Homework Support

springwell

HumanBehaviorandtheSocialEnviromentCh1.pdf

Home >Social Science homework help >Philosophy homework help >Homework Support

INTRODUCTION Who Should Use This Text and How Should It Be Used? Instructors in both

undergraduate and graduate social work education programs can use this text to help their students

gain an understanding of human behavior and the social environment (HBSE) content. The text is

designed to meet the requirements of the Council on Social Work Education for HBSE content at either

the undergraduate or graduate level. Since the implementation of the Council on Social Work Education

2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS), the inclusion of HBSE content in this text is

essential for helping students understand the expectations for meeting several of the Competencies

necessary for effective social work practice (Competency 6: Engagement, 7: Assessment, 8:

Intervention, and 9: Evaluation). In addition, other required Competencies are supported by the content

of this text, including ethical and professional behavior; critical thinking; human diversity; social,

economic, and environmental justice; research; and policy practice. At the undergraduate level, the

text may work best in programs with a two-course HBSE sequence designed to provide content on

HBSE from a multi-systems perspective (individual, family, group, organization, community, and global

systems). At the foundation graduate level, the text can be effectively used as the text in a single HBSE

course or a two-course sequence designed to provide basic content across system levels and, in the

case of graduate programs, prior to delivering advanced HBSE content. The purpose of human behavior

and the social environment content in social work education is to provide us with knowledge

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 1). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

2 Chapter 1:

Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms for practice. We need to

continually look at this content for how to apply what we are learning about human behavior and the

social environment to social work practice and to our lives. As we move through the material in this

text, we may struggle to integrate what we are learning here with what we have learned and are

learning from our own and others’ life experiences, from our other social work courses, and from our

courses in the liberal arts and sciences. We will try to weave together all these important sources of

knowing and understanding into an organic whole that can help us become life-long learners and guide

us in our social work practice. Part of what we will learn as we move through the text is the importance

of recognizing and owning our personal biases and values so that they do not negatively impact our

practice with client systems. The next section explains the author’s efforts to accomplish this

personally. A Note about Bias from Author Joe Schriver I should make it explicit that I am biased. I

recognize the contributions of traditional perspectives and approaches to creating and valuing

knowledge, but I believe that we as humans will not realize our collective and individual potential for

well-being if we do not embrace alternative perspectives and worldviews such as those presented in

this text. Therefore, while traditional perspectives and paradigms are presented in this text and clearly

have value, the reader should keep in mind that I generally find many of these perspectives incomplete

in their representation of all people and their lived experiences. I believe that the perspectives used to

define and describe “normal” or “optimal” human behavior and experiences too often represent the

beliefs and experiences of only a privileged few. These privileged few too often include only those who

have the power, good fortune, ability, gender, color, wealth, or the sexual orientation/identity

consistent with and ref lected in traditional perspectives and worldviews. The reader should also be

aware that, though in many respects this text is a critique of traditional paradigm thinking, I am a

product of the traditional institutions that create and enforce those traditional perspectives and

worldviews. I also share many of the characteristics of the “privileged few.” Therefore, writing this text

and its subsequent editions has required me to repeatedly question, examine, and expand my own

worldview. With this seventh edition, I continue what I now believe is a life-long journey. For future

(and current) social workers, I contend that a critical approach in our efforts to understand human

behavior and the social environment, while respecting the human dignity and rights of all persons, is

essential for effective professional practice. One only need look at the current political climate in the

United States to see policies and actions that could be considered a direct affront to the most basic

social work values: inherent worth and dignity of and a commitment to social, economic, and

environmental justice for all humans, not just the entitled few. Additionally, these affronts to the well-

being of the people we serve (denial of the rights of immigrants; voter disenfranchisement; women’s

rights to make their own decisions about their health; isolation from, even hostility toward, other

nations and peoples different from ourselves in terms of culture or religion) cry out for an activist

stance on our parts as social workers. We cannot stand idly and comfortably by. Human Behavior and

the Social Environment Person-in-Environment The social work profession has long held and generally

accepted the principle that social work is guided by a person-in-environment perspective. In other

words, we cannot do social work unless we recognize and incorporate into our practice the

interrelatedness of the person and

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 2). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 3 the environment that

envelopes that person. This fundamental dimension of the social work paradigm will guide much of our

effort in this text to understand “human behavior and the social environment” in the context of social

work practice at all system levels (individual, family, group, organization, community, and global). We

explore person-in-environment using the PIE (person-in-environment) classification system in Chapter

3. What do we mean when we refer to environment? When we refer to environment, we mean the

social and physical context of the surroundings in which human behavior occurs. In addition to the

social and physical context, we concur with Carel B. Germain (1986) that environment also includes

such elements as time and space. These unseen but inf luential aspects of environment are especially

important to social workers when working across cultures. Different cultures emphasize very different

perspectives on such unseen elements as time and space. For example, members of one culture may

arrange their activities and environments according to very precise time schedules. Members of other

cultures may arrange their activities in an environment organized by much more natural and less

specific divisions of time, such as morning, afternoon, and evening or according to seasonal changes. If

we are not aware of alternative perspectives on these unseen but critical environmental characteristics,

we risk insult and misunderstanding in our interactions with others. Purpose and Assumptions Moving

through the content of this text can be compared to a journey. Before we begin our journey, we place

the content and purposes of this human behavior and the social environment (HBSE) text within the

context of the purpose of social work as the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) has defined it.

CSWE is the organization responsible for determining and monitoring the accreditation standards for

undergraduate and graduate (MSW) social work education programs in the United States. Purpose

According to the Council on Social Work Education (2015), The purpose of the social work profession is

to promote human and community wellbeing. Guided by a person-in-environment framework, a global

perspective, respect for human diversity, and knowledge based on scientific inquiry, the purpose of

social work is actualized through its quest for social and economic justice, the prevention of conditions

that limit human rights, the elimination of poverty, and the enhancement of the quality of life for all

persons, locally and globally. (p. 5) The purpose of social work will guide us throughout our journey to

understand and apply HBSE content. The purpose emerges from the history of the social work

profession and its continuing concern for improving quality of life, especially for vulnerable populations.

Assumptions In addition to the purpose of social work, our journey through this text is guided by several

very basic assumptions about us and the people with whom we work: 1. How we view the world and its

people directly affects the way we will practice social work. 2. The way we view the world and its

people already affects the way we behave in our daily lives. 3. Our work as social workers and our lives

are not separate from each other.

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 3). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

4 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 4. Our lives are not

separate from the lives of the people with whom we work and interact. 5. While our lives are

interconnected with the lives of the people with whom we work and interact, we differ from each other

in many ways. 6. The assumptions we make about ourselves and others are strongly inf luenced by our

individual and collective histories and cultures. 7. Change is a constant part of our lives and the lives of

the people with whom we work. SOCIAL WORK COMPETENCIES AND HBSE The assumptions above ref

lect and reinforce required knowledge, values, and behaviors necessary to demonstrate social work

competence. The CWSE 2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards describe the required

“knowledge, values, skills, and cognitive and affective processes” that must be integrated for

competent social work practice. The EPAS uses the term “holistic competence” to indicate the

integration of components above through the social worker’s “critical thinking, affective reactions, and

exercise of judgment” to demonstrate competence in “unique practice situations” (CSWE, 2015, p. 21).

We now explore the required competencies in relation to the assumptions we just made. Competency

1: Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior includes the following expectations closely linked to

several of the assumptions concerning the need to recognize and manage our personal values and

beliefs: • Social workers recognize personal values and the distinction between personal and

professional values. • [Social workers] also understand how their personal experiences and affective

reactions inf luence their professional judgment and behavior. • [Social workers] use ref lection and

self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice situations. • [Social

workers] use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior (CSWE, 2015, p.

7). Competency 2: Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice includes the knowledge, values, and

behaviors supported by the assumptions above in its recognition of the importance of diversity and

differences in our work. • Social workers understand how diversity and difference characterize and

shape the human experience and are critical to the formation of identity. • [Social workers] apply and

communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in

practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. • [Social workers] apply self-awareness and self-

regulation to manage the inf luence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and

constituencies (CSWE, 2015, p. 7). Competency 3: Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and

Environmental Justice is supported by the above assumptions in its focus on human rights, oppression,

and theories of human need and social justice. • Social workers understand that every person

regardless of position in society has fundamental human rights such as freedom, safety, privacy, an

adequate standard of living,

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 4). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 5 • Social workers

understand the global interconnections between oppression and human rights violations, and are

knowledgeable about theories of human need and social justice and strategies to promote social and

economic justice and human rights. • [Social workers] apply their understanding of social, economic,

and environmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels (CSWE,

2015, pp. 7–8). Competency 4: Engage in Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice

ref lects much of what is necessary to understand, critically evaluate, and apply theories of HBSE. For

example, to meet our expectations for understanding HBSE, it is essential that we grasp the research

processes necessary to understand, critique, and apply the theories we learn about in this course. •

Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods. • Social workers understand

that evidence that informs practice derives from multidisciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing.

• [Social workers] apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research

methods and research findings. • [Social workers] use and translate research evidence to inform and

improve practice, policy, and service delivery. (CSWE, 2015, p. 9) Social work competencies that

directly include HBSE content are those addressing each component necessary for effective social work

practice. These include the following CSWE competencies: Competency 6: Engage with Individuals,

Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities Competency 7: Assess Individuals, Families, Groups,

Organizations, and Communities Competency 8: Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups,

Organizations, and Communities Competency 9: Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups,

Organizations, and Communities To achieve these competencies, we must • “[U]nderstand theories of

human behavior and the social environment, and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge to

facilitate engagement with clients and constituencies, including individuals, families, groups,

organizations, and communities.” • “[A]pply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment,

person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and

constituencies.” (CSWE, 2015, p. 9) As indicated in the earlier description of holistic competence, it is

not sufficient to understand HBSE theories. We must also be able to critically evaluate each theory for

its usefulness in a specific practice context. For example, does a theory of individual development

created using able-bodied, male-only study samples apply equally to practice with women with

developmental disabilities? This is not to say the theory would necessarily be completely rejected

because of the original sample. However, the social worker would probably need to dig a bit deeper:

Has the theory been successfully applied to populations of women with disabilities in the past? Have

new studies been done since its creation with samples, including women with disabilities? With what

results? Only after evaluating the theory for its appropriateness in a specific context do we then use the

theory in engaging, assessing, intervening, or evaluating outcome of our work with client systems.

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 5). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

6 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms Core Values In

addition, the content of this text is grounded in the core values of the social work profession as

identified in the National Association of Social Workers (2008) Code of Ethics: • Service • Social justice

• Dignity and worth of the person • Importance of human relationships • Integrity • Competence

These values are and have historically been the underpinning for all social work education and practice.

Our journey through this text is guided by some basic concepts, skills, and perspectives that must come

together to competently practice social work. Next, we explore perspectives on critical thinking and its

importance for social workers. Critical Thinking Efforts to understand and teach critical thinking have a

long history in many disciplines. Varied disciplines, including social work, have focused on the

importance of good critical thinking in problem solving to ensure multiple and innovative ways of

thinking about and solving the problems our client systems face. According to Peter Facione, “Critical

thinking is thinking with a purpose” (Brechin, Brown, & Eby, 2000, and Facione, 2000, cited in Tilbury,

Osmond, & Scott, 2009, p. 33). Facione (2015, p. 2) suggests that, “At one level we all know what

‘critical thinking’ means—it means good thinking, almost the opposite of illogical, irrational, thinking.”

According to Facione, Critical thinking is skeptical without being cynical. It is open-minded without

being wishy-washy. It is analytical without being nitpicky. Critical thinking can be decisive without being

stubborn, evaluative without being judgmental, and forceful without being opinionated. (p. 25) To

think critically is a complex process and involves the use of “surface structure” and “deep structure”

knowledge of a problem or issue to be resolved. In addition, to be a successful critical thinker requires

both “domain knowledge” and practice in its use. Good critical thinking also involves self-regulation of

our thinking processes. It requires an attitude or disposition consistent with principles of critical

thinking. Finally, critical thinking includes moral or ethical choices (Facione, 2015; Willingham, 2007).

Critical thinking is more than skills. Daniel Willingham actually argues that critical thinking is not a skill

or a set of skills that can be used regardless of context. Rather, it is a different kind of skill that requires

an integration of “processes of thinking” with sufficient knowledge (facts) of what you are thinking

about (i.e. solving a specific problem) with what is referred to below as “domain knowledge” such as

what facts you currently have about the problem, what more do you need to know about the problem,

its history, context, etc. as we see in the discussion below (Willingham, 2007, p. 17). It includes a moral

and ethical aspect as well. Critical thinking includes what experts refer to as dispositions or attitudes.

Examples of these dispositions include: • Inquisitiveness with regard to a wide range of issues •

Concern to become and remain well-informed

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 6). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 7 • Trust in the

processes of reasoned inquiry • Self-confidence in one’s own abilities to reason • Open-mindedness

regarding divergent world views • Flexibility in considering alternatives and opinions • Understanding

of the opinions of other people • Honesty in facing one’s own biases, prejudices, stereotypes, or

egocentric tendencies (Facione, 2015, p. 11). Facione suggests these dispositions result in outcomes

including “civic engagement, concern for the common good, and social responsibility” (p. 15). He also

argues that good critical thinking is essential to a functioning democracy. All of these dispositions are

consistent with the core values of social work. To illustrate the “dispositions” of good critical thinking,

Facione describes the attitudes or dispositions of good critical thinkers using descriptive statements

such as: “I hate talk shows where people shout their opinions but never give any reasons at all.”

“Figuring out what people really mean by what they say is important to me.” “I hold off making

decisions until I have thought through my options.” “Rather than relying on someone else’s notes, I

prefer to read the material myself.” “I try to see the merit in another’s opinion, even if I reject it later.”

“Even if a problem is tougher than I expected, I will keep working on it.” “Making intelligent decisions is

more important than winning arguments.” (2015, p. 12) How many of the statements above are

characteristic of statements you might make? In thinking about good critical thinking, it is also

important to consider the attitudes and consequences of non-critical thinkers or even of persons hostile

to the idea of critical thinking. Facione suggests a non-critical thinker might be characterized as

someone who: • Is not interested in the facts • Mistrusts reasoning as a way of finding things out or

solving problems • Holds his or her own reasoning abilities in low esteem • Is close-minded, inf lexible,

insensitive • Denies his or her own biases • Jumps to conclusions or delays too long in making

judgments • Is never willing to reconsider an opinion (2015, p. 11). Someone hostile to critical thinking

may make statements like: “I prefer jobs where the supervisor says exactly what to do and exactly how

to do it.” “No matter how complex the problem, you can bet there will be a simple solution.” “I don’t

waste time looking things up.” “I hate when teachers discuss problems instead of just giving the

answers.” “If my belief is truly sincere, evidence to the contrary is irrelevant.” “Selling an idea is like

selling cars, you say whatever works.” (Facione, 2015, p. 12) The consequences of non-critical thinking

or hostility to critical thinking are quite dire for both individuals and societies. Facione provides a

glimpse of what life might be like in such a world. Imagine your life and the lives of your friends and

family placed in the hands of juries and judges who let their biases and stereotypes govern their

decisions, who do not attend to the evidence, who are not interested in reasoned inquiry.... Without

critical thinking people would be more easily exploited not only politically but economically.

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 7). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

8 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms So, given a society that

does not value and cultivate critical thinking, we might reasonably expect that in time the judicial

system and the economic system would collapse. And, in such a society, one that does not liberate its

citizens by teaching them to think critically for themselves, it would be madness to advocate democratic

forms of government. (2015, pp. 24–25) Facione further argues for the practical nature of teaching and

learning that stresses critical thinking. For example, he suggests that a sincere search for the truth and

open-mindedness about issues is a countermeasure to terrorists who seek to control what people think

through “indoctrination, intimidation, and the strictest authoritarian orthodoxy” (2015, p. 26). These are

important things to think about in light of efforts by domestic terrorists and white supremacist groups

in the United States to recruit new members and to control the thinking of their members and

followers, even to the point of inciting violence against non-white people and communities. To think

critically is hard work. Willingham suggests one reason that critical thinking is difficult is that it requires

thinking at two levels of a problem simultaneously: surface structure and deep structure. He suggests

our tendency is to over-focus on the surface structure of a problem and under-focus on the deep

structure of the problem. In short, Willingham suggests that “the surface structure of the problem is

overt, but the deep structure of a problem is not.” He often uses as examples word or thought

problems to illustrate the two levels of thinking. He provides this example: A treasure hunter is going to

explore a cave up on a hill near a beach. He suspected there might be many paths inside the cave so he

was afraid he might get lost. Obviously, he did not have a map of the cave; all he had with him were

some common items such as a f lashlight and a bag. What could he do to make sure he did not get lost

trying to get back out of the cave later? (2007, p. 11) How might you go about ensuring you could find

your way out of the cave if you were the treasure hunter? “You were correct if you said that the

solution is to carry some sand with you in the bag, and leave a trail as you go, so you can trace your

path back when you’re ready to leave the cave” (Willingham, 2007, p. 11). The sample of college

students who were presented with the problem included both American and Chinese college students.

Almost 75% of the Americans answered correctly, while only about 25% of the Chinese did. Why might

this have been the case? Willingham suggests the Americans were more successful because they had

“deep structure” knowledge about the problem because they knew the story of Hansel and Gretel and

their use of breadcrumbs to mark the trail so they wouldn’t get lost. The Chinese students did not have

access to this source of deep knowledge (Willingham, 2007). Another way to help us think critically is to

rely on metacognition or metacognitive strategies. These strategies allow us to call up past knowledge

in small bits about past problems that can be applied to a current problem. For example, Willingham,

2007 (p. 13) suggests that something as simple as reminding yourself to “look for a problem’s deep

structure” or to be sure to always “consider both sides of an issue” when you face a new problem can

support your continuing growth in critical thinking. He also notes that metacognitive strategies, while

helping to steer your thoughts and allowing you to self-regulate your thinking processes in problem

solving, do not tell you how to actually solve the problem. To do this you need significant domain

knowledge. In addition to surface and deep structure knowledge about a problem and the use of

metacognitive strategies, success in critical thinking is also dependent on “domain knowledge.” Domain

knowledge is simply knowing a lot of things about a particular area of knowledge or discipline of study.

Willingham (2007) refers to this as learning to think a particular way, for

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 8). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 9 example, like a

scientist. Thinking like a scientist involves using the “scientific method.” But generally, thinking

scientifically involves “developing a model, deriving a hypothesis from the model, designing an

experiment to test the hypotheses, gathering data from the experiment, interpreting the data in light of

the model” (pp. 13–15) and drawing conclusions. In addition, scientific thinking requires that the person

knows when it is appropriate to use this kind of thinking, the person has acquired sufficient knowledge

of the field, and has practiced the use of scientific thinking enough to be able to apply it to new

problems. So how might the concepts of surface and deep structure, thinking like a social worker,

domain knowledge, metacognition, and the importance of practice apply to processes of critical

thinking in the social work profession? The following brief case study helps illustrate how we can apply

these concepts. A family has been referred to your agency for services. The family includes a single

father and two teenage sons. The father dropped out of high school and never finished his General

Educational Development (GED) test requirements. Robots are now doing the father’s former job at an

air conditioner factory, and he has been out of work for two months. The family is in danger of eviction

from their apartment and the father has lost his employer-provided health insurance. One of the sons

was recently diagnosed with brain cancer and needs surgery immediately. The father continues to look

for work, but at 45 years old he believes he is experiencing ageism in his efforts. He also displays some

symptoms of depression. The case has been assigned to you. First, understanding of the surface

structure of the situation is gained by reading and understanding the referral and case summary

provided to your agency. This provides you with the surface structure knowledge. How do you go

deeper and find the deep structure knowledge necessary to more fully understand the problem and

move toward its solution? This will involve going beyond the case description to more deeply grasp the

problem and possible solutions. For example, you might collaborate with the family members to

prioritize the multiple problems they are facing, from the most immediate to more long-term issues.

You might look for interconnections among the problems. For example, are the symptoms of depression

related to the father’s lack of success in finding a job or his son’s recent cancer diagnosis? Or both? Is

depression interfering with his performance in job interviews? Are you or others making assumptions

about the family or the problems presented? For example, because the father never completed high

school, do you infer that he lacks motivation or intelligence? Based on your knowledge of the

community, you begin to list possible sources of assistance such as job training, employment assistance,

and enrollment in health insurance through the Affordable Care Act for access to medical care for the

son and mental health services for the father’s depression. In doing all these things to assist the family,

you are likely to use metacognitive strategies to help you approach the problem in an organized and

productive way. For example, you recall from previously acquired domain knowledge (your coursework)

that you need to always consider “person and environment” when doing social work. You probably also

recall the need to recognize the “interrelatedness” of the various issues presented because you have

learned to use a systems perspective as a basic tool. We learn a good deal more about the importance

of the person and environment as a fundamental approach to social work practice and about social

systems thinking later in the text. Why were we able to delve into the deep structure knowledge

necessary to begin addressing the family’s problems? In part, we were able to because we can “think

like a social worker.” That is, we have professional knowledge and skills that we can call on to move

toward a solution or solutions for this family. For example, we have knowledge of human behavior and

the

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 9). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

10 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms social environment

that allows us to understand human development and the importance of environmental inf luences to

allow us to “sort” through and prioritize the individual, family, and environmental issues in a systematic

and organized manner. We understand and have significant practice using the basic social work

processes of assessment, engagement, intervention, and evaluation. We understand the impact of

policies (factory automation, health insurance) on individuals and families (job loss, potential

homelessness, loss of insurance). We are also knowledgeable about a wide range of community

resources we can access to provide assistance in resolving different problems in the case (job training,

employment services, housing assistance, completion of GED, information necessary to enroll in health

insurance, community mental health professionals who provide services on a “sliding scale” that is

based on the client’s ability to pay). How do we become able to “think like a social worker”? We are in

the process of learning to do this right now through our social work courses (HBSE, practice, policy,

research, human diversity). Equally important, we have multiple chances to practice using our domain

knowledge through required field internships before we move into professional practice. Peter Facione

(Facione, 2015) proposed the following helpful five-step model for problem solving referred to by its

acronym “IDEAS”: I (Identify the problem); D (Determine what information is need to solve the

problem; E (Enumerate the options for solving the problem and assessing their outcomes); A (Assess

the information and options for solving the problem, and make a preliminary suggestion for solving it; S

(Scrutinize the problem solving process and make adjustments as warranted). Critical thinking skills are

essential to good social work practice. Unless we can think critically about the issues we face in practice,

we will not get very far in assisting or even assessing the client systems within which we work and their

concerns. However, social work is a complex enterprise made up of the profession’s knowledge, skills,

and values, as we noted earlier. In addition, the new CSWE standards add an emphasis on cognitive

(thinking) and affective processes (feelings, emotions) as also a major part of social work competence.

This means competence is not gained only by incorporating the profession’s knowledge, skills, and

values, which are “external” resources we draw from in our work. In addition, cognitive and affective

processes add important “internal” or personal resources to our efforts to become competent

professionals. These include critical thinking, of course, but also our “affective reactions, and exercise of

judgment” as we encounter new practice situations (CSWE, 2015, p. 6). For example, if you are working

with a client whose values and ways of living are in conf lict with yours— perhaps you are a very

religious Christian and your client is an atheist—you must be able to recognize and be self-ref lective

concerning your own values and attitudes about how to live your life in ways that allow you to avoid

imposing your values and way of living on your client system. PARADIGMS A paradigm is a mental

model of the world and how it works that we use to organize information in ways that allow us to make

sense of the complexity of the world around us. The term paradigm is often used interchangeably with

the term worldview. Our worldview is simply that—the way we view the world. There are a variety of

definitions of paradigm. Here are some examples: A paradigm is a set of assumptions, concepts, values

and practices that constitutes ways of viewing reality for the community that shares them. (The Free

Dictionary, www.thefreedictionary.com/paradigm) A paradigm “is a world view, a general perspective,

a way of breaking down the complexity of the real world.” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 15)

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 10). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 11 Paradigms constitute

“cultural patterns of group life.” (Schutz, 1944, p. 499) A world view underlying the theories and

methodology of a particular scientific subject. (English Oxford Dictionaries,

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/paradigm) Thomas Kuhn (1962/1970), in his inf luential

book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, defines a paradigm in multiple ways as well, but for our

purposes we use Kuhn’s definition of paradigm as “the entire constellation of beliefs, values,

techniques, and so on shared by the members of a given community” (Walker, 2010, p. 443). In our

case, that “given community” is the social work profession. We also use the notion of “worldview” as

interchangeable with the term paradigm. This term captures the sense of paradigm as a “way of viewing

the world.” Kuhn’s book has been inf luential in many disciplines beyond the natural sciences over the

years since he originally wrote it in 1962. A number of social work scholars have been inf luenced by

Kuhn’s ideas and have incorporated the concept of paradigm as a way of discovering and organizing

knowledge about the profession (Finn & Jacobson, 2003; Harington & Beddoe, 2014; Krumer-Nevo &

Komem, 2015; Schiele, 2017; Shulman, 2016). We explore some of these approaches to paradigms in

social work later in this text. Kuhn’s (1962/1970) original book focused on how revolutions in natural

sciences (for example, physics and astronomy) came about. He was trying to trace the processes that

resulted in radical changes or revolutions in traditional approaches to doing and thinking in science and

how they came about. For example, he saw the shift from a geocentric (Earth-centered) to a

heliocentric (Sun-centered) view of the universe as a revolution or paradigm shift in astronomy and how

we view the universe. It is hard for us today to believe that only a little more than 500 years ago

scientists (and many of the rest of us) believed Earth was the center and driving force of the universe

and that the Sun and the other planets revolved around our planet Earth. The shift to a heliocentric

view did not come smoothly and was met with major resistance, yet it prevailed. We will discuss this

and other scientific paradigms and paradigm shifts later in the section “Paradigms and History.” First,

we take a look at Kuhn’s model of paradigms. Kuhn’s Model Kuhn’s model depicts the lifecycle of a

scientific paradigm as a series of steps that move from the time prior to the existence of a paradigm, to

the creation of a stable and accepted paradigm, to a type of drift that occurs when the existing

paradigm faces new problems it cannot solve, then to a crisis step when unsolvable problems

accumulate, and then on to a revolution requiring great energy to create a new paradigm that can

resolve the formerly unsolvable problems. Figure 1.1 illustrates the Kuhn Cycle as a model of the

Thwink.org.

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 11). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

12 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms Kuhn put forth a

cyclical model he believed captured the lifecycle of a paradigm. The first step in the model, “pre-

science,” is actually not a step in the cycle, but the condition existing prior to what he refers to as

“normal science,” that is, no organized way of solving a problem of concern to a group. At this point no

model (paradigm) exists to address the discipline’s major problems (thwink.org, 2014). For social work,

pre-science existed up to 1898, when Anna Dawes at Columbia University taught the first formal class

for those who would become social workers. This was only the beginning; very rapidly other training

programs for social workers were developed and the first university-based school of social work was

founded, the New York School of Philanthropy (later becoming the Columbia University School of Social

Work) (Barker, 1995). Schools of social work continued to develop rapidly across the country, all

devoted to solving a range of social problems plaguing the country during the “pre-science” step.

Though problems such as poverty, poor health, lack of sanitation, discrimination against new

immigrants, child labor, and so on, were clearly visible, it was not until the creation of formal university-

based schools of social work that a single discipline existed that focused on these and similar problems.

In other words, until we emerged from pre-science we had problems to solve but no organized and

consistent way of addressing them. With the formation of an organized and widespread system of

educating new members of the social work profession by providing new social work knowledge, skills,

values, and approaches to addressing the problems of concern to us (e.g., poverty), we moved to

Kuhn’s “normal science” step. At this point, social work began to develop new knowledge and methods

for addressing social problems. For example, the social survey was developed, which was an early

approach to understanding the extent and intensity of poverty and its related problems by surveying

community members. The survey movement is also an example of the early use of empirical methods

and statistical analyses in researching problems. As such, the social survey allowed social workers to

assess community needs in more sophisticated ways. Based on knowledge gathered, social workers

were able to create programs and policies to intervene to address the needs uncovered by the surveys

(Lindsey, 1980). This is simply one example of the “normal science” step. Others include the

development of specific methods designed to alleviate problems of concern to the profession, including

casework, group work, and community organization, as well as approaches adapted from other

disciplines such as psychoanalysis. The next step of the Kuhn model is “model drift.” Model drift occurs

when, at some point in the normal science step, problems begin to appear that the current paradigm

cannot solve. These new problems, also called “anomalies,” cannot be explained using the methods,

knowledge, skills, and beliefs that make up the paradigm. Sometimes the paradigm can be adjusted to

accommodate the anomaly, but if new problems (anomalies) that cannot be solved using the existing

paradigm begin to accumulate, the Kuhn Cycle moves to the “model crisis” step. At this point, a field is

thrown into crisis because it can no longer rationally solve the problems facing it. Kuhn suggests that at

this point members of the field or discipline use their energy searching for a new paradigm that will be

able to solve the new problems they face. Examples of anomalies in society that created a crisis leading

to paradigm change include “the injustice of allowing only men to vote” and the widespread “suffering

and injustice of racial discrimination.” Both anomalies were resolved through paradigm change, one in

the form of a constitutional amendment (19th Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1920) to

allow women to vote and the other in the form of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawing racial

discrimination. This was possible because in 1776 the United States chose a liberal democratic form of

national government that could accommodate the changes necessary to resolve the anomalies

(thwink.org, 2014).

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 12). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 13 “Model revolution” is

the next step in the cycle. This step occurs when model drift leads to model crisis and the members

desperately seek a fundamentally new way to view and solve new problems. Model revolution results in

a radically new paradigm. Remember the revolutionary paradigm shift or change from an earth-

centered worldview to a sun-centered worldview we described earlier; this was the result of model

revolution. The concept of “paradigm shift,” discussed next, happens as a result of model crisis that in

turn leads to model revolution. Paradigm Shift A paradigm shift is “a profound change in the thoughts,

perceptions, and values that form a particular vision of reality” (Capra, 1983, p. 30). To express the

fundamental changes required of a paradigm shift, Thomas Kuhn uses the analogy of travel to another

planet. Kuhn tells us that a paradigm shift “is rather as if the professional community had been

suddenly transported to another planet where familiar objects are seen in a different light and are

joined by unfamiliar ones as well” (1962/1970, p. 111). The elements of this analogy—travel, another

planet or world, viewing both familiar and new objects in a different light—are consistent with our

efforts in this text to travel on a journey toward a more complete understanding of HBSE. Our journey

takes us to other people’s worlds and it will call upon us to view new things in those worlds and familiar

things in our own worlds in new ways and through others’ eyes. As we continue on our journey we

should try to appreciate that the process of taking the trip is as important and enlightening as any final

destination we might reach. Paradigms are not mysterious, determined for all time, immovable objects.

Paradigms are social constructs created by humans. They can be and, in fact, have been changed and

reconstructed by humans throughout our history (Capra, 1983). Kuhn (1962/1970), for example,

discusses scientific and political revolutions that result in paradigm shifts and changes. Such changes,

Kuhn suggests, come about when a segment of a community, often a small segment, has a growing

sense that existing institutions are unable to adequately address or solve the problems in the

environment—an environment those same institutions helped create. The actions taken by the

dissatisfied segment of the community can result in the replacement of all or parts of the older

paradigm with a newer one. However, since not all humans have the same amount of inf luence or

power and control over what a paradigm looks like and whose values and beliefs give it form, efforts to

change paradigms involve conf lict and struggle (Kuhn, 1962/1970). Use of the notion of paradigm shift

will enable us to expand our knowledge of human behavior and the social environment and to use this

additional knowledge in our practice of social work. It can free us from an overdependence on

traditional ways of viewing the world as the only ways of viewing the world. It can allow us to move

beyond these views to alternative possibilities for viewing the world, its people, and their behaviors.

The concept of paradigm shift allows us to make the transitions necessary to continue our journey to

explore alternative paradigms and paradigmatic elements that represent the many human interests,

needs, and perspectives not addressed by or ref lected in the traditional and dominant paradigm. The

concept of paradigm shift is also helpful in recognizing relationships between traditional and alternative

paradigms and for tracing how alternative paradigms often emerge from traditional or dominant ones.

Traditional or dominant paradigms and alternative or possible paradigms for human behavior are not

necessarily mutually exclusive. As we see in the discussion of paradigms and history, different

paradigms can be described as different points in a progression of transformations in the way we

perceive human behavior and the social environment. The progression from traditional and dominant

to alternative and possible that we envision here is one that ref lects a continuous movement (we hope)

toward views

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 13). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

14 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms of human behavior

more consistent with the core values of social work and away from narrow perspectives that include

only a privileged few and exclude the majority of humans. In some cases, this progression will mean

returning to previously neglected paradigms. Such a progression, then, does not imply a linear, forward-

only movement. It might more readily be conceived as a spiral or winding kind of movement. The

worldviews illustrated in our discussion of history, for example, represented the perspectives almost

exclusively of Europeans. Very different worldviews emerged in other parts of the world. Myers (1985),

for example, describes an Afrocentric worldview that emerged over 5,000 years ago among Egyptians

that posited the real world to be both spiritual and material at once. This holistic perspective found God

manifest in everything. The self included “ancestors, the yet unborn, all of nature, and the entire

community” (Myers, 1985, p. 35). Many scholars suggest that this paradigm continues to inf luence the

worldviews of many people of African descent today. This Afrocentric paradigm clearly offers an

alternative to European humanist or scientific paradigms that emerged during the Renaissance. Such an

alternative emphasizing the interrelatedness of individuals and community and their mutual

responsibility for one another encompasses much that is valuable and consistent with the core values of

social work. Paradigm Shift, Social Work, and Social Change The concept of paradigm shift or change

has significant implications for us as social workers. If you recall from earlier discussion, the basic

purposes of social work include social change or social transformation and call upon us to be involved in

and lead social and political action to promote social and economic justice. Social change is also

required in our call to enhance human well-being and to work on behalf of oppressed persons denied

access to opportunities and resources or power. When we as social workers become a part of the

processes of changing paradigms and the institutions that emerge from them, we are in essence

engaging in fundamental processes of social change and transformation. We can use the information

we now have about paradigms and paradigm analysis to change or replace paradigms that create

obstacles to people meeting their needs and reaching their potential. Since paradigms are ref lected

throughout the beliefs, values, institutions, and processes that make up our daily lives, we need not limit

our thinking about paradigms only to our immediate concerns here about human behavior and the

social environment. We can apply what we know about paradigms and paradigm change throughout

our education and practice. For us as students of social work, that means we must become aware of the

nature of the paradigms ref lected throughout all areas of our studies in social work necessary to

achieve the nine core competencies required of professional social workers. We certainly also must

begin to analyze the nature and assumptions of the paradigms we encounter through our coursework in

the arts and humanities (music, theater, visual arts, philosophy, literature, English, languages, religious

studies), social sciences (economics, political science, psychology, sociology, anthropology, history), and

natural sciences (biology, physics, chemistry, geology, geography), as well as through our own personal

histories and life experiences. Now, how does the paradigm of the social work profession stack up in

terms of model drift, anomalies, model crisis, and model revolution? Social work is a young profession

compared to the natural sciences of concern to Kuhn such as physics, astronomy, or biology. Because of

the profession’s youth, it may not yet be experiencing model crisis. However, social work certainly

faces new problems or anomalies that are not easily solved with existing knowledge, skills, or values

that make up the social work paradigm. Think about climate change and its effects on the vulnerable

populations social workers serve around the world. Think about the migrant

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 14). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 15 crises and human

trafficking resulting from environmental degradation, climate change, political unrest, and civil wars in

the Middle East and other parts of the world. Millions of people who have been displaced have become

“people without a country.” These are new or newly recognized problems, especially in their

magnitude, facing the profession, but do we have the necessary tools among our current knowledge,

skills, methods, and values to effectively tackle them? Given the magnitude of the problems, can

traditional methods of casework (work with individuals), group work, or community organization (we

explore individual, group, and community systems in detail in later chapters) accommodate these new

problems? If not, can we find new approaches to address them? For example, we are seeing a growing

interest in environmental social work, or green social work, in efforts to add these anomalies. Whether

the profession can create solutions to solve these new problems (and many others) may very well

determine if the profession is moving to model drift, model crisis, or model revolution. We address

these anomalies and the profession’s responses later in discussion of sustainable, environmental, and

ecological social work as emerging social work paradigm dimensions. PARADIGMS AND PERCEPTION

One of the definitions of paradigm we listed earlier is “a world view, a general perspective, a way of

breaking down the complexity of the real world” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 15). Paradigms shape and

are shaped by values, knowledge, and beliefs about the nature of our worlds and are often so “taken

for granted” that we are virtually unaware of their existence or of the assumptions we make because of

them. In other words, paradigms shape our perception of people and the world around us. In

perception, we use our five senses to interpret the world around us as we go through our daily lives.

This interpretation is based in large part on the experiences and beliefs we accumulate throughout our

lives. As we accumulate new knowledge, experience or understanding, we can change our previous

worldviews. Look at the word depicted below. Like most us, you probably see the word good. However,

if you look closer at the white space inside the letters you can also see the word evil. Because of the

way our brains are trained when learning to read the English language, we rarely if ever try to “read”

the space inside of letters. Now, though, at least for stylized words that look similar to the word below,

your brain may lead you to scrutinize them a bit more closely. This might be the case if, for example,

you were presented similarly styled, but different words often.

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 15). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

16 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms In addition, while we

may assume others view the world in the same way we do, this is often not the case. Now look at the

picture below. View this image with some friends and see how many see a stylish young woman.

Probably, most will. Does anyone see a sad-looking older woman? Probably not many viewers see the

alternate woman’s image at first glance. Why do you think most see the young woman but not the

older woman? First, think about you and the friends who viewed the image with you. Were group

members all men, all women, or was the group gender-mixed? If women viewed the image, did they

respond the same way as men? How old were the group members? If the group included someone in

their 70s, might they respond differently? How are women portrayed in media: are we conditioned to

“look” for women like the usually young and attractive models in commercials, TV shows, movies, social

media, etc.? Thinking about your answers to the questions can help reveal aspects of the paradigm or

worldview you hold that resulted in your perception of the image. For example, they may ref lect

perspectives we hold about women, age, or attractiveness. PARADIGMS AND SOCIAL WORK Since the

first edition of this text in 1995, the concept of paradigm has become widely used in social work and

many other disciplines. Some argue that the concept has become merely a “buzzword” used in so many

ways it is in danger of becoming meaningless, particularly in the way Kuhn used it as solely the territory

of processes of revolutionary change in the natural sciences (Paton, 2014). In this text, we assert that

the concept of paradigm, when applied to social work, continues to be an effective and meaningful

approach to gathering and organizing knowledge about the complex terrain of the social work

profession. The description of the PAP model that we explore

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 16). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 17 in some detail in this

chapter is but one example of its power to help us systematically gather and organize existing and new

knowledge to create new practice paradigms for social work. There are other current examples as well.

Shulman (2016) describes an interactional paradigm of social work practice. Schiele (2017) has

continued to work on his established Afrocentric paradigm of social work, which we explore more fully

later in this text. Harington and Beddoe (2014) provide a “civic practice” paradigm for social work. In

short, it seems the concept and its application to social work continues to be quite helpful in

understanding and organizing the enterprise that is the discipline and profession of social work. For

social workers, the concept of paradigm, and its power to shape our perceptions, is particularly

important. If we can become conscious of the components of our own worldview and realize how it

shapes our perceptions every day, we may be better able to appreciate the worldviews of others. This

awareness can provide us with tools to use to think about and to understand ourselves, others, and the

environments we all inhabit. Furthermore, the notion of paradigm can help us understand our own and

others’ roles in creating and re-creating the very meaning of humanness. Specifically, thinking in terms

of paradigms or worldviews can provide us with new ways of understanding humans’ behaviors in

individual, family, group, organizational, community, and global contexts. The concept of paradigm can

serve us very well to organize our thinking about and increase our understanding of multiple theories

and perspectives about human behavior and the social environment. Using the concept of paradigm can

help us understand the way things are and, equally important for social workers, it can help us

understand the way things might be and the changes necessary to achieve new approaches to social

work education and practice. Next, we explore an example of a social work paradigm, including its

ontology, epistemology, and axiology. Poverty-Aware Social Work Paradigm The poverty-aware social

work paradigm (PAP) is a “new paradigm for social work” focused on the profession’s commitment to

reduce and eliminate poverty (Krumer-Nevo, 2016, p. 1793). The PAP includes essential elements of a

paradigm: ontology, or what we see as real; epistemology, the means we use to gain and use

knowledge to verify reality; and axiology, the ethical dimensions f lowing from our view of reality and

the processes of generating knowledge to confirm that our view of reality is correct. Krumer-Nevo is a

member of the social work department at Ben-Gurion University in Israel. The PAP paradigm in part f

lowed from a program he developed in Israel and for which he served as director. In outlining the new

paradigm, Krumer-Nevo describes its paradigmatic elements. In PAP the ontological questions include

“What is the nature of poverty?” and “What are the characteristics of poor people?” (Krumer-Nevo,

2016, p. 1795). PAP views poverty as a “violation of human rights” that pervades all aspects of poor

people’s lives. Poverty is more than the lack of material needs (decent housing, health care, education).

It involves the stigma and discrimination faced by poor people, their lack of voice in the processes and

policies affecting them, and a disregard for the knowledge gained and held by poor people as a result of

experiencing poverty (Krumer-Nevo, 2016). Krumer-Nevo (2016) contrasts the PAP ontology with that

of paradigms based on a conservative approach that “views poverty as the sum total of the

psychological, moral, behavioural [sic] and cultural pathologies or deficits of poor people” (pp. 1796–

1799). This approach views poor people’s problems as their own fault and, therefore, their

responsibility, not society’s, to solve. Obviously, these two views of poverty are

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 17). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

18 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms quite different

ontologically because they view the “reality” of poverty and its causes in such contrasting ways.

Epistemology in the PAP paradigm is gaining knowledge through a “critical constructivist” approach (we

address constructivist and critical theory later in the text) that focuses on reality as constructed through

relationships and interactions between the persons involved (social worker and poor people or poor

communities) and heavily inf luenced by power structures’ negative effects on poor people. Heavy inf

luence is placed on the importance of stable relationships based on trust between workers and the

people they serve (Krumer-Nevo, 2016). The following case example highlights the importance of

relationships where social workers really know and trust the people they serve. Dana asked her social

worker for assistance in buying a dining set. When offered a set, she refused to take it because it had

iron legs and she preferred wooden ones. The social worker, who had known Dana only brief ly, was

tempted to interpret this reaction as proof that she was ungrateful or not as poor as she claimed. Yet,

when she [asked Dana about her] refusal of the first set of furniture. Dana revealed that her husband

had been violent towards her and their children, and had hit them with pieces of furniture. Her

rejection of the iron-legged table and chairs was not the “spoiled” reaction of an ungrateful poor

woman, but rather the rational calculation of a mother protecting her children and herself.

Understanding this point changed dramatically the social worker’s [perspective]. (Krumer-Nevo, 2016,

p. 1801) This case is a reminder of the importance of deep and trusting relationships between workers

and service users that are critical to PAP. In addition, thinking back to our earlier discussion of our

perceptions f lowing from paradigms we hold about people and their motivations for behaving as they

do, the social worker’s initial perception based on her own worldview was clearly not consistent with

the reality of Dana’s situation and her reason for choosing as she did. Axiology or the ethical dimension

of a paradigm ref lects how and what is determined good or bad in terms of that paradigm and includes

value judgments about the world based on the paradigm. For PAP, ethics are focused on solidarity or a

sense of “we” rather than “they.” This solidarity extends to the work social workers and client systems

engage in together to overcome obstacles and make clients “equal partners” in confronting problems of

unequal power (Krumer-Nevo, 2016). Later in this text, we explore a strengths-based perspective

(paradigm) you will find similarly based on notions of social worker and client systems as equal partners

in resolving problems and fulfilling needs. Krumer-Nevo suggests the PAP paradigm is unique in “its

integration of the way social work sees (ontology), knows (epistemology), commits itself (axiology), and

works (practice) with people in poverty” (2016, p. 1805). Paradigm Shift and Social Work As we noted

earlier, in discussing the steps in Kuhn’s paradigm cycle, paradigms can go through processes that

include paradigm change or even revolution. The PAP social work paradigm we explored previously

offers an example of efforts to change or shift the social work paradigm to better and more

comprehensively address one of our fundamental goals: poverty reduction and elimination. A paradigm

shift is “a profound change in the thoughts, perceptions, and values that form a particular vision of

reality” (Capra, 1983, p. 30). In PAP we saw shifts in how we might think about and perceive the reality

of poverty by viewing it as a violation of basic human rights (ontology), we explored new approaches to

gaining knowledge to reduce and eliminate poverty

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 18). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 19 (epistemology), and

the values and ethics (axiology) of the new paradigm (Krumer-Nevo, 2016). Ontology and epistemology

will be addressed further in Ch. 2. To describe the fundamental changes required of a paradigm shift,

Thomas Kuhn (1962/1970) uses the analogy of travel to another planet. Kuhn tells us that a paradigm

shift “is rather as if the professional community had been suddenly transported to another planet

where familiar objects are seen in a different light and are joined by unfamiliar ones as well” (p. 111).

The elements of this analogy—travel, another planet or world, viewing both familiar and new objects in

a different light—are consistent with our efforts in this text to travel on a journey toward a more

complete understanding of HBSE. Our journey will take us to other people’s worlds and it will call upon

us to view new things in those worlds and familiar things in our own worlds in new ways and through

others’ eyes. As we continue our journey we should try to appreciate that the process of taking the trip

is as important and enlightening as any final destination we might reach. Paradigms are not mysterious,

determined-for-all-time, immovable objects. Paradigms are social constructs created by humans. They

can be and, in fact, have been changed and reconstructed by humans throughout our history. We have

seen scientific (Sun-centered versus Earthcentered universe) and political revolutions (the creation of

American democracy in 1776 or the civil rights movement leading to the Civil Rights Act of 1964) that

resulted in new paradigms or substantial paradigm changes. Such changes, Kuhn (1962/1970) suggests,

come about when a segment of a community, often a small segment, has a growing sense that existing

institutions are unable to adequately address or solve the problems or anomalies in the environment

(i.e. racial discrimination and oppression in a country with a constitutional paradigm of freedom and

human rights). The actions taken by the dissatisfied segment of the community can result in the

replacement of all or parts of the older paradigm with a newer one. However, since not all humans have

the same amount of inf luence or power and control over what a paradigm looks like and whose values

and beliefs give it form, efforts to change paradigms often involve significant conf lict. The American civil

rights movement resulted in intense violence brought upon the smaller group seeking change (African

Americans and their White allies) by the larger, more powerful group (racist and segregationist White

Americans). However, in spite of the almost overwhelming obstacles faced by African Americans in

gaining their civil rights, they and their integrationist allies succeeded. However, we must not forget

that we are far from overcoming racial discrimination and oppression in the United States. Currently,

for example, we are witnessing worrisome increases in racial and immigrant discrimination and

intimidation, including hate crimes and unequal treatment by police and the criminal justice system

(Slate Staff, 2017). Using the notion of paradigm shift will enable us to expand our knowledge of human

behavior and the social environment and to use this additional knowledge in our practice of social work.

It can free us from an overdependence on traditional ways of viewing the world as the only ways of

viewing the world. It can allow us to “shift” or move beyond these views to alternative possibilities for

viewing the world, its people, and their behaviors. The concept of paradigm shift allows us to make the

transitions necessary to continue our journey to explore alternative paradigms and paradigmatic

elements that represent the many human interests, needs, and perspectives not addressed by or ref

lected in the traditional and dominant paradigm. The concept of paradigm shift is also helpful in

recognizing relationships between traditional and alternative paradigms and for tracing how alternative

paradigms often emerge from traditional or dominant ones. Traditional or dominant paradigms and

alternative or possible paradigms for human behavior are not necessarily mutually exclusive. As we will

see in the discussion of paradigms and history, different paradigms can be described as different points

in a progression of transformations in the way we perceive human behavior and the social

environment. The progression from traditional and dominant to alternative and

Schriver, Joe M.. Human Behavior and the Social Environment (p. 19). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

20 Chapter 1: Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms possible that we

envision here is one that ref lects a continuous movement (we hope) toward views of human behavior