ und Jobbik im WEB, in: Peter Filzmaier et al. (Hrsg.): Edition netPOL, Wien.
Dosi, G. (1982): Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories. A Suggested Interpretation of the Determinants and Directions of Technical Change, in: Research Policy, Vol.11, 147-162.
EU Commission (2003): The Role of eGovernment for Europe's Future, Communication {SEC(2003) 1038}, Brussels, 26.9.2003 COM(2003) 567 final, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2003:0567:FIN: EN:PDF (last access: 03.07.2013).
Fagerberg, J. (2005), Innovation. A Guide to the Literature, in: Fagerberg, J., Mowery, D. C., Nelson, R. R. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Innovation, Oxford et al., 1-28.
Fagerberg, J., Mowery, D. C., Nelson, R. R. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Innovation, Oxford et al.
Fransman, M. (2010): The New ICT Ecosystem. Implications for Policy and Regulation, Cambridge et al.
Freedom House (2013), Freedom in the World 2013: Democratic Breakthroughs in the Balance, http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW%202013% 20Booklet%20-%20for%20Web_1.pdf (last access: 11.07.2013).
Freeman, C. (1987): Technology Policy and Economic Performance. Lessons from Japan, London.
Freeman, C., Louca, F. (2002): As Time Goes By: From the Industrial Revolution to the Information Revolution, Oxford, New York.
Frissen, V. et al. (2007), The Future of eGovernment. An exploration of ICT-driven models of eGovernment for the EU in 2020, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Luxembourg, http://ftp.jrc.es/EURdoc/eur22897en.pdf (last access: 11.07.2013).
Interaktive Demokratie (2013), Liquid Feedback. Interactive Democracy, http://liquidfeedback.org/ (last access: 11.07.2013).
Lang, J., De Sterck, H. (2012), The Arab Spring: A Simple Compartmental Model for the Dynamics of a Revolution. CoRR abs/1210.1841, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1210.1841v1.pdf, (last access: 11.07.2013).
Meier, A., Slembeck, T. (1998), Wirtschaftspolitik. Ein kognitiv-evolutionärer Ansatz, München, Wien, 2.Aufl.
Metcalfe, S. J. (1998), On Rival Concepts of Competition and the Evolutionary Connection, in: Metcalfe, S. J., Evolutionary Economcis and Creative Destruction, London, et al., 10-39.
Metcalfe, S. J. (1988): The Diffusion of Innovations: An Interpretative Survey, in: Dosi, G. et al. (ed.): Technical Change and Economic Theory, London, 560-590.
Mueller, D. C. (2003), Public Choice III, Cambridge et al.
Nelson, R. (1995): Recent Evolutionary Theorizing about Economic Change, in:
16
Journal of Economic Literature, Vol.33, 48-90.
OECD (1997): National Systems of Innovation, http://www.oecd.org/science/inno/2101733.pdf (last access: 11.07.2013).
Promberger, K., Bernhart, J., Früh, G. (2010): E-Government, in: Promberger, K., Bernhart, J., Früh, G. (eds.): E-Government. Konzepte, Modelle und – Erfahrungen, Wien, 1-35.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1952): Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung. Eine Untersuchung über Unternehmergewinn, Kapital, Kredit, Zins und den Konjunkturzyklus, Berlin, 5.Aufl.
UNESCO (2013), art. E-Governance, online: http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php- URL_ID=3038&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
von Hippel, E. (1998): The Source of Innovation, Oxford.
West, D. M. (2005), Digital Government: Technology and Public Sector Performance, Princeton, Oxfordshire.
Wikipedia (2013a), Art. List of Pirate Parties, http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/List_of_Pirate_Parties (last access: 11.07.2013).
Wikipedia (2013b), Art. Pirate Party, online http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate_Party (last access: 11.07.2013).
Yun, H. J., Opheim, C. (2010), Building on Success: The Diffusion of e-Government in the American States, in: Electronic Journal of e-Government, Vol. 8, 71-82, available online at www.ejeg.com (last access: 11.07.2013).
ANDRÁSSY WORKING PAPER SERIES
ISSN 1589-603X
XXXII Eckardt, Martina 2014. „The Impact of ICT on Policies, Politics, and Polities – An Evolutionary Economics Approach to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)“
XXXI Eckardt, Martina 2014. „Legal Form and Internationalization of Small and Medium_Sized Enterprises in the EU“
XXX Dötsch, Jörg 2013. „Ökonomik und Emergenz. Arbeitspapier zum Emergenzbegriff der Heterodoxie”
XXIX Dötsch, Jörg 2013. „Überlegungen zu Prozessen endogener Destabilisierung von Wettbewerbswirtschaften”
XXVIII Eckardt, Martina und Kerber, Wolfgang 2013. „Horizontal and Vertical Regulatory Competition in EU Company Law: The Case of the European Private Company (SPE)“
XXVII Eckardt, Martina. 2012. „The Societas Privata Europaea – Could it Promote the Internatinalization of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises?“
XXVI Ebert, Werner und Eckardt, Martina. 2011. „Wirtschafts- und finanzpolitische Koordinierung in der EU – Erfahrungen aus einem Jahrzehnt Politikkoordinierung“
XXV Eckardt, Martina und Räthke-Döppner, Solvig. 2008. „The Quality of Insurance Intermedieary Services – Empirical Evidence for Germany“
XXIV Okruch, Stefan und Alexander Mingst. 2008. „Die Kammerorganisation aus evolutorischer Sicht“.
XXIII Mingst, Alexander. 2008. „Politische Prozesse und die Rolle von Ideologien: Sinnvolle Geschichten in einer ungewissen Welt“.
XXII Mingst, Alexander. 2008. „Evolutionary Political Economy and the Role of Organisations“.
XXI Mingst, Alexander. 2008. „The Organizational Underpinnings of Innovation and Change in Health Care“.
XX Okruch, Stefan. 2007. “The ‘Open Method of Coordination’ and its Effects: Policy Learning or Harmonisation?
XIX Okruch, Stefan. 2006. “Die ‘Offene Methode der Koordinierung’: Gefahr schleichender Harmonisierung oder Chance für Politiklernen?”
XVIII Okruch, Stefan. 2006. “Values and Economic Order: In Search of Legitimacy”
XVII Okruch, Stefan. 2006. „Die EU-Wettbewerbspolitik zwischen Einheitlichkeit und Vielfalt – Anmerkungen aus ordnungsökonomischer Sicht“
XVI Beckmann, Klaus B. 2006. “Tax evaders keep up with the Joneses”
XV Margitay-Becht András 2005 “Inequality and Aid. Simulating the correlation between economic inequality and the effect of financial aid”
XIV Beckmann, Klaus B. 2005. “Tax competition and strategic complementarity”
XIII Meyer, Dietmar – Lackenbauer, Jörg. 2005 „EU Cohesion Policy and the Equity- Efficiency Trade-Off: Adding Dynamics to Martin’s Model”
XII Chiovini, Rita und Zsuzsanna Vetõ. 2004. „Daten und Bemerkungen zu den Disparitäten im Entwicklungsstand ausgewählter Länder”
XI Alfred, Endres. 2004 „Natürliche Ressourcen und nachhaltige Entwicklung”
X Bartscher, Thomas, Ralph Baur and Klaus Beckmann. 2004 „Strategische Probleme des Mittelstands in Niederbayern”
IX Arnold, Volker – Hübner, Marion. 2004. „Repression oder Umverteilung - Welches ist der beste Weg zur Erhaltung der Funktionsfähigkeit marktwirtschaftlicher Systeme? - Ein Beitrag zur Theorie der Einkommensumverteilung.”
VIII Okruch, Stefan. 2003. „Verfassungswahl und Verfassungswandel aus ökonomischer Perspektive - oder: Grenzen der konstitutionenökonomischen Suche nach der guten Verfassung.”
VII Meyer, Dietmar: „Humankapital und EU-Beitritt – Überlegungen anhand eines Duopolmodells.”
VI Okruch, Stefan. 2003. „Evolutorische Ökonomik und Ordnungspolitik – ein neuer Anlauf”.
V Arnold, Volker. 2003. „Kompetitiver vs. kooperativer Föderalismus: Ist ein horizontaler Finanzausgleich aus allokativer Sicht erforderlich?’
IV Balogh, László – Meyer, Dietmar. 2003. „Gerechtes und/ oder effizientes Steuersystem in einer Transformationsökonomie mit wachsendem Einkommen’.
III Beckmann, Klaus B. 2003. „Tax Progression and Evasion: a Simple Graphical Approach”.
II Beckmann, Klaus B. 2003. „Evaluation von Lehre und Forschung an Hochschulen: eine institutenökonomische Perspektive”.
I Beckmann, Klaus B. and Martin Werding. 2002. „Two Cheers for the Earned Income Tax Credit”.
Paper copies can be ordered from:
The Librarian
Andrássy Gyula Egyetem
Pf. 1422
1464 Budapest
Hungary
Visit us on the web at http: www.andrassyuni.eu. Please note that we cease to circulate papers
if a revised version has been accepted for publication elsewhere.
