Philosophy and curriculum

CHAPTER

1 Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum Decisions

ALLAN C. ORNSTEIN

FOCUSING QUESTIONS . . d implementation of curriculum? hil h uide the orgaruzation an

1. How does p osop y g 1 d that shape a person's philosophy of 2. What are the sources of know e ge

curriculum? d that shape your philosophical view of 1 What are the sources of know e ge3. curriculum? · diff

. d ends of education er. ?

4. How do the auns, means, an_ . at must be determined before we can What is the major philosop~cal is~ue th

5. define a philosophy of curncul~- hil hies that have influenced curriculum What are the four major educational p osop .6. in the United States?

7. What is your philosophy of curriculum?

P d still do have an impact on schools and

hilosophic issues always h~ve had ~ hools are changing fundamental~y and society. Contemporary society ~d its :cThere is a special urgency that dictate~ rapidly, much more so th~ m e ~a:oie of schools, and calls for a philosophy o

continuous appraisal and reappraisal of th directionless in the whats and hows of education. Without philosophy, educators a~ing to achieve. In short, our philo~~phy organizing and implementing what we ar~ t determines, our educational decisions, of education influences, and to a large ex en choices, and alternatives.

PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM . 1· ts with a framework for . 11 curriculum specia is , h

Philosophy provides educators, espect i{e1 s them answer questions about what t e organizing schools and classrooms. t f 1 how students learn, and what methods school's purpose is, what subjects are: va;~ with a framework for broad issues and and materials to use. Philosophy provi es e

CHAPTER ONE Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum Decisions 3

tasks, such as determining the goals of edu­ and activities, and dealing with verbal traps cation, subject content and its organization, (what we see versus what is read). Curricu­ the process of teaching and learning, and, in lum theorists, they point out, often fail to rec­ general, what experiences and activities to ognize both how important philosophy is to stress in schools and classrooms. It also pro­ developing curriculum and how it influences vides educators with a basis for making such aspects of curriculum. decisions as what workbooks, textbooks, or other cognitive and noncognitive activities to

Philosophy and the Curriculum Sp utilize and how to utilize them, what and how much homework to assign, how to test The philosophy of curriculum sp students and how to use the test results, and reflects their life experiences, comma what courses or subject matter to emphasize. social and economic background, ed

The importance of philosophy in deter­ and general beliefs about people. f._•• .....u­ mining curriculum decisions is expressed vidual's philosophy evolves and continues well by the classic statement of Thomas to evolve as long as there is personal growth, Hopkins (1941): "Philosophy has entered development, and learning from experience. into every important decision that has ever Philosophy is a description, explanation, and been made about curriculum and teaching in evaluation of the world as seen from per­ the past and will continue to be the basis of sonal perspective, or through what some every important decision in the future . . .. social scientists call "social lenses." There is rarely a moment in a school day Curriculum specialists can tum to many when a teacher is not confronted with occa­ sources of knowledge, but no matter how sions where philosophy is a vital part of many sources they draw on or how many action." Hopkins' statement reminds us of authorities they listen to, their decisions are how important philosophy is to all aspects of shaped by all the experiences that have curriculum decisions, whether it operates affected them and the social groups with overtly or covertly. Indeed, almost all ele­ which they identify. These decisions are ments of curriculum are based on philoso­ based on values, attitudes, and beliefs that phy. As John Goodlad (1979b) points out, they have developed, involving their knowl­ philosophy is the beginning point in curricu­ edge and interpretation of causes, events, lum decision making and is the basis for all and their consequences. Philosophy deter­ subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. mines principles for guiding action. Philosophy becomes the criterion for deter­ No one can be totally objective in a cul­ mining the aims, means, and ends of curricu­ tural or social setting, but curriculum spe­ lum. The aims are statements of value, based cialists can broaden their base of knowledge on philosophical beliefs; the means represent and experiences by trying to understand processes and methods, which reflect philo­ other people's sense of values and by analyz­ sophical choices; and the ends connote the ing problems from various perspectives. facts, concepts, and principles of the knowl­ They can also try to modify their own critical edge or behavior learned-what is felt to be analyses and points of view by learning from important to learning. their experiences and those of others. Cur­

Smith, Stanley, and Shores (1957) also riculum specialists who are unwilling to put great emphasis on the role of philosophy modify their points of view, or to compro­ in developing curriculum, asserting that it is mise philosophical positions when school essential when formulating and justifying officials or their colleagues espouse another educational purposes, selecting and organizing philosophy, are at risk of causing conflict knowledge, formulating basic procedures and disrupting the school. Ronald Doll (1986)

5

PART ONE Curriculum and Philosophy 4

framework} for the aims and metho~s" of uts it this way: "Conflict among curriculu~ schools. For Dewey, philosol?hy provides/

P curs when persons ... hold pos1- eneralized meaning to our hve~ and a w y ~lannef5 oc a continuum of [different} beliefs g f hinking "an explicit formulation of the ... hons a ong . ,, The conflict may

d persuasions. ::ntal and moral attitudes in r~sp~ct ~? th_e ~n · ~ ~o intense that "curriculum s!udy difficulties of contemporary s~cial hf~- tPF1~

e~odm h lt " Most of the time, the d1ffer- loso h is not only a starting po~n ogrm s to a a · ·1 · d f be reconciled "temporan y m e - hopol;. it is also crucial for all curnc~lu~ences can

t the demands of a temporary, sc , dd "Ed cation 1s O ctivities. For as Dewey a s, ~ . . erence 11 f th r

. d" t task " However, Do ur e ~he laboratory in which philosophic ~1shnc-1mme ia e · d · · t tors 1 . th t "teachers and a m1ms ra exp ams a • h tions become concrete and are tested. h

who are clearly divided in ph1los~p _Y c:n Highly influenced by Dewey,. Ralp seldom work together in close prox1m1ty or T ler's (1949) framework of cur:1cul':1m long periods of time." d" Ic1udes philosophy as only one of five ~ntel

Th more mature and understan mg . ly used for selecting educahona na common h"l

and th: less personally threatened and ego­ u oses. The relationship betw~en p 1 oso- involved individuals are, the m~re_ cap~b~e p h rpand the other criteria-studies of le~rn­ the are of reexamining or mod1fy1~~ t e1r p y studies of contemporary life, suggestions

hJosophy, or at least of ~eing ~1l~mg t~ ~;~~ subject specialists, and the psfc~olor ~ !treciate other points of _view. It is 1mp01: f 1 rnm

. g-is the basis for determimng t _e o ea h h"l phy 1stf for curriculum specialists to regard t~eir school's purposes. Althoug P 1 os? 1

attitudes and beliefs as tentative-as subJe~t not the starting point in Tyler's lcubrn~u u1~th' to reexamination whenever facts or tren s . n equa as1s wbut rather interacts on a challenge them. Equally danger~us f?rdcu~­ . . h d em to place more the other cntena, e oes se 1 . riculum specialists is the oppos1t~hm e~~ importance on philosophy for deve o~tg sion or lack of any philosophy, wh1~ cant t educational purposes. Ty~er (1~49) wn ~:~ reflected in attempts to avoid co13:11:11tmen . o "The educational and soC1al philosophy a set of values. A measure of positive co~v1c­ h" h the school is committed can s~rve as

1tion is essential to prudent action: Havmg; ;e ~irst screen for developing t~e s~ral p~­ ersonal philosophy that is tentative or su - ram" He concludes that phi osop. y

p d"f" t· n however does not lead g . d f" the nature of the good hfe ject to mo 1 1ca 10 , ' . h attempts to e ine " d to lack of conviction or disorgam~ed be a~­ d · ty " and that the e uca-and a goo soC1e , . . t . Curriculum specialists can arnve a~ their tional philosophies in a democratic soC1e _Y ior. 1 . the best evidence available, cone us10ns on · are likely to emphasize strongly democratic and they then can change when better evi- values in schools." . b t dence surfaces. There can be no serious discussion ~ ouf

philosophy until we embrace the questionho t what is education. When we agree onhw :Philosophy as a Curriculum Source education is, we can ask what the_ sc oo s

The function of philosophy can be ~on~eived . We can then pursue philosophy, purpose 1s. d" t

as either the base for the starti:'g pomt m ~ur; ·ms and goals of curriculum. Accor mg ? . lum development or an mterdepen en aG1 d,1 d (1979b) the school's first respons1-

ncu . • · lum oo a ' h h alls the function of other functions m curncu bility is to the social order, w at e c f t John Dewey (1916) represents1 "nation-state," but in our society _the _sens:r~deve opmen · d" h t

the first school of thought by conten mg t a individual growth and potential is ~ .- ,, . h ma be defined as the gen- t Thl·s duality-society versus the md1-philosop Y Y · ·: ,, d that "the busi- moun . . h" 1 · ue eral theory of education, an . d [th vidual-has been a major ph1losop ica iss ness of philosophy is to prov1 e e

CHAPTER ONE

in Western society for centuries and was a very important issue in Dewey's works. As Dewey (1916) claimed, we not only wish "to make [good] citizens and workers" but also ultimately want "to make human beings who will live life to the fullest."

The compromise of the duality between national allegiance and individual fulfill­ ment is a noble aim that should guide all cur­ riculum specialists-from the means to the ends. When many individuals grow and prosper, then society flourishes. The original question set forth by Goodlad can be answered: Education is growth and the focal point for the individual as well as society; it is a never-ending process of life, and the more refined the guiding philosophy, the better the quality of the educational process.

In considering the influence of philo­ sophic thought on curriculum, several clas­ sification schemes are possible; therefore, no superiority is claimed for the categories used in the tables here. The clusters of ideas are those that often evolve openly or unwittingly during curriculum planning.

Four major educational philosophies have influenced curriculum in the United States: Perennialism, Essentialism, Progres­ sivism, and Reconstructionism. Table 1.1 provides an overview of these education phi­ losophies and how they affect curriculum, instruction, and teaching. Teachers and administrators should compare the content of the categories with their own philosophi­ cal "lens" in terms of how they view curricu­ lum and how other views of curriculum and related instructional and teaching issues may disagree.

Another way of interpreting philosophy and its effect on curriculum is to analyze phi­ losophy in terms of polarity. The danger of this method is that it may simplify philoso­ phies in terms of a dichotomy, and not recog­ nize that there are overlaps and shifts. Table 1.2 illustrates philosophy in terms of tradi­ tional and contemporary categories. The tra­ ditional philosophy, as shown, tends to

Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum Decisions

overlap with Perennialism and Essentialism. Contemporary philosophy tends to coincide with Progressivism and Reconstructionism.

Table 1.2 shows that traditional philoso­ phy focuses on the past, emphasizes fixed and absolute values, and glorifies our cul­ tural heritage. Contemporary philosophy emphasizes the present and future and views events as changeable and relative; for the lat­ ter, nothing can be preserved forever, for despite any attempt, change is inevitable. The traditionalists wish to train the mind, emphasize subject matter, and fill the learner with knowledge and information. Those who subscribe to contemporary philosophies are more concerned with problem solving and emphasize student interests and needs. Whereas subject matter is considered impor­ tant for its own sake, according to tradition­ alists, certain subjects are more important than others. For contemporary educators, subject matter is considered a medium for teaching skills and attitudes, and most sub­ jects have similar value. According to the tra­ ditionalists, the teacher is an authority in subject matter, who dominates the lesson with explanations and lectures. For the con­ temporary proponent, the teacher is a guide for learning, as well as an agent for change; students and teachers often are engaged in dialogue.

In terms of social issues and society, tra­ ditionalists view education as a means of providing direction, control, and restraint, while their counterparts focus on individual expression and freedom from authority. Citi: zenship is linked to cognitive development for the traditional educator, and it is linked to moral and social development for the con­ temporary educator. Knowledge and the dis­ ciplines prepare students for freedom, according to the traditional view, but it is direct experience in democratic living and political/ social action that prepares students for freedom, according to the contemporary ideal. Traditionalists believe in excellence, and contemporary educators favor equality.

CHAPTER ONE Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum Decisions 7

Curriculum and PhilosophyPART ONE6 TABLE 1.2 Overview of Traditional and Contemporary Philosophies

Philosophical Consideration Traditional Philosophy Contemporary Philosophy

Educational Perennialism, Essentialism Progressivism, Reconstructionism philosophy

Direction Superiority of past; education for preserving Education is growth; reconstruction of present in time past experiences; changing society; concern for future

and shaping it

Values Fixed, absolute, objective, and/or universal Changeable, subjective, and/or relative

Educational Education is viewed as instruction; mind is Education is viewed as creative self-learning; active process disciplined and filled with knowledge process in which learner reconstructs knowledge

Intellectual To train or discipline the mind; emphasis on To engage in problem-solving activities and social emphasis subject matter activities; emphasis on student interests and needs

Worth of Subject matter for its own importance; certain Subject matter is a medium for teaching skills, subject subjects are better than others for training the attitudes, and intellectual processes; all subjects have matter mind similar value for problem-solving activities

Curriculum Curriculum is composed of three Rs, as well as Curriculum is composed of three Rs, as well as skills content liberal studies or essential academic subjects and concepts in arts, sciences, and vocational studies

Learning Emphasis on cognitive learning; learning is Emphasis on whole child; learning is giving meaning acquiring knowledge and/or competency in to experiences and/or active involvement in reform disciplines

Grouping Homogeneous grouping and teaching of Heterogeneous grouping and integration of students students by ability by ability (as well as race, sex, and class)

Teacher Teacher is an authority on subject matter; Teacher is a guide for inquiry and change agent; teacher plans activities; teacher supplies teacher and students plan activities; students knowledge to student; teacher talks, dominates learn on their own independent of the teacher; lesson; Socratic method teacher-student dialogue; student initiates much

of the discussion and activities

Social roles Education involves direction, control, and Education involves individual expression; individual restraint; group (family, community, church, comes first nation, etc.) always comes first

Citizenship Cognitive and moral development leads to Personal and social development leads to good good citizenship citizenship

Freedom and Acceptance of one's fate, conformity, and Emphasis on creativeness, nonconformity, and self­ democracy compliance with authority; knowledge and actualization; direct experiences in democratic

discipline prepare students for freedom living and political/social action prepare students for freedom

Excellence vs. Excellence in education; education as far as Equality of education; education that permits more equality human potential permits; academic rewards than one chance and more than an equal chance to

and jobs based on merit disadvantaged groups; education and employment sectors consider unequal abilities of individuals and put some restraints on achieving individuals so that dif­ ferent outcomes and group scores, if any, are reduced

Society Emphasis on group values; acceptance of Emphasis on individual growth and development; norms of and roles in society; cooperative and belief in individual with ability to modify, even conforming behavior; importance of society; reconstruct, the social environment; independent individual restricted by customs and traditions and self-realizing, fully functioning behavior; of society importance of person; full opportunity to develop

one's own potential

Overview of Educational PhilosophiesTABLE 1.1 Related

CurriculumCurriculum Philosophical Instructional TrendsFocusRole of Teacher Knowledge

Base Objective Great books; Classical subjects;Teacher helps Focus on past

Realism To educate PaideiaPerennialism literary analysis; students think the rational and permanent proposal

rationally; based constantstudies; mastery person; to curriculumon Socratic cultivate the of facts and

method and oral intellect timeless

exposition; knowledge explicit teaching of traditional

values

Back toEssential skills Essential skills Teacher is

idealism , To promote basics;Essentialism (three Rs) and and academic authority in Realism the intellec- excellenceessential subjectshis or her field;

tual growth subjects; in education(English, mastery of explicit of the arithmetic,teaching of

individual; to concepts and science, history, traditional educate the principles of and foreign

subject matter valuescompeten t language) person

Based on students' RelevantTeacher isKnowledge Pragmatism To promote curriculum; Progressivism interests; involves

democratic, leads to growth a guide for

humanisticthe application of problem social living and develop- education;human problems

ment; a living- solving and alternative .and affairs; scientificlearning inter-disciplinary and free

process; focus inquiry subject matter; schooling

on active and activities, and

interesting projects

learning

Equality ofEmphasis onTeacher serves Pragmatism To improve

Skills and education ; Reconstructionism social sciencesas an agent of and subjects culturaland socialchange and reconstruct needed to research methods; pluralism;reform; acts as aidentify andsoci ety; internationalexamination ofproject director education for ameliorate education;social , economic,and research change and problems of futurismand politicalleader; helps social reform society; problems; focusstudents become \earning is

on present and aware ofactive and future trends as

concerned with problems well as nationalconfrontingcontemporary and internationalhumankindand future issues

society

. d F . p Hunkins Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Theory, 3rd ed. (Boston : Source : Allan C. Ornstein an ranc1s . ' Allyn and Bacon, 1998), P· 56-

8 PART ONE Curriculum and Philosophy

The traditional view of education maintains that group values come first, where coopera­ tive and conforming behaviors are important for the good of society. Contemporary edu­ cators assert that what is good for the indi­ vidual should come first, and they believe in the individual modifying and perhaps recon­ structing society.

The Curriculum Specialist at Work

Philosophy gives meaning to our decisions and actions. In the absence of a philosophy, educators are vulnerable to externally imposed prescriptions, to fads and frills, to authoritarian schemes, and to other "isms." Dewey (1916) was so convinced of the importance of philosophy that he viewed it as the all-encompassing aspect of the edu­ cational process-as necessary for "form­ ing fundamental dispositions, intellectual and emotional, toward nature and fellow man ." If this conclusion is accepted, it becomes evident that many aspects of a curriculum, if not most of the educational processes in school, are developed from a philosophy. Even if it is believed that Dewey's point is an overstatement, the per­ vasiveness of philosophy in determining views of reality, the values and knowledge that are worthwhile, and the decisions to be made about education and curriculum should still be recognized.

Very few schools adopt a single philoso­ phy; in practice, most schools combine various philosophies. Moreover, the author's posi­ tion is that no single philosophy, old or new, should serve as the exclusive guide for mak­ ing decisions about schools or about the cur­ riculum. All philosophical groups want the same things of education-that is, they wish to improve the educational process, to enhance the achievement of the learner, to produce better and more productive citizens, and to improve society. Because of their dif­ ferent views of reality, values, and knowl-

edge, however, they find it difficult to agree on how to achieve these ends.

What we need to do, as curricularists, is to search for the middle ground, a highly elusive and abstract concept, in which there is no extreme emphasis on subject matter or student, cognitive development or sociopsychological development, excel­ lence or equality . What we need is a pru­ dent school philosophy, one that is politically and economically feasible, that serves the needs of students and society. Implicit in this view of education is that too much emphasis on any one philosophy may do harm and cause conflict. How much one philosophy is emphasized, under the guise of reform (or for whatever reason), is critical because no one society can give itself over to extreme "isms" or political views and still remain a democracy. The kind of society that evolves is in part reflected in the education system, which is influenced by the philosophy that is even­ tually defined and developed.

CONCLUSION

In the final analysis, curriculum specialists must understand that they are continuously faced with curriculum decisions, and that philosophy is important in determining these decisions. Unfortunately, few school people test their notions of curriculum against their school's statement of philoso­ phy. According to Brandt and Tyler (1983), it is not uncommon to find teachers and admin­ istrators developing elaborate lists of behav­ ioral objectives with little or no consideration to the overall philosophy of the school. Cur­ riculum workers need to provide assistance in developing and designing school practices that coincide with the philosophy of the school and community. Teaching, learning, and curriculum are all interwoven in school practices and should reflect a school's and a community's philosophy.

CHAPTER ONE Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum Decisions

REFERENCES 9

Goo~lad, J. I. (1979b~. What schools are for. Bloom- Brandt, R. S., & Tyler, R. W. (1983) G 1 d

b" · • oa s an mgton, _IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational o Jectives. In F. W. English (Ed ) F d F t f · · , w1 nmen­ oundation. n c11rrzc11!11111 decisions. Alexa d . VA · A • . n na, . Hopk'.ns, L. T. (1941). lJltcrnction: The democratic ssoc1at10n for Supervision and C . 1 p1ocess. Boston MA· D C H thDevelopment. urncu um Smith B o s ' · · · ea , PP· 198- 200.

, . ., tanley, W. 0., J. & Shores, J. H . (1957)Dewey, (1916) . Democracy n11d education . New F11ndn111entals of rnrric11!11111 develop111e11t rev. D York, NY: Macmillan, pp. 383-384. ed. New York, NY: Worldbook , .

oil[) R: ~- (1986). Curriculum improvement· Tyler, R. W. (1949) B · .· · . . . . . nszc p1 mczples of rnrrzcu/11111

eAc1sA1ol11l-making and process, 6th ed. Boston. dM an mstructwn. Chicago IL · U . . : yn & Bacon, p . 30. ' Ch. , · mvers1ty of1cago Press, pp. 33_34_

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Which philosophical approach refl purpose, (b) what subjects are of vaf~!s r;~r beliefs about (a) the school's process of teaching and learnin ? ' c ow students learn, and (d) the

2 Wh t · g. . a curriculum focus would th . .

mend for our increasingly di'v e pherenmahsts and essentialists recom- 3 Wh erse sc ool-age pop 1 ti . at curriculum would th . . u a on. ?

for a multicultural student ;o~:~~;i~~rists and reconstructionists select 4. Should curriculum workers ado . .

pra~tices? Why? Why not? pt a smgle philosophy to guide their

5. Which philosophy is most relevant to contemporary education? Why?