HUM184

Essays in this section:

Overview Essay on The Slave Trade

The Debate Over Abolition

The Middle Passage

The Christianization of Slaves in the West Indies

From the 17th century until the 19th century, almost twelve million Africans were broug ht to the New World against their will to perform back-breaking labor under terrible conditions. The British slave trade was eventually abolished in 1807 (although illegal slave trading would continue for decades after that) after years of debate, in which supporters of the trade claimed that it was not inhumane, that they were acting in the slaves’ benefit, etc. The rationalizations and defenses given for slavery and the slave trade were absurd and self-serving. Slavery was a truly barbaric, and those who think that they can control what another group of people eat, where they sleep, whether they are to live or die, or even whether they are to be bought or sold, are acting on a totally inhumane level. But just as important as the critique of the slave trade is that need to discover how the enslaved themselves reacted: through submission; or through resistance? From the African coast to the West Indies, and up to the abolition of the slave trade, we can discover many forms of resistance. The country of Portugal was one of the first countries to start selling slaves. Portugal found out about selling slaves for profit by sheer luck. The first slave purchase is said to have taken place in 1441 when the Portuguese caught two African males while they were along the coast. The Africans in the nearby village paid them in gold for their return. Slave traders used many slave forts to protect themselves and their shipments. This was a way of guarding themselves against any attackers. It was also a way of holding slaves until they could be sold and shipped to the New World. The Africans were sold in many ways. They were sold to traders by other Africans, and eventually forced into slavery by men with guns. From here, slaves were placed aboard ships to be taken across the Atlantic on a voyage that was eventually coined "the middle passage." The middle passage of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade consisted of immeasurable brutality. Africans were chained and packed into quarters unfit for movement or proper breathing. The only hope of escape rested in suicide by jumping overboard. With the British Parliament's outlaw of the slave trade in 1808, the naval superpower set sail to enforce total European abolition. The Society of Friends, along with other such concerned parties, published accounts of the horrific middle passage to distribute amongst still practicing nations. These accounts, supported by memoirs such as Oladuah Equiano's, who survived the journey, informed the masses and catalyzed the destruction of slavery. The atrocities continued once the Africans arrived in the West Indies, but resistance began to grow once on the plantation. In the West Indies, slaves searched for an outlet to vent their frustrations. To be successful in alleviating their frustrations and resisting in some way, slaves had to unite. One of the more popular ways slaves accomplished this was through the Christian religion. When it was allowed by the planters, Christianized slaves could resist the institution of slavery by looking to God. The ideals that Christianity held were easy for Africans to understand and adapt. Doing so meant that the slaves would lose some of their African heritage, but the plusses far outweighed the minuses. Slaves "Africanized" Christianity in the West Indies and thus created a new culture among them. Those who chose, or who were allowed, to be baptized were successful at resisting slavery and uniting together with a common interest in God. However, the road to Christianity was often bumpy and dangerous. The missionaries from Europe regularly faced opposition by whites and indifference by blacks. In the end, the effort proved to be worth the time and energy invested. The Christianization of slaves was a major factor in bringing an end to the oppression that was the slave trade. Great debate exists even today over just how and why the British Parliament voted to abolish the slave trade. By the late 1700's, the abolition movement had become strong enough to exert considerable pressure on Parliament, and an array of differing arguments were being made for abolition. Former slave Olaudah Equiano presented both a moral and an economic case for abolition, in the latter sounding a great deal like Adam Smith. Religious groups such as the Providence Society presented a fiery moral case based on their interpretation of the scripture. In Parliament, William Wilberforce became the leading abolitionist and, interestingly enough, would argue in a similar fashion as Equiano did, appealing to the people's conscience and using free trade ideas to convince Parliament that abolition would benefit the British Empire commercially. In the end, it might be best to assume that Parliament's vote to abolish slavery was a result of years of resistance on the part of slaves such as Equiano finally making an impact. As the account of Equiano demonstrates, slavery as an institution was in trouble under the pressure of a general resistance by the slaves. These slaves were finally making breakthroughs by the late 18th century. Despite the brutal, repressive nature of slavery, the efforts of resistance by the slaves and the abolitionists proved strong enough to overcome this institution.

Essays in this section:

Overview Essay on The Slave Trade

The Debate Over Abolition

The Middle Passage

The Christianization of Slaves in the West Indies

From the 17th century until the 19th century, almost twelve million Africans were broug ht to the New World against their will to perform back-breaking labor under terrible conditions. The British slave trade was eventually abolished in 1807 (although illegal slave trading would continue for decades after that) after years of debate, in which supporters of the trade claimed that it was not inhumane, that they were acting in the slaves’ benefit, etc. The rationalizations and defenses given for slavery and the slave trade were absurd and self-serving. Slavery was a truly barbaric, and those who think that they can control what another group of people eat, where they sleep, whether they are to live or die, or even whether they are to be bought or sold, are acting on a totally inhumane level. But just as important as the critique of the slave trade is that need to discover how the enslaved themselves reacted: through submission; or through resistance? From the African coast to the West Indies, and up to the abolition of the slave trade, we can discover many forms of resistance. The country of Portugal was one of the first countries to start selling slaves. Portugal found out about selling slaves for profit by sheer luck. The first slave purchase is said to have taken place in 1441 when the Portuguese caught two African males while they were along the coast. The Africans in the nearby village paid them in gold for their return. Slave traders used many slave forts to protect themselves and their shipments. This was a way of guarding themselves against any attackers. It was also a way of holding slaves until they could be sold and shipped to the New World. The Africans were sold in many ways. They were sold to traders by other Africans, and eventually forced into slavery by men with guns. From here, slaves were placed aboard ships to be taken across the Atlantic on a voyage that was eventually coined "the middle passage." The middle passage of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade consisted of immeasurable brutality. Africans were chained and packed into quarters unfit for movement or proper breathing. The only hope of escape rested in suicide by jumping overboard. With the British Parliament's outlaw of the slave trade in 1808, the naval superpower set sail to enforce total European abolition. The Society of Friends, along with other such concerned parties, published accounts of the horrific middle passage to distribute amongst still practicing nations. These accounts, supported by memoirs such as Oladuah Equiano's, who survived the journey, informed the masses and catalyzed the destruction of slavery. The atrocities continued once the Africans arrived in the West Indies, but resistance began to grow once on the plantation. In the West Indies, slaves searched for an outlet to vent their frustrations. To be successful in alleviating their frustrations and resisting in some way, slaves had to unite. One of the more popular ways slaves accomplished this was through the Christian religion. When it was allowed by the planters, Christianized slaves could resist the institution of slavery by looking to God. The ideals that Christianity held were easy for Africans to understand and adapt. Doing so meant that the slaves would lose some of their African heritage, but the plusses far outweighed the minuses. Slaves "Africanized" Christianity in the West Indies and thus created a new culture among them. Those who chose, or who were allowed, to be baptized were successful at resisting slavery and uniting together with a common interest in God. However, the road to Christianity was often bumpy and dangerous. The missionaries from Europe regularly faced opposition by whites and indifference by blacks. In the end, the effort proved to be worth the time and energy invested. The Christianization of slaves was a major factor in bringing an end to the oppression that was the slave trade. Great debate exists even today over just how and why the British Parliament voted to abolish the slave trade. By the late 1700's, the abolition movement had become strong enough to exert considerable pressure on Parliament, and an array of differing arguments were being made for abolition. Former slave Olaudah Equiano presented both a moral and an economic case for abolition, in the latter sounding a great deal like Adam Smith. Religious groups such as the Providence Society presented a fiery moral case based on their interpretation of the scripture. In Parliament, William Wilberforce became the leading abolitionist and, interestingly enough, would argue in a similar fashion as Equiano did, appealing to the people's conscience and using free trade ideas to convince Parliament that abolition would benefit the British Empire commercially. In the end, it might be best to assume that Parliament's vote to abolish slavery was a result of years of resistance on the part of slaves such as Equiano finally making an impact. As the account of Equiano demonstrates, slavery as an institution was in trouble under the pressure of a general resistance by the slaves. These slaves were finally making breakthroughs by the late 18th century. Despite the brutal, repressive nature of slavery, the efforts of resistance by the slaves and the abolitionists proved strong enough to overcome this institution.

Essays in this section:

Overview Essay on the Haitian Revolution

Resistance and the Haitian Revolution

Social Triggers of the Haitian Revolution

At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, the colony of St. Domingue, now Haiti, furnished two-thirds of France’s overseas trade, employed one thousand ships and fifteen thousand French sailors. The colony became France’s richest, the envy of every other European nation. This plantation system, which provided such a pivotal role in the French economy, was also the greatest individual market for the African slave trade. Yet, conflict and resentment permeated the society of San Domingo, and slave resistance began to take an organized form in the late 18th century. The French Revolution did inspire many in 1789, but black resistance had existed for years. In August of 1791 an organized slave rebellion broke out, marking the start of a twelve-year resistance to obtain human rights. The Haitian Revolution is the only successful slave revolt in history, and resulted in the establishment of Haiti, the first independent black state in the New World. One must emphasize the struggles that had been occurring for decades prior to the 1791 outbreak of full-scale rebellion. Yet the French Revolution was also crucially important, for the conflicts between whites about what exactly its ideals meant triggered an opportunity for blacks. A historically significant step was the issuance of the Declaration of Rights of Man passed in France on August 26, 1789. It stated, "In the eyes of the law all citizens are equal." While the French government did not want to release this to their colonies, word got out. News of the Declaration of Rights of Man brought new hopes to the black masses. Meanwhile, plantation owners and the French government continued to exploit the slaves for profit. A series of revolts occurred in 1790, by mulattoes led by Vincent Ogé. Descendents of mixed blood were trying to establish suffrage from a recent National Assembly ruling. However the white Colonial Assembly ignored French efforts. These mulatto-led revolts were the first challenges against French rule and the slaveholding system. In August of 1791, the first organized black rebellion ignited the twelve-year San Domingo Revolution. The northern settlements were hit first, and the flood that overwhelmed them revealed the military strength and organization of the black masses. Plantations were destroyed, and white owners killed to escape the oppression. Some of the rebellion’s leaders include Boukman, Biassou, Toussaint, Jeannot, Francois, Dessalines, and Cristophe. These men would help to guide the Revolution down its torturous, bloody road to complete success, although it would cost over twelve years and hundreds of thousands of lives. Many of those leaders themselves would fall along the way, but the force of unity against slavery, a unity deeply embedded in the creole culture that bound the blacks together, would sustain the revolution. After the revolutionaries’ initial successes in overwhelming the institution of plantation slavery on the Plaine du Nord, Le Cap fell into the hands of French republican forces. Toussaint and thousands of blacks joined them in April 1793. The agreement was if the blacks fought against the royalists, the French would promise freedom. Thus, on August 29, 1793, Commissioner Légér-Felicité Sonthonax abolished slavery in the colony. Then with self-interest in mind, revolutionary France’s British enemies tried to seize an opportunity to grab the colony, so recently the greatest single source of colonial wealth in the whole world. Furthermore, the British wanted to put down the slave rebellion in order to protect their own slave colonies. In June of 1794 British forces landed on the island and worked with Spain to attack the French. Yet, the British forces soon fell victim to yellow fever. With more uncertainties presenting themselves, Toussaint decided to pledge his support to the French, on May 6, 1794. Toussaint was appointed governor in 1796 and he continued to follow his ideas for an autonomous black- led San Domingo. By January 1802, Toussaint was the head of a semi-independent San Domingo. Napoleon saw this as a threat and sent his brother-in-law Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc from France with 20,000 troops to capture Toussaint, and re-establish slavery in the colony. Toussaint was deceived in 1802, captured and shipped to France, where he eventually died in prison. But the struggle for independence continued and by late 1803 the north and south arenas of the island united and defeated the French under Rochambeau. Dessalines, Toussaint’s former lieutenant proclaimed the independence of the country of Haiti and declared himself Emperor. He was assassinated in 1806, and the country divided between rival successors. Yet, the rebels had shattered the enslaved colony and forged from the ruins the free nation of Haiti.