250 words and two scholarly references
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Moderate Physical Activity: A Lifestyle Approach
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this concept, you will be able to:
▶ Define moderate physical activity and differentiate it from light and vigorous physical activity. ▶ Describe the health benefits of moderate physical activity, and explain why moderate physical activity is the most popular form of physical activity .
▶ Describe and explain the FIT formula for moderate physical activity. ▶ Plan a personal moderate physical activity program based on SMART goals, and self-monitor your plan.
▶ Evaluate your current environment and determine ways to modify it to encourage moderate physical activity.
C o
n c
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t 6
The Physical Activity Pyramid ▶ Section III
Moderate-intensity activities, including lifestyle activities, have many health and wellness benefits
when performed regularly.
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102 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
regardless of fitness level or age. Moderate activities include some activities of daily living as well as less intense sports and recreational activities. Taking a brisk walk is the most obvious example of incorporating moderate activity into daily living. However, activities of daily living, such as walking the dog, garden- ing, mowing the lawn, carpentry, or housework can count as moderate activities. Moderate sports and recreational activities not considered to be vig- orous enough to be placed at step 3 of the physical activity pyramid can also be used to meet the moderate physical activity guideline (e.g., playing catch, shooting baskets, recreational bike riding, and casual rollerblading).
Moderate physical activity can be distinguished from “light” activity and “vigorous” activity. Scien- tists have devised a method to classify levels of activity by intensity. With this system, all activities are compared against the amount of energy expended at rest.
Resting energy expenditure is defined as 1 “metabolic equivalent” or 1 MET. Other activities are then assigned values in multiples of METS. For generally healthy adults, moderate-intensity activities require an energy expen-
diture of 3.0 to 6.0 METS. This means that they require between three and six times the energy expended while at rest. Moderate-intensity activities are often referred to as aerobic physical activities because the aerobic metabolism can typi- cally meet the energy demand of the activity. This allows moderate-intensity (aerobic) activities to be performed com- fortably for extended periods of time by most people.
Activities above 6 METS are considered to be vigorous physical activities and these cannot usually be maintained as easily unless a person has a good level of fitness. Examples include more structured aero- bic activities (e.g., jogging, biking, swimming) or vigor- ous sports (e.g., soccer). Activi- ties below 3.0 METS can be classified as “light intensity” but researchers now distin- guish light activity (1.5 to 3.0 METS) from sedentary activ- ity (1.0 to 1.5 METS) which primarily captures sitting and lying time. Examples of light
H umans are clearly meant to move, but the nature of our society has made it difficult for many people to lead active lifestyles. Cars, motorized golf carts, snow- blowers, elevators, remote control devices, and email are just some of the modern conveniences that have reduced the amount of activity in our daily lives. Only a small per- centage of adults get enough regular physical activity to promote health and wellness benefits. Moderate-intensity physical activity (which includes many lifestyle tasks done as part of normal daily living), provides most of the ben- efits associated with active living. In Concept 5, you were provided with an overview of each type of physical activ- ity. In this concept, you will learn in more detail about moderate physical activity, the FIT formula for achiev- ing it, and how to plan a personal program to incorporate moderate physical activity into your daily routine.
Adopting an Active Lifestyle Moderate physical activity is the foundation of an active lifestyle. Moderate physical activity is included at the base of the physical activity pyramid (see Figure 1 ) because it can be performed by virtually all people,
VIDEO 1
Figure 1 ▶ The physical activity pyramid, step 1: moderate physical activity. Source: C. B. Corbin
Avoid Inactivity
Energy Balance
Energy Out (Activity)
Energy In (Diet)
STEP 5
STEP 4
STEP 3
STEP 2
Vigorous Sports and Recreation
Vigorous Aerobics
Moderate Physical Activity
Flexibility Exercises
Muscle Fitness Exercises
• Tennis • Hike
• Yoga • Stretch
• Jog • Bike • Aerobic dance
• Walk • Yard work • Golf
• Calisthenics • Resistance exercise
STEP 1
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Concept 6 ▶ Moderate Physical Activity: A Lifestyle Approach 103
activities include lower-intensity activities of daily living such as showering, grocery shopping, washing dishes, and casual walking. While public health goals focus on moderate activity, minimizing time spent in sedentary activity is also important (see In the News). Distinctions among the types of activities are summarized in Table 1 .
Because moderate activities are relatively easy to perform, they are popular among adults. Walking is the most popular of all leisure-time activities among adults. According to the National Sporting Goods Asso- ciation, 96 million Americans say they walk for exercise, nearly twice the number that participate in the second and third most popular activities, exercising with equip- ment and swimming. Women walk more than men, and young adults (18–29) walk less than older adults, probably because of more involvement in sports and other vigor- ous activities. Walking behavior ranges from occasional walks to walking regularly to meet national physical activity guidelines. As many as 40 to 50 percent of adults
say they walk, but less than half that number report walk- ing 30 minutes or more at least 5 days a week.
Walking is popular in all age groups, but participa- tion in other moderate activities varies with age. Interest- ingly, while overall activity levels tend to decline with age, involvement in lifestyle activity actually tends to increase. This is because many older adults move away from vigor- ous sports and recreation and spend more time in lifestyle activities, such as gardening and golf. Older adults tend to have more time and money for these types of recreational activities, and the lower intensity may be appealing.
The advantage of moderate activity is that there are many opportunities to be active. Finding enjoyable activ- ities that fit into your daily routine is the key to adopting a more active lifestyle.
Sedentary Time Can Be Harmful Along with finding ways to get daily moder- ate activity, recent evidence suggests that
it is also important to minimize time spent being sedentary. Recent studies have consistently shown that excess time spent sitting can have negative health consequences, even if you are a physically active person. One study showed that time spent watching TV was associated with risk of being
overweight regardless of physical activity level. Another study showed that sedentary behavior (sitting time) was associated with mortality after adjusting for smoking status, diet, and level of physical activity. Avoiding sustained periods of sitting seems to be important for reducing these risks.
What can you do to avoid extended periods of sitting during the day?
SS A a
ACTIVITY
In the News
Classification Intensity Range Examples
Sedentary 1.0–1.5 METS Sitting, lying
Light 1.5–3.0 METS Showering, grocery shopping, playing musical instrument, washing dishes
Moderate 3.0–6.0 METS Walking briskly, mowing lawn, playing table tennis, doing carpentry
Vigorous . 6.0 METS Hiking, jogging, digging ditches, playing soccer
Table 1 ▶ Classifi cations of Physical Activity Intensities for Generally Healthy Adults
Moderate Physical Activities Activities equal in intensity to brisk walking; activities three to six times as intense as lying or sitting at rest (3–6 METs). MET One MET equals the amount of energy a person expends at rest. METs are multiples of rest- ing activity (2 METs equal twice the resting energy expenditure). Aerobic Physical Activities Aerobic means “in the presence of oxygen.” Aerobic activities are activities or exercise for which the body is able to supply ade- quate oxygen to sustain performance for long periods of time. Vigorous Physical Activities Activities that are more vigorous than moderate activities with intensi- ties at least six times as intense as lying or sitting at rest (. 6 METS). Light Activities Activities that involve standing and/ or slow movements with intensities 1.5 to 3 times as intense as lying or sitting at rest (1.5–3.0 METS). Sedentary Activities Activities that involve lying or sitting with intensities similar to (or just slightly higher) than rest (1.0–1.5 METS).
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104 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
Activity Classification by Fitness Level
Sample Lifestyle Activities Low Fitness Marginal Fitness Good Fitness High Performance
Washing your face, dressing, typing, driving a car Light Very light/light Very light Very light
Normal walking, walking downstairs, bowling, mopping Moderate Moderate Light Light
Brisk walking, lawn mowing, shoveling, social dancing Vigorous Moderate/Vigorous Moderate Moderate
Table 2 ▶ Classifi cation of Moderate Physical Activities for People of Different Fitness Levels
Brief walks throughout the day can help you meet recommended levels of moderate activity.
Activity classifications vary, depending on one’s level of fitness. Normal walking is considered light activity for a person with good fitness (see Table 1 ), but for a person with low to marginal fitness the same activity is considered moderate. Similarly, brisk walking may be a vigorous activity (rather than moderate) for individuals with low fitness. Table 2 helps you determine the type of lifestyle activity considered moderate for you. Begin- ners with low fitness should start with normal rather than brisk walking, for example. In Concept 7, you will learn to assess your current fitness level. You may want to refer back to Table 2 after you have made self-assessments of your fitness.
The Health and Wellness Benefits of Moderate Physical Activity Moderate activity provides significant health ben- efits. Research has clearly shown that even modest amounts of moderate activity have significant health benefits. Two early studies paved the way for this line of research. One study reported that postal workers who delivered mail had fewer health problems than workers who sorted mail. Another study reported that drivers of double-decker buses in England had more health prob- lems than conductors who climbed the stairs during the day to collect the tickets. The studies controlled for other lifestyle factors, so the improved health was attributed to the extra activity accumulated throughout the day. Since then, hundreds of studies have further confirmed the importance of moderate activity for good health. How- ever, as described in Concept 5, additional health benefits are possible if vigorous physical activity is also performed.
Moderate activity promotes metabolic fitness. Metabolic fitness is fitness of the systems that provide the energy for effective daily living. Indicators of good metabolic fitness include normal blood lipid levels, normal blood pressure, normal blood sugar levels, and healthy body fat levels. Moderate physical activity pro- motes metabolic fitness by keeping the metabolic system active. Building and maintaining cardiovascular fitness requires a regular challenge to the cardiovascular system and building metabolic fitness requires a similar regular challenge to the metabolic system. Individuals with good levels of fitness will receive primarily metabolic fitness benefits from moderate activity, but those with low fit- ness will likely receive metabolic and cardiovascular fitness benefits . Moderate activity is particularly impor- tant for the large segments of the population that do not participate in other forms of regular exercise. As previ- ously described, some activity is clearly better than none.
Moderate physical activity has wellness benefits. The health benefits from physical activity are impressive, but the wellness benefits may have a bigger impact on
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Concept 6 ▶ Moderate Physical Activity: A Lifestyle Approach 105
our daily lives. Numerous studies have shown that physical activity is associated with improved quality of life (QOL), but it has proven difficult to determine the contributing factors or underlying mechanisms. The influence may be due to reduced stress, improved cognition, better sleep, improved self-esteem, reduced fatigue or (more likely) a combination of many different effects. A recent study in college students sought to isolate some of the underlying effects. The study reported that students who were more physically active had more positive feeling states (“ pleasant- activated feelings ”) than students who were less physically active even after controlling for sleep and previous days’ activity and feeling states. They also noted that feeling states improved on days when people reported performing more activity than normal. The well- ness benefits can impact young people every day whereas health benefits may not be noticed until a person gets older.
Regular activity is important to achieving health, fit- ness, and wellness benefits. For the benefits of activ- ity to be optimal, it is important to exercise regularly. The specific benefits from moderate activity tend to be more dependent on frequency than on intensity. This is some- times referred to as the last bout effect, because the effects are short term (i.e., attributable to the last bout of activity performed). For example, regular exercise promotes meta- bolic fitness by creating the stimulus that helps maintain insulin sensitivity and improve glucose regulation. Another example is the beneficial effect of exercise on stress man- agement. In this case, the periodic stimulus from exercise helps directly counter the negative physical and physiologi- cal responses to stress. To maximize the benefits of physical activity, it is important to try to get some activity every day.
Sustained light-intensity activity may provide health benefits and promote weight control. The new physical activity guidelines have recommended that activities be at least moderate in intensity. However, evi- dence suggests that the accumulation of light-intensity activity can have benefits, especially in those who are sedentary. Some researchers have referred to this type of activity as Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis (NEAT) to emphasize the substantial number of calories that can be burned by performing light-intensity activity. Meeting the recommendation for moderate activity is best, but beginning some activity, even light activity, is better than doing nothing at all.
How Much Moderate Physical Activity Is Enough? There is a FIT formula for moderate physical activity. The concept of a threshold of training is used in this book to describe the minimum activity needed for
benefits. As described in Concept 5, public health guide- lines endorsed by the ACSM, the AHA, and the CDC have recommended that adults accumulate 150 minutes of moderate-intensity activity each week, an amount equal to 30 minutes 5 days a week. The recommenda- tion highlighted in the original Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity called for adults to accumulate about 1,000 kcal/week (or about 150 kcal/day) from moderate activity. Table 3 summarizes the threshold levels for fre- quency, intensity, and time (duration). Note that these are considered minimal, or threshold, levels. The target zone calls for the accumulation of 30 or more minutes a day. Physical activity above the recommended minimum pro- vides additional health benefits.
Activity bouts of 10 minutes are recommended, but shorter durations of moderate activity have benefits. National physical activity guidelines suggest that moderate activity bouts should be 10 minutes in length or longer for optimal health and fitness benefits. Nevertheless, short-duration moderate activity, sometimes referred to as “incidental physical activity,” accumulated throughout the day is also beneficial. The specification of 10-minute sessions in the guidelines is somewhat arbitrary as there is no absolute threshold defining how
VIDEO 2
Health is available to Everyone for a Lifetime, and it’s Personal
Walking is by far the most commonly reported moder- ate activity, but people often go out of their way to avoid walking (such as driving around the lot to find the closest parking spot; waiting for an elevator rather than climbing a few flights of stairs).
Do you view walking as a “means to an end” (i.e., simply as a way to get around) or as an “end in itself” (i.e., as a way to get more physical activity)? How might this perception influence your activity patterns?
ACTIVITY
Metabolic Fitness Benefits Improvements in meta- bolic function that reduce risks of diabetes and meta- bolic syndrome. Cardiovascular Fitness Benefits Improvements in cardiovascular function that contribute to cardio- vascular fitness. Wellness Benefits Increases in quality of life and well-being. Last Bout Effect A short-term effect associated with the last bout of activity. Typically related to improvements in metabolic fitness.
VIDEO 3
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106 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
(see Table 2 ), activity that is moderate for young adults may be too intense for some older individuals or those with health problems. Because of this, the guidelines recommend that these individuals should focus on track- ing minutes of activity. This allows the intensity to be a self-determined level that corresponds to a person’s rela- tive level of fitness.
Monitoring and Promoting Physical Activity Behavior Many people use pedometers to monitor daily activity levels. Digital pedometers are a popular self- monitoring tool used to track physical activity patterns. They provide information about the number of steps a person takes. Stride length and weight can be entered into most pedometers to provide estimates of distance traveled and/or calories burned. Some newer pedome- ters include timers, which track the total amount of time spent moving; some allow step information to be stored over a series of days.
Pedometers provide a helpful reminder about the importance of being active during the day. They also are useful for tracking activity patterns over a series of days. The interest in and popularity of pedometers has resulted in media stories promoting the standard of 10,000 steps as the level of activity needed for good health. This stan- dard was originally developed in Japan, where pedometers were popular before elsewhere in the world. Experts have warned against using an absolute step count standard for all people as it would be too hard for some and not hard enough for others based on personal activity patterns.
Studies on large numbers of people provide data to help classify people into activity categories based on step counts (see Table 4 ), but actual step goals should vary from person to person. Wear the pedometer for 1 week to establish a baseline step count (average steps per day). Then, set a goal of increasing steps per day by 1,000 to
long activity sessions must be. In general, the main focus should be on the total volume of moderate activity performed.
Vigorous activity can substitute for moderate activity. The U.S. Physical Activity Guidelines released by the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) provide some flexibility for meeting activity guidelines. Rather than requiring activity on 5 different days, the DHHS guidelines specify that 150 minutes of moderate physical activity can be accumulated during the week. If you fail to meet the 30-minute guideline on 1 day, you can make it up on another and still meet the guideline. Vigorous-intensity activity can also be substituted to meet the weekly targets. According to the DHHS guidelines, each minute of vigorous activity counts as 2 minutes of moderate. Therefore, the guide- line can also be met by performing 75 minutes of vigor- ous activity instead of 150 minutes of moderate activity.
The guidelines can also be expressed in total “MET- minutes.” To compute MET-minutes, you simply multi- ply the MET level of the activity you performed by the number of minutes. For example, a 60-minute brisk walk (approximately 3 METS) would yield 180 MET-minutes (3 METS 3 60 minutes). However, note that this same volume can also be achieved with a 30-minute run that requires approximately 6 METS (6 METS 3 30 min- utes). A total of 500 MET-minutes per week is recom- mended to meet the minimum guidelines.
Special moderate activity guidelines have been developed for children, older adults, and adults with chronic health conditions. Guidelines for phys- ical activity depend on the unique needs of the target population. Children need more physical activity than adults (at least 60 minutes and up to several hours of activity each day).
Guidelines are also different for older adults and adults with chronic conditions. As previously described
Threshold of Training (minimum)a Target Zone (optimal)
Frequency At least 5 days a week 5–7 days a week
Intensityb • Equal to brisk walkingb
• Approximately 150 calories accumulated per day • 3 to 5 METsb
• Equal to brisk to fast walkingb
• Approximately 150–300 calories accumulated per day • 3 to 6 METsb
Time (duration)c 30 minutes or three 10-minute sessions per day 30–60 minutes or more accumulated in sessions of at least 10 minutes
a150 minutes per week is recommended by DHHS. bHeart rate and relative perceived exertion can also be used to determine intensity (see Concept 7). cDepends on fitness level (see Table 2).
Table 3 ▶ The FIT Formula for Moderate Physical Activity
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Concept 6 ▶ Moderate Physical Activity: A Lifestyle Approach 107
3,000 steps. Keep records of daily step counts to help you determine if you are meeting your goal. Setting a goal that you are likely to meet will help you find success. As you meet your goal, increase your step counts gradually.
Pedometers do have some limitations as indicators of total physical activity. A person with longer legs will accu- mulate fewer steps over the same distance than someone with shorter strides (due to a longer stride length). A person running will also accumulate fewer steps over the same distance than a person who walks. There is considerable variability in the quality (and accuracy) of commercial pedometers, so it is important to consider this when purchasing one.
Energy expenditure can be used to monitor physical activity. As shown in Table 3 , an energy expen- diture of between 150 and 300 kcal/day from physical activity is sufficient for meeting physical activity guide- lines. While not as simple as tracking time, calories expended from physical activity can be estimated if the approximate MET value of the activity is known. The energy cost of resting energy expenditure (1 MET) is approximately 1 calorie per kilogram of body weight per hour (1 kcal/kg/hour). An activity such as brisk walk- ing (4 mph) requires an energy expenditure of about 4 METs, or 4 kcal/kg/hour. A 150 lb. person (~ 70 kg) walk- ing for an hour would expend about 280 kcal (4 kcal/kg/ hour 3 70 kg 3 1 hr.). Note that a 30-minute walk would burn approximately 150 calories and satisfy the guideline.
Commercial fitness equipment can provide energy expenditure estimates. The devices use an estimated MET level based on the selected intensity or a measured heart rate (if a heart rate sensor is used). The timer on the machine then tracks the time of the workout, and this allows calories to be estimated during the work- out. The estimate will only be somewhat accurate if the machine also obtained a body weight value from you dur- ing the setup process. If this wasn’t obtained, the calorie estimates are probably based on some reference value of weight and therefore may not be accurate. Table 5 lists estimated METs for different activities, along with calo- rie estimates (per hour of exercise) for people of different body weights.
A variety of methods can be used to accumulate moderate physical activity for health benefits. Finding 30 minutes or longer for continuous physical activity may be difficult, especially on very busy days. However, the physical activity guidelines empha- size that moderate activity can be accumulated throughout the day. Figure 2 illustrates the
Pedometers offer a useful way of monitoring physical activity.
Category Steps/Day
Sedentary < 5,000
Low active 5,000–6,999
Somewhat active Threshold 7,000–9,999
Active Target Zone 10,000–12,500
Very active . 12,500
Source: Based on values from Tudor-Locke.
Table 4 ▶ Activity Classifi cation for Pedometer Step Counts in Healthy Adults
A CLOSER LOOK
Every Body Walk Every Body Walk is a national movement committed to “get Americans up and moving.” The organization has developed a variety of social media applications that help to connect organizations, people, and communities across the country. Customized (free) apps for smart- phones are available to help track and personalize your walking plan, connect with walking communities, and share stories. Associated Facebook links and Twitter feeds (follow @everybodywalk) provide inspirational mes- sages and opportunities to network and share stories. The website (www.everybodywalk.org) features a hub for walking-related blogs and video clips showing how groups across America are finding a new sense of com- munity through walking.
What are other ways social media can be used to spur community involvement in physical activity?
Every B
A
WalkBody WBody W
ACTIVITY
VIDEO 4
VIDEO 5
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108 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
Calories Used per Hour for Different Body Weights
Activity Classification / Description METsa 100 lb. (45 kg)
120 lb. (55 kg)
150 lb. (70 kg)
180 lb. (82 kg)
200 lb. (91 kg)
220 lb. (100 kg)
Gardening Activities
Gardening (general) 5.0 227 273 341 409 455 502
Mowing lawn (hand mower) 6.0 273 327 409 491 545 599
Mowing lawn (power mower) 4.5 205 245 307 368 409 450
Raking leaves 4.0 182 218 273 327 364 401
Shoveling snow 6.0 273 327 409 491 545 599
Home Activities
Child care 3.5 159 191 239 286 318 350
Cleaning, washing dishes 2.5 114 136 170 205 227 249
Cooking / food preparation 2.5 114 136 170 205 227 249
Home / auto repair 3.0 136 164 205 245 273 301
Painting 4.5 205 245 307 368 409 450
Strolling with child 2.5 114 136 170 205 227 249
Sweeping / vacuuming 2.5 114 136 170 205 227 249
Washing / waxing car 4.5 205 245 307 368 409 450
Leisure Activities
Bocci ball / croquet 2.5 114 136 170 205 227 249
Bowling 3.0 136 164 205 245 273 301
Canoeing 5.0 227 273 341 409 455 501
Cross-country skiing (leisure) 7.0 318 382 477 573 636 699
Cycling (<10 mph) 4.0 182 218 273 327 364 401
Cycling (12–14 mph) 8.0 364 436 545 655 727 799
Dancing (social) 4.5 205 245 307 368 409 450
Fishing 4.0 182 218 273 327 364 401
Golf (riding) 3.5 159 191 239 286 318 350
Golf (walking) 5.5 250 300 375 450 500 550
Horseback riding 4.0 182 218 273 327 364 401
Swimming (leisure) 6.0 273 327 409 491 545 599
Table tennis 4.0 182 218 273 327 364 401
Walking (3.5 mph) 3.8 173 207 259 311 346 387
Occupational Activities
Bricklaying / masonry 7.0 318 382 477 573 636 699
Carpentry 3.5 159 191 239 286 318 350
Construction 5.5 250 300 375 450 500 550
Electrical work / plumbing 3.5 159 191 239 286 318 350
Digging 7.0 318 382 477 573 636 699
Farming 5.5 250 300 375 450 500 550
Store clerk 3.5 159 191 239 286 318 350
Waiter / waitress 4.0 182 218 273 327 364 401
Note: MET values and caloric estimates are based on values listed in Compendium of Physical Activities (see Suggested Readings). aBased on values of those with “good fitness” ratings.
Table 5 ▶ Calories Expended in Lifestyle Physical Activities
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Concept 6 ▶ Moderate Physical Activity: A Lifestyle Approach 109
Figure 2 ▶ Comparison of people performing moderate activity in different ways.
Noon-hour treadmill walk
Moderate structured activity
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Moderate lifestyle activity
Work Work Walkto bus
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Energy expenditure (METS)
activity profiles for three different people. The red line profiles a person who is inactive except for brief walks from the car to the office in the morning and from the
office to the car in the evening. This person is seden- tary and does not meet the moderate activity guidelines. Because some activity is better than none, the brief walks
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110 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
are better than no activity at all. The blue line represents a person who is sedentary most of the day but meets the moderate activity guideline by taking a long walk during the noon hour. The green line represents the activity of a person who meets the moderate activity standard in multiple bouts, including lifestyle activities such as walk- ing to and from work, walking to lunch, and climbing the stairs. You can accumulate activity using the method that you prefer as long as you meet the guidelines out- lined in Table 2 .
Moderate Activity and the Built Environment The sedentary nature of our society is due in large part to environmental factors. Many people would like to be more active, but they may not live in
an area conducive to activity. Studies have conclusively demonstrated that the physical or “built environment” has important influences on physical activity patterns and risk for overweight and obesity. Some early studies had inherent limitations that have made it difficult to determine if the relationship was causal. It is possible, for example, that active people choose to move to environ- ments with less urban sprawl and more access to parks and green spaces. Recent research, however, has demon- strated that changes in the environment (e.g., more trails, safer and more accessible walking routes) can lead to changes in levels of physical activity. This type of evidence has been important because it indicates that our environ- ment does contribute to our physical activity patterns. The results also help justify expenses to create environ- ments more conducive to physical activity.
Building active community environments has become an important national priority. Many pub- lic health organizations have developed awareness cam- paigns and strong advocacy networks to support the creation of healthier environments. One organization called Active Living by Design is dedicated to promot- ing more active environments in society. The vision is for neighborhoods that allow physical activity to be built into a person’s normal routine (going to the store, visit- ing friends) and communities with integrated biking and walking paths. These concepts are consistent with other recommendations for urban planning (e.g., Smart Growth Movement). Other groups such as the National Coalition of Walking Advocates, the Alliance for Biking and Walking, and Walkable Communities are positioned to play key roles in promoting awareness and advocat- ing at the state and national levels to improve federal practices and funding decisions that influence biking and walking. These groups encourage community activism since consumers ultimately influence social norms and decision making. See the Web Resources to learn more about these organizations.
Walkability is an important consideration for consumers and homeowners. The national Com- munity Preference Survey conducted by the National Association of Realtors revealed that nearly 60 percent of Americans would prefer to live in neighborhoods that would allow them to easily walk to stores and other busi- nesses. Walkable access to grocery stores was rated as being an important consideration by 75 percent of the respondents.
T E C H N O L O G Y U P D A T E
Electronic Bikes The e-bike (electric bike) is a new type of bicycle designed to promote active commuting. Traveling at speeds up to about 15 mph, the e-bike has a small electric engine that gives support to the rider only when he or she is pedaling. It was first developed in Switzerland to encourage people who live in hilly terrains to ride bicycles. A recent study showed that the effort necessary to ride an e-bike to work (about 6 METS) was less than the effort needed to ride a regular bike. Most of the commuters in the study were easily able to use the bike to commute to work. The e-bike is now gaining popularity in other countries because it is comfortable, practical, and contributes to cleaner air. The e-bike also encourages otherwise inactive people to become active.
Would you consider using an e-bike as a way to get more activity? To help the environment?
ACTIVITY
Built Environment A term used to describe aspects of our created physical environment (e.g., buildings, roads).
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Concept 6 ▶ Moderate Physical Activity: A Lifestyle Approach 111
Distance is one major consideration but researchers have determined that a number of characteristics influ- ence the walkability of an environment. Walking is more likely when the weather is warm, but factors such as avail- ability of sidewalks, good lighting, safe neighborhoods, and aesthetic surroundings are the key factors in making an area walkable. A number of websites now provide tools to rate the walkability of communities (search “walkscore” on the Internet). According to recent rankings, the most
walkable of the 50 largest U.S. cities were New York, San Francisco, Boston, and Chicago. In Lab 6B you will evaluate the walkability of your community based on similar criteria.
Consider personal strategies for increasing moderate activity. While the environment has an impact on population levels of physical activity, it does not determine individual behavior. People are autono- mous beings and can make decisions about where they go and what they do. The key is to take stock of your lifestyle and your environment and determine ways to integrate more activity into your daily routine.
Active commuting is one way to add physical activity to your lifestyle. It takes additional preparation and the logistics can be challenging, but it is a great way to build activity into your day. In addition to providing beneficial amounts of physical activity, this can save time, reduce gas, save money, and help the environ- ment. Another option is to take a few active trips to the store. Research suggests that the overwhelming majority of our car trips are 1 mile or less. Walking or biking even a few of these trips can have a big impact. The ability to walk or bike to work or to the store may not be possible for you because of the nature of your community or the safety of the roads. However, there are a number of other strate- gies you can use to get more activity in your day. Consider parking farther away from store entrances, using the stairs rather than the elevator, taking walking breaks, and even standing (instead of sitting) when convenient. Adopting an active lifestyle in a sedentary society is challenging, but it is within your control.
Bike commuting is an effective way to add physical activity to your day.
VIDEO 6
Strategies for Action
A regular plan of moderate physical activity is a good place to start.
Moderate physical activity is something that virtually anyone can do. In Lab 6A, you can set moderate physical activity goals and plan a 1-week lifestyle physical activity program. For some, this plan may be the main component of a lifetime plan. For others, it may be only a beginning that leads to the selection of activities from other levels of the physical activity pyramid. Even the most active people should consider regular moderate physical activity because it is a type of activity that can be done throughout life.
Self-monitoring moderate physical activity can help you stick with it. The self-monitoring chart in Lab 6A not only helps you keep a log of moderate activities (or step
counts), it also lets you hone your self-management skills. Charts like this can be copied to make a log book for long- term activity self-monitoring.
Environmental factors influence our moderate physical activity patterns. In Lab 6B, you will conduct an evalu- ation of the walkability of your community and an evalua- tion of community resources available for physical activity. The purpose of this lab is to increase your awareness of the importance of active, safe environments for promoting physical activity. Becoming an advocate for physical activ- ity in your community is a great way to help promote local change.
ACTIVITY
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Web Resources Alliance for Biking and Walking www.peoplepowered
movement.org America On the Move www.americaonthemove.org Bike Commute.com www.bikecommute.com Compendium of Physical Activities http://prevention.sph
.sc.edu/tools/compendium.htm National Coalition for Promoting Physical Activity
www.ncppa.org National Coalition of Walking Advocates
www.americawalks.org/ The Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center (PBIC)
www.walkinginfo.org Public Broadcasting System/America’s Walking Homepage
www.pbs.org/americaswalking Walkable Cities (walkscores) www.walkscore.com Walkable Communities Inc www.walkable.org
Suggested Readings ACSM. 2010. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and
Prescription. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Chapters 2 and 7.
Ainsworth, B. E. 2000. Compendium of physical activities: An update of activity codes and MET intensities. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 32 (Suppl):S498–S516.
Chaloupka, F. J., et al. 2010. The association between community physical activity settings and youth physical activity, obesity, and body mass index. Journal of Adolescent Health. Published online June 10, 2010, www.jahonline.org
Foti, K. K., et al. 2011. Sufficient sleep, physical activity, and sedentary behaviors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 41(6):596–602.
Garber, C. E., et al. 2011. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculo- skeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: Guidance for prescribing exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 43(7):1334–1359.
Healy, G. N., et al. 2011. Sedentary times and cardio-metabolic biomarkers in US adults: NHANES 2003-06. European Heart Journal 32(5):590–597.
Hyde, A. L., et al. 2012. Unpacking the feel-good effect of free-time physical activity: Between- and within-person associations with pleasant-activated feeling states. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 33(6):884–902.
Kohl, H. W., and T. D. Murray. 2012. Foundations of Physical Activity and Public Health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Matthews, C. E., et al. 2012. Amount of time spent in seden- tary behaviors and cause-specific mortality in US adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 95(2):437–445.
Mowen, A., and A. Kaczynski. 2008. The potential of parks and recreation in addressing physical activity and fitness. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest 9(1):1–8.
Owen, N., et al. 2010. Too much sitting: The population health science of sedentary behavior. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 38(3): 105–113.
Russ, R., and McGuire, K. A. 2011. Incidental physical activity is positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 43(11):2189–2194.
Sattelmair, J., et al. 2011. Dose response between physical activity and risk of coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis. Circulation 124(7):789–795.
Healthy People
ACTIVITY
2020 The objectives listed below are societal goals designed to help all Americans improve their health between now and the year 2020. They were selected because they relate to the content of this concept.
• Reduce proportion of adults who do no leisure-time activity.
• Increase proportion of adults who meet guidelines for aerobic activity.
• Increase proportion of adults who meet guidelines for muscle fitness activity.
• Increase proportion of trips made by walking.
• Increase proportion of youth who meet guidelines for TV viewing and computer use and overuse (overuse is 2 hours a day or more).
• Create social and physical environments that promote good health for all.
• Promote quality of life, healthy development, and healthy behaviors across all stages of life.
A national goal is to increase walking trips (moderate physical activity). Describe three ways that you can increase walking trips during the week and comment on whether you think you are likely to carry out any of these methods as part of your normal routine.
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Lab 6A
S etting G
oals for M od
erate P hysical A
ctivity and S
elf-M onitoring
(Logging) P rogram
Lab 6A Setting Goals for Moderate Physical Activity and Self-Monitoring (Logging) Program
Name Section Date
Purpose: To set moderate activity goals and to self-monitor (log) physical activity
Procedures
1. Read the five stages of change questions below. Place a check by the stage that best represents your current moderate physical activity level. If you are at stages 1–3 (precontemplation, contemplation, or preparation), you may want to set goals below the threshold of 30 minutes per day to get started. Those at the action or mainte- nance stage should consider goals of 30 minutes or more per day.
2. Determine moderate activity goals for each day of a 1-week period. In the columns (Chart 1) under the heading “Moderate Activity Goals,” record the total minutes per day that you expect to perform OR the total steps per day that you expect to perform. Record the specific date for each day of the week in the “Date” column.
3. The goals should be realistic for you, but try to set goals that would meet current physical activity guidelines. If you choose step goals, you will need a pedometer. Use Table 4 on page 107 to help you to choose daily step goals.
4. If you choose minutes per day as your goals, use Chart 2 to keep track of the number of minutes of activity that you perform on each day of the 7-day period. Record the number of minutes for each bout of activity of at least 10 minutes in length performed during each day (Chart 2). Determine a total number of minutes for the day and record this total in the last column of Chart 2 and in the “Minutes Performed” column of Chart 1.
5. If you choose steps per day as your goals, determine the total steps per day accumulated on the pedometer and record that number of steps in the “Steps Performed” column for each day of the week (Chart 1).
6. Answer the questions in the Conclusions and Implications section (use full sentences for your answers).
Determine your stage for moderate physical activity. Check only the stage that represents your current moderate activity level.
Precontemplation: I do not meet moderate activity guidelines and have not been thinking about starting.
Contemplation: I do not meet moderate activity guidelines but have been thinking about starting.
Preparation: I am planning to start doing regular moderate activity to meet guidelines.
Action: I do moderate activity, but I am not as regular as I should be.
Maintenance: I regularly meet national goals for moderate activity.
Select a goal for each day in a 1-week plan. Keep a log of the activities performed to determine if your goals are met.
Moderate Activity Goals Summary Performance Log
Date: Minutes/day Steps/day Minutes Performed Steps Performed
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
Chart 1 Moderate Physical Activity Goals and Summary Performance Log
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La b
6 A
S et
tin g
G oa
ls f
or M
od er
at e
P hy
si ca
l A ct
iv ity
a nd
S el
f- M
on ito
rin g
(L og
gi ng
) P ro
gr am
.
Did you meet your moderate activity goals for at least 5 days of the week? Yes No
Do you think you can consistently meet your moderate activity goals? Yes No
What activities did you perform most often when doing moderate activity? List most common activities in the spaces below.
Conclusions and Interpretations
1. Do you feel that you will use moderate physical activity as a regular part of your lifetime physical activity plan, either now or in the future? Use several sentences to explain your answer.
2. Did setting goals and logging activity make you more aware of your daily moderate physical activity patterns? Explain why or why not.
If you choose minutes per day as goals, write the number of minutes for each bout of moderate activity performed each day. Record a daily total (total minutes of moderate activity per day) in the “Daily Total” column. Record daily totals in Chart 1.
Moderate Activity Bouts of 10 Minutes or More
Date Bout 1 Bout 2 Bout 3 Bout 4 Bout 5 Daily Total
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
Chart 2 Moderate Physical Activity Log (Daily Minutes Performed)
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Lab 6B
E valuating P
hysical A ctivity E
nvironm ents
Lab 6B Evaluating Physical Activity Environments
Name Section Date
Purpose: To help you assess community factors that may infl uence your ability to perform lifestyle physical activity
Procedures 1. Use the community audit forms on the next page to conduct an evaluation of the walkability of your community
and the availability of community resources for physical activity. The walkability audit requires that you take a brief walk in your neighborhood to note key features in the environment that may help or hinder walking. The community audit will require you to evaluate the quality of resources and programming available in your community. You can choose your campus community or your hometown.
2. For each question, first use the check boxes to note the presence or absence of key features in the environment. Then base your score for this question on the number of checks and your overall perception.
3. After you have completed both the Walkability Audit and the Community Resource Audit, total the scores for each tool and report the total scores in the bottom. Add up both scores to compute the Combined (physical activity) Environmental Audit.
Results: Record your rating for each of three healthy lifestyles in the following chart.
Conclusions and Implications
Provide a brief summary of the physical activity environment in your community. Describe your experiences in evaluat- ing the walkability of and resources in your community. If the environment is close to ideal, comment on how this may facilitate active lifestyles. If the environment is not ideal, comment on what needs to be done to improve it.
Comments on Walkability Audit
Comments on Community Resource Audit
Score Rating
Walkability Audit
Community Resource Audit
Combined Environmental Audit
Environmental Activity Scoring Chart
Good Marginal Poor
Walkability 15–20 11–14 <11
Community 15–20 11–14 <11
Combined 30–40 22–29 <22
Rating Chart for Environmental Audits
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La b
6 B
E va
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P hy
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E nv
iro nm
en ts
Walkability Audit Rating
1. Did you have room to walk? 1 2 3 4
Sidewalks blocked or not continuous
Sidewalks were broken, cracked
No sidewalks, paths, or shoulders
Too much traffi c on sidewalk
Other _______________________
2. Was it easy to cross streets? 1 2 3 4
Road was too wide
Traffi c signals were too short/too long
Parked cars blocked view of street
No striped or designated crosswalks
Other ______________________
3. Was it safe for walking? 1 2 3 4
Too much traffi c
Drivers too fast /too close
Inadequate lighting
Area of high crime
Other _______________________
4. Were there places to go? 1 2 3 4
No stores in the area
No restaurants in the area
No friends nearby
Nothing interesting to see in area
Other ________________________
5. Was your walk pleasant? 1 2 3 4
Not enough grass and trees
Scary dogs or people
Not well lighted
Too dirty
Other ________________________
Community Resource Audit Rating
6. Are there walking/biking paths 1 2 3 4 in the area?
Paths are in unsafe areas
Paths need to be repaired
Paths are too crowded
Paths are too far away to be useful
Other ________________________
7. Is there a community fitness/rec 1 2 3 4 center?
Center is too expensive
Center is not clean or updated
Center is too far away
Center has old or limited equipment
Other ________________________
8. Are there bicycle lanes on streets? 1 2 3 4
Lines not painted well
Lines not on all streets
Bike lanes not wide enough
Cars too close
Other _________________________
9. Are there parks, fields, and 1 2 3 4 playgrounds?
Parks in unsafe areas
Equipment/resources in poor repair
Too crowded
Too far away
Other ________________________
10. Are there community activity 1 2 3 4 programs?
Not enough programs
Not the right type of programs
Too expensive
Too far / inconvenient
Other ________________________
Total Score for Walkability Audit: (Sum of Questions 1–5)
Total Score for Community Resources Audit: (Sum of Questions 6–10)
Combined Environmental Audit: (Sum of Questions 1–10)
Walkability checklist adapted from resources developed by the Partnership for a Walkable America. For information on this organization, visit this website: www.walkableamerica.org.
Walkability and Community Resource Audits
Directions. Place a check by each box in each questionnaire. Based on the number of boxes checked for each ques- tion, place an X over the circle to rate each question (1=poor, 2=marginal, 3=good, 4=very good). Add rating numbers to get walkability scores and community resource scores. Total the two to get a combined environmental score.
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117
Cardiovascular Fitness
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this concept, you will be able to:
▶ Describe the different components of the cardiovascular system. ▶ List the health benefits of cardiovascular fitness. ▶ Outline the FIT formula for moderate to vigorous physical activity designed to promote cardiovascular fitness.
▶ Identify several methods of determining exercise intensity levels for promoting cardiovascular fitness, select the method you think is most useful to you, and explain the reasons for your choice.
▶ Describe key guidelines for monitoring cardiovascular exercise including self- monitoring heart rate.
▶ Indicate several self- assessments for cardiovascular fitness, select the self-assessment you feel is most useful to you, and explain the reasons for your choice.
C o
n c
e p
t 7
Cardiovascular fitness is probably the most important aspect of physical fitness because it has a major impact
on health and greatly influences physical performance.
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118 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
is considered to be the best indicator of cardiovascular fitness, and aerobic physical activity is the preferred method for achieving it. Regardless of the words used to describe it, cardiovascular fitness is complex because it requires fitness of several body systems.
Good cardiovascular fitness requires a fit heart muscle. The heart is a powerful muscle that pumps blood through the body. The heart of a normal individual beats reflexively about 40 million times a year. In a single day, the heart pumps over 4,000 gallons of blood through the body. To keep the cardiovascular system working effectively, it is crucial to have a strong and fit heart.
Like other muscles in the body, the heart becomes stronger if it is exercised. The size and strength of the heart increases, and it can pump more blood with each beat, accomplishing the same amount of work with fewer beats. Typical resting heart rate (RHR) values are around 70–80 beats per minute, but a highly trained endurance athlete may have a resting heart rate in the 40s or 50s. There is some individual variability in RHR, but a decrease in your RHR with training indicates clear improvements in cardiovascular fitness.
Good cardiovascular fitness requires a fit vascular system. The heart has four chambers, which pump and receive blood in a rhythmical fashion to maintain good circulation (see Figure 1 ). Blood containing a high
C ardiovascular fitness is generally considered to be the most important aspect of physical fitness. Those who possess reasonable amounts of fitness have a decreased risk for heart disease, reduced risk for premature death, and improved quality of life. Regular cardiovascular exer- cise promotes fitness and provides additional health and wellness benefits that extend well beyond reducing risks for disease. This concept describes the function of the cardiovascular system and explains how to determine the appropriate intensity of exercise needed to promote car- diovascular fitness.
Elements of Cardiovascular Fitness The term cardiovascular fitness has several synonyms. Cardiovascular fitness is sometimes referred to as cardiovascular endurance because a person who pos- sesses this type of fitness can persist in physical activity for long periods without undue fatigue. It has been referred to as cardiorespiratory fitness because it requires delivery and utilization of oxygen, which is only possible if the circulatory and respiratory systems are capable of these functions.
The term aerobic fitness has also been synonymous with cardiovascu- lar fitness because aerobic capacity
Figure 1 ▶ Cardiovascular system.
VIDEO 1
Superior vena cava CO2
CO2 CO2
O2
O2O2
CO2
O2
Lung capillaries Systemic capillaries
Alveolus
Lung
Tissue cells
Left atrium Bicuspid valve Aortic valve Left ventricle Right ventricle
Aorta
Right atrium
Pulmonary valve
Tricuspid valve
Inferior vena cava
Tissue cells
Systemic capillaries
Pul- mon- ary vein
Pulmonary artery
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Concept 7 ▶ Cardiovascular Fitness 119
concentration of oxygen is pumped by the left ventricle through the aorta (a major artery), where it is carried to the tissues. Blood flows through a sequence of arteries to capillaries and to veins. Veins carry the blood contain- ing lesser amounts of oxygen back to the right side of the heart, first to the atrium and then to the ventricle. The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood picks up oxygen (O 2 ), and carbon diox- ide (CO 2 ) is removed. From the lungs, the oxygenated blood travels back to the heart, first to the left atrium and then to the left ventricle. The process then repeats itself. A dense network of arteries distributes the oxygenated blood to the muscles, tissues, and organs (see Figure 2 ).
Healthy arteries are elastic, are free of obstruction, and expand to permit the flow of blood. Muscle layers line the arteries and control the size of the arterial opening upon the impulse from nerve fibers. Unfit arteries may have a reduced internal diameter (atherosclerosis) because of deposits on the interior of their walls, or they may have hardened, nonelastic walls (arteriosclerosis).
The blood in the four chambers of the heart does not directly nourish the heart. Rather, numerous small arter- ies within the heart muscle provide for coronary circula- tion. Poor coronary circulation precipitated by unhealthy arteries can be the cause of a heart attack.
Deoxygenated blood flows back to the heart through a series of veins. The veins are intertwined in the skeletal muscle, and this allows normal muscle action to facilitate the return of blood to the heart. When a muscle is con- tracted, the vein is squeezed, and this pushes the blood back to the heart. Small valves in the veins prevent the backward flow of the blood, but defects in the valves can lead to pooling of blood in the veins. A common condi- tion, known as varicose veins, is associated with the pool- ing of blood in the leg. Regular physical activity helps reduce pooling of blood in the veins and helps keep the valves of the veins healthy.
Capillaries are the transfer stations where oxygen and fuel are released, and waste products, such as carbon diox- ide, are removed from the tissues. The veins receive the blood from the capillaries for the return trip to the heart.
Good cardiovascular fitness requires healthy blood and a fit respiratory system. The process of taking in oxygen (through the mouth and nose) and deliver- ing it to the lungs, where it is picked up by the blood, is called external respiration. External respiration requires fit lungs as well as blood with adequate hemoglobin . Hemoglobin carries oxygen through the bloodstream. Lack of hemoglobin reduces oxygen-carrying capacity— a condition known as anemia .
Delivering oxygen to the tissues from the blood is called internal respiration. Internal respiration requires an adequate number of healthy capillaries. In addition to delivering oxygen to the tissues, these systems remove carbon dioxide. Good cardiovascular fitness requires fit- ness of both the external and internal respiratory systems.
Cardiovascular fitness requires fit muscle tissue capable of using oxygen. Once the oxygen is deliv- ered, the muscle tissues must be able to use oxygen to sustain physical performance (see Figure 2e ). Physical activity that promotes cardiovascular fitness stimulates changes in muscle fibers that make them more effective in using oxygen. Outstanding distance runners have high numbers of well-conditioned muscle fibers that can read- ily use oxygen to produce energy for sustained running. Training in other activities would elicit similar adapta- tions in the specific muscles used in those activities.
During exercise the performance and function of the cardiovascular system is maximized. Dur- ing exercise, a number of changes occur to increase the availability of oxygen to the muscles (see Table 1 ). Breathing rate and depth increase, allowing the body to take in more oxygen. The heart beats faster and pumps more blood with each beat (increased stroke volume). The higher heart rate and larger stroke volume allow
Rest Maximal Exercise
Lungs Breathing Rate (# / Minute)
12 30
Heart Heart Rate (Beats / Minute)
70 190–200
Stroke Volume (mL / Beat)
75 150
Cardiac Outputa
(L / Minute) 5.2 28.5
Arteries Blood Flow Distribution (%)
20% 70%
Muscle Oxygen Extraction (%)
5% 20%
System V· O2 (mL/kg/min.)b
3.5 60
a Cardiac output 5 heart rate 3 stroke volume. b V̇O2 5 oxygen consumption 5 CO 3 oxygen extraction.
Table 1 ▶ Changes in Cardiovascular Function between Rest and Exercise for a Person with Good Cardiovascular Fitness
Aerobic Capacity A measure of aerobic or cardio- vascular fitness. Hemoglobin The oxygen-carrying protein (molecule) of red blood cells. Anemia A condition in which hemoglobin and the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity are below normal.
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Major Blood Vessels
Carotid artery
Subclavian artery
Aorta
Heart
Iliac artery
Femoral artery
Subclavian vein
Vena cava
Iliac vein
Femoral vein
Cardiovascular Fitness Characteristics
Figure 2a. A Fit Heart
• Strong ventricles
• Open coronary vessels
• Good collateral circulation
Figure 2b. A Fit Respiratory System and Healthy Blood
• Good capillaries
• Healthy blood with ample hemoglobin
• Open coronary vessels
Figure 2c. Healthy Arteries
• Elastic
• Large diameter
• No obstructions
• No atherosclerosis
Figure 2d. Healthy Veins and Valves
• Thinner, less elastic walls
• Large diameter
• Good valves
Figure 2e. Fit Muscles
• Good artery supply
• Efficient at using oxygen to produce energy
Open, healthy coronary arteries
Intima
Media (Muscle)
Adventitia
Intima
Media
Adventitia
Strong, thick heart muscle
Muscle
Tendons
Figure 2 ▶ Major blood vessels and cardiovascular fitness characteristics.
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Concept 7 ▶ Cardiovascular Fitness 121
more blood to be pumped each minute (increased car- diac output). During exercise, the blood passing through the lungs picks up more oxygen and distributes it more quickly. Activation of the sympathetic nervous sys- tem also leads to a redistribution of the blood flow, so that more of it gets shunted to the working skeletal muscle. During rest, the muscles get about 20 percent of the available blood flow, but this increases to about 70 percent during vigorous exercise. Within the mus- cles, a larger percentage of the available oxygen is also extracted from the muscles during exercise. Collectively, these changes help provide the muscles with the oxygen needed to maintain aerobic metabolism.
Cardiovascular fitness is often evaluated using an indicator known as maximum oxygen uptake, or ̇VO 2 max. A person’s maximum oxygen uptake ( ̇VO 2 max) , commonly referred to as aerobic capacity, is determined in a laboratory by measuring how much oxygen a per- son can use in maximal exercise. The test is usually done on a treadmill using specialized gas analyzers to measure oxygen use. The treadmill speed and grade are gradually increased, and when the exercise becomes very hard, oxy- gen use reaches its maximum. The test is a good indicator of overall cardiovascular fitness because you cannot take in and use a lot of oxygen if you do not have good fitness throughout the cardiovascular system (heart, blood ves- sels, blood, respiratory system, and muscles).
Elite endurance athletes can extract 5 or 6 liters of oxygen per minute from the environment, and this high aerobic capacity is what allows them to maintain high speeds in both training and competition without becom- ing excessively tired. In comparison, an average person typically extracts about 2 to 3 liters per minute. V̇O2 max is typically adjusted to account for a person’s body size because bigger people may have higher scores due to their larger size. Values are reported in milliliters (mL) of oxygen (O 2 ) per kilogram (kg) of body weight per minute (mL/kg/min.).
A number of field tests have been developed to pro- vide estimates of maximum aerobic capacity (see Lab Resource Materials on pages 131–134). These tests are developed and validated based on comparisons with labo- ratory protocols that directly measure the amount of oxy- gen that is consumed.
Adaptations to regular aerobic exercise result in improved cardiovascular fitness. Specific adaptations occur within each of the components of the cardiovas- cular system shown in Figure 2 . The heart muscle gets stronger and pumps more blood with each beat, allow- ing the heart to pump less frequently to deliver the same amount of oxygen. The lungs and blood function more
efficiently in picking up oxygen and delivering it to the muscles. The vessels more effectively deliver the blood and the muscles adapt to use oxygen more efficiently. These adaptations allow a person to take in and use more oxygen during maximal exercise (increased aero- bic capacity or V̇O2 max). The adaptations contribute to improved endurance performance as well as health ben- efits (as described in Concept 4).
Cardiovascular Fitness and Health Benefits Good cardiovascular fitness reduces risk for heart disease, other hypokinetic conditions, and early death. Numerous studies over the past 30 to 40 years have confirmed that good cardiovascular fitness is associated with a reduced risk for heart disease as well as a number of other chronic, hypokinetic conditions. A recent review of 33 studies involving nearly 200,000 people showed that people with low fitness have had a 70 percent higher death rate from all causes and a 56 percent higher death rate from heart diseases than people of intermediate
Maximum Oxygen Uptake ( ̇VO 2 max) A labora- tory measure held to be the best measure of cardio- vascular fitness. Commonly referred to as V̇O2 max, or the volume (V) of oxygen used when a person reaches his or her maximum (max) ability to supply it during exercise.
Figure 3 ▶ Risk reduction associated with cardiovascular fitness. Source: Adapted from Blair et al.
Low fitness Moderate fitness High fitness
Males
Females
High
Low
H yp
ok in
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d is
ea se
r is
k an
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122 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
the health and wellness benefits described earlier in this book. Cardiovascular fitness in the high-performance zone enhances the ability to perform in certain athletic events and in occupations that require high performance levels (e.g., firefighters).
The FIT Formula for Cardiovascular Fitness The FIT formula for cardiovascular fitness varies for people of different activity levels. Adaptations to physical activity are based on the overload princi- ple and the principle of progression. It is important to provide an appropriate challenge to the cardiovascular system (overload), but the challenge should be progres- sive, increasing gradually as fitness improves. For most people, vigorous physical activity from steps 2 and 3 (see Figure 4 ) is necessary to improve cardiovascular fitness. However, for people with low fitness, moderate physical activity (step 1) produces improvements. Table 2 presents the FIT formulas for people of five different fitness and activity levels. While the frequency of exercise is similar for the different levels, the intensity and amount of time spent in activity vary considerably. The sections that follow provide added information about the FIT formula.
The frequency (F) of physical activity to build cardiovascular fitness ranges from 3 to 5 or more days a week. The new ACSM guidelines for build- ing cardiovascular fitness suggest a frequency of at least 5 days a week for low fit people who do primar- ily moderate physical activity. Moderate activity can be safely performed every day and can provide additional benefits. For more active people (and those with higher levels of cardiovascular fitness), vigorous physical activity
fitness. The consensus is that low-fit individuals are three to six times more likely to develop symptoms of metabolic syndrome or diabetes than high-fit individuals. While the specific amount of fitness needed to reduce risks varies by condition and population, evidence clearly supports the need for at least a moderate level of fitness. As shown in Figure 3 , there are dramatic reductions in risk in moving from the low fitness category to the moderate fitness cat- egory for both males and females. In terms of longevity, studies suggest that individuals with moderate fitness will live 5–6 years longer than low-fit individuals.
The benefits of cardiovascular fitness are independent of its beneficial effect on other risk factors. Physical activity has been shown to have bene- ficial effects on some other established heart disease risk factors, such as cholesterol, blood pressure, and body fat. It is important to note that the beneficial effects of cardiovascular fitness on risk for heart disease and early death are considered to be independent of these other effects. This means that active/fit people would still have lower health risks even if their cholesterol, blood pressure, and body fat levels were identical to a matched set of inactive/unfit people. This evidence contributed to the labeling of physical inactivity as a major, independent risk factor for heart disease. The risk associated with physical inactivity is as large as (or larger than) risks associated with any of the other established risk factors.
Good fitness reduces risks for normal weight, overweight, and obese people. Some people think they cannot be fit if they are overweight or overfat. It is now known that appropriate physical activity can build cardiovascular fitness in all types of people, including those with excess body fat. In fact, numerous studies have demonstrated that a fit, overweight person is at lower risk of chronic disease than an unfit person who is normal weight. These findings demonstrate that for chronic dis- ease prevention, low fitness is a greater risk than excess body fatness. The greatest risk is among people who are both unfit and overfat.
Good cardiovascular fitness enhances the ability to perform various tasks, improves the ability to function, and is associated with a feeling of well- being. Moving out of the low fitness zone is of obvious importance to disease risk reduction. Achieving the good zone on tests further reduces disease and early death risk and promotes optimal wellness benefits, and a position statement by the American College of Sports Medicine shows an improved ability to function among older adults. Other wellness benefits include the ability to enjoy lei- sure activities and meet emergency situations, as well as
Health is available for Everyone for a Lifetime, and it’s Personal
Physical activity patterns tend to vary with different phases of life. Those who felt out of place in school team sports may find themselves enjoying solo workouts at the gym in college or adulthood. On the other hand, people who are used to being active may not be able to find time to exercise, at least for a while, when they are adjusting to new family obligations.
How have your physical activity patterns changed over the years, and what future changes do you anticipate?
ACTIVITY
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Concept 7 ▶ Cardiovascular Fitness 123
Fitness Level Very Low Low Marginal Good High Performance
Activity Level Sedentary Some light to moderate activity
Sporadic moderate to vigorous activity
Regular moderate to vigorous activity
Habitual moderate to vigorous activity
F 5 Frequency (days per week) 3–5 3–5 3–5 3–5 3–5
I 5 Intensity
Heart Rate Reserve (HRR) 30–40% 40–55% 55–70% 65–80% 70–85%
Max. Heart Rate (max HR) 57–67% 64–74% 74–84% 80–91% 84–94%
Relative Perceived Exertion (RPE) 12–13 12–13 13–14 13–15 14–16
T 5 Time (minutes per day) 20–30 30–60 30–90 30–90 30–90
Table 2 ▶ FIT Formula for Cardiovascular Fitness for People of Different Fitness and Activity Levels
at least 3 days a week is rec- ommended. Vigorous physi- cal activity provides additional benefits (compared to moder- ate activity), however, it can increase risk for orthopedic injury if it is done too fre- quently. Therefore, 5 days a week is the maximal recom- mended dose for most people. Healthy people who are fit and regularly active and have no evidence of joint prob- lems or injuries may train up to 6 days a week, but most experts agree that at least 1 day off a week is beneficial. Use Table 2 to determine the appropriate frequency of exercise for you based on your current activity and fit- ness level. Complete the fit- ness assessments at the end of this concept before making your decision. The ACSM guidelines focus on exercise for building cardiovascu- lar fitness but are similar to national guidelines designed to produce health and well- ness benefits.
The intensity (I) of physical activity necessary to produce cardiovascular fitness depends on a person’s level of fitness. In general, fit people need to exercise at a higher intensity to provide a sufficient challenge to the cardiovascular system. To deter- mine the appropriate intensity, it is important to have some
Figure 4 ▶ Select activities from steps 2 and 3 of the pyramid for optimal cardiovascular fitness. Source: C. B. Corbin
Avoid Inactivity
Energy Balance
Energy Out (Activity)
Energy In (Diet)
STEP 5
STEP 4
Vigorous Sports and Recreation
Vigorous Aerobics
Moderate Physical Activity
Flexibility Exercises
Muscle Fitness Exercises
• Tennis • Hike
• Yoga • Stretch
• Jog • Bike • Aerobic dance
• Walk • Yard work • Golf
• Calisthenics • Resistance exercise
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
indicator of a person’s overall fitness. If the maximal aero- bic capacity is known, an appropriate intensity can be set at a percentage of the maximum level. Because these values cannot be calculated without special equipment, other indi- cators of relative intensity are more commonly used.
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124 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
Heart rate provides a good indicator of the relative challenge presented by a given bout of exercise. There- fore, guidelines for the intensity of physical activity to build cardiovascular fitness are typically based on per- centages of heart rate reserve (HRR) or maximal heart rate (maxHR). Current guidelines as outlined in Table 2 specify different intensity levels based on current fitness and activity levels. Calculations of HRR and maxHR will be described in detail later, but the general range for HRR is 30 to 85 percent and for maxHR, 57 to 94 percent.
Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) refer to the assessment of the intensity of exercise based on how the participant feels; a subjective assessment of effort. RPE has been shown to be useful in assessing the intensity of aerobic physical activity. The RPE scale ranges from 6 (very very light) to 20 (very very hard), with 1-point increments in between. If the values are multiplied by 10, the RPE values loosely correspond to HR values (e.g., 60 5 rest HR and 200 5 maxHR). Details will be pro- vided later, but the target zone for aerobic activity is from 12 to 16 (see Table 2 ).
Regardless of what method is used, the important point is that lower intensities provide a cardiovascular fitness benefit for low-fit sedentary people, but higher intensities are needed for more fit people. Use Table 2 to determine the appropriate intensity of exercise based on your current activity and fitness level.
The amount of time (T) for building cardiovascular fitness is typically based on minutes of activity per day. Both the ACSM guidelines and the national (DHHS) physical activity guidelines recommend a mini- mum of 150 minutes of moderate activity per week, or 75 minutes of vigorous activity per week (or a combina- tion of minutes from moderate and vigorous activity). Extending the length time for exercise bouts has addi- tional benefits for health and wellness, as well as car- diovascular fitness. For example, 150 to 300 minutes of moderate activity per week is beneficial in losing body fat and maintaining a healthy body weight. For fit and active people, extending bouts of vigorous activity from 20 up to 90 minutes has both health/wellness benefits and enhanced cardiovascular fitness. Use Table 2 to deter- mine the appropriate length of time for daily exercise for you based on your current activity and fitness level.
Different patterns of activity can be used to achieve the recommended dose of exercise. Some people may prefer to perform regular 30-minute bouts of exer- cise but others may prefer to accumulate it throughout the day. The ACSM indicates a pattern involving three 10-minute bouts provides similar benefits to one 30-min- ute session. The amount of physical activity can also vary across days but, as noted in a previous concept, the ACSM discourages a pattern of activity performed by “weekend
warriors”—long activity sessions on one day a week with no regular activity in between. The prescriptions in Table 2 are aimed at overall aerobic fitness. Specialized training regimens are typically needed for those interested in aerobic fitness events (e.g., running races, triathlons) and competitive sports (see Concept 12 for suggestions).
Threshold and Target Zones for Intensity of Activity to Build Cardiovascular Fitness There is a minimum intensity and an optimal intensity range for activity designed to develop cardiovascular fitness. As noted earlier, monitoring heart rate and making ratings of perceived exertion are the most practical methods of determining the intensity of activity necessary to build cardiovascular fitness. The threshold of training (minimum intensity) and the target zone (optimal intensity range) can be determined using several methods. Most methods are based on heart rate so the target zone is typically referred to as target heart rate zone. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) can also be used to define the target zone for exercise intensity. This section provides details of using these methods.
An estimate of maximal heart rate (maxHR) is needed to determine appropriate target heart rate zones for aerobic exercise. Your maxHR is the highest heart rate attained in maximal exercise. It could be determined using an electrocardiogram while exer- cising to exhaustion; however, it can also be estimated with formulas. MaxHR is known to decrease with age so one simple and commonly used approach is to subtract your age from 220 (i.e., maxHR 5 220 2 age). However, studies have shown that this formula leads to inaccurate estimates for most people. A number of more specialized,
Aerobic activities provide an ideal stimulus for improving cardiovascular fitness.
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Concept 7 ▶ Cardiovascular Fitness 125
Calculating Maximal Heart Rate
Maximal heart rate 5 208 2 (.7 3 age) 5 208 2 (.7 3 22) 5 208 2 15.4 193
Calculating Heart Rate Reserve
Maximal heart rate 193 bpm Minus resting heart rate 2 68 bpm Equals heart rate reserve (HRR) 125 bpm
Calculating Threshold Heart Rate
HRR 125 bpm × 65% 3 .65 Equals 81 bpm Plus resting heart rate 168 bpm Equals threshold heart rate 149 bpm
Calculating Upper Limit Heart Rate
HRR 125 bpm × 80% 3 .80 Equals 100 bpm Plus resting heart rate 168 bpm Equals upper limit heart rate 168 bpm
Table 3 ▶ Sample Target Heart Zone Calculations for a 22-Year-Old, Using the Percentage of Heart Rate Reserve Method
Heart Rate Reserve (HRR) The difference between maximum heart rate (highest heart rate in vigorous activity) and resting heart rate (lowest heart rate at rest). Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) The assess- ment of the intensity of exercise based on how the participant feels; a subjective assessment of effort.
Genetics Influence Adaptations to Exercise One factor over which you have little control is heredity. For years we have known that all
people do not respond equally to regular exercise, even when it is done using the correct FIT formula. A recent study pub- lished in the Journal of Applied Physiology found that about 80 to 85 percent of 423 men and women who participated in a cardiovascular fitness program saw improvements in car- diovascular fitness over a period of 20 weeks. However, 15 to 20 percent of the participants showed little fitness improve- ment. The researchers found that a genetic profile predicted which people would get the most improvement from exercise.
Some suggested that this was evidence that exercise is of little value to some people. However, researchers who conducted the study suggest that exercise is of value to all, noting that exercise has many benefits in addition to increases in cardiovascular fitness. Even those who do not respond with big gains in CV fitness can have changes in blood pressure, blood sugar, heart rate, and other bio- logical markers.
Would you give up on exercise if you didn’t see tangible gains in fitness from your efforts?
GG O is
ACTIVITY
In the News
nonlinear equations have been developed to avoid this problem. For example, a new formula for women was recently developed (MaxHR 5 206 3 [.88 3 age]). However, there is currently no consensus on the most accurate method. In this book, we use a relatively sim- ple nonlinear method known as the Tanaka formula: maxHR 5 208 2 (.7 3 age). Calculations made at a variety of ages show little, if any, differences between the
formulas, so we use the one that makes calculations the easiest (it limits use of fractions). Table 3 illustrates the calculations for determining maxHR for a 22-year-old.
The heart rate reserve (HRR) method is the preferred way to calculate target heart rate zones. Table 2 provides five different intensity ranges for activ- ity designed to build cardiovascular fitness. After you have assessed your fitness using fitness tests (see Lab Resource Materials and Lab 7B), determine which of the five intensity ranges is best for you based on your current activity and fitness. Table 3 provides a worked example for calculating heart rate target zones using the HRR method. The example is for a 22-year-old with good cardiovascular fitness, who does regular moderate-to- vigorous physical activity and who has a resting heart rate of 68 beats per minute. The target heart rate zone for this hypothetical person is 65 to 80 percent.
To determine the threshold of training (minimum heart rate for building cardiovascular fitness), use 65 percent of the working heart rate, and then add that value to the resting heart rate. To determine the upper limit of the target zone, use 80 percent of the working heart rate and add that value to the resting heart rate. Because target zone heart rates vary for people of dif- ferent fitness and activity levels and because resting
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126 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
and maximal heart rates vary, each person will have a unique range of heart rates defining the target heart rate zone. The chart in Figure 5 allows you to look up similar threshold and target heart rate zones based on your resting heart rate and age (up to age 65). Locate your resting heart rate on the left and your age across the top. The values at the point where they intersect rep- resent your target heart rate (based on 65 percent and 80 percent of HR reserve). Look across the columns for a given row to see how the target zone changes with age. Look down the rows for a certain column and see how the target zone changes with fitness. The chart shows that fit individuals (lower rest HR values) have lower target heart rate zones than unfit individuals (higher rest HR values). This may seem somewhat paradoxical but the reason is that fit individuals start exercise with a lower HR value and therefore have a larger HRR.
The percentage of maximum heart rate method is an alternative way to calculate target heart rate zones. The percentage of maxHR method is simpler to use than the HRR method, but it is not as accurate. This procedure takes maximal heart rate into account but does not factor in individual differences in resting heart rate. People with a typical resting HR of 60 to 70 bpm will tend to get similar values with both methods, but the per- centage of maxHR method tends to be less accurate for people with high or low resting heart rates.
To use the percentage of maxHR method, first find your maximum HR with the formula (maxHR 5 208 2 (.7 3 age). Then multiply your maxHR by the appropriate percentages from Table 2 . For a person with good fit- ness and who performs regular moderate-to-vigorous activ- ity, the percentages would be 80 to 91 percent. The maxHR for our hypothetical 22-year-old is 193, so the target heart rate zone would be 154 to 176 using this method (.80 3 193 5 154 and .91 3 193 5 176). As illustrated in Table 3 , this procedure yields somewhat similar but higher values for the maxHR method than for the HRR method. The differences between the two methods vary for people of different ages, resting heart rates, and fitness/activity lev- els. The percentage of maxHR method is considered an acceptable alternative method, but the HRR method is more precise. Threshold and target zone heart rates should be used as general guidelines for cardiovascular exercise. You should check your resting heart rate and learn to cal- culate your target heart range based on the HRR method. It is important to understand how to make the calcula- tions, since the process explains the relationships.
The target heart ranges should be used as just that, a general target to try for during your exercise session. By bringing your heart rate above the threshold and into the target zone, you will provide an optimal challenge to your cardiovascular system and maintain/improve your cardiovascular fitness. Guidelines for heart rate monitor- ing are provided in the next section.
Figure 5 ▶ Effect of age and resting heart rate on target heart range.
Effect of Age and Resting Heart Rate on Target Heart Range
Rest HR Threshold 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 6555
65% 144 141 139 137 135 132 130 125 12312850
80% 165 162 160 157 154 151 148 143 140146
55 65% 145 143 141 139 136 134 132 127 125129
80% 166 163 161 158 155 152 149 144 141147
60 65% 147 145 143 140 138 136 133 129 127131
80% 167 164 162 159 156 153 150 145 142148
65 65% 149 147 144 142 140 137 135 131 128133
80% 168 165 163 160 157 154 151 146 143149
70 65% 151 148 146 144 142 139 137 132 130135
80% 169 166 164 161 158 155 152 147 144150
75 65% 152 150 148 146 143 141 139 134 132136
80% 170 167 165 162 159 156 153 148 145151
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Concept 7 ▶ Cardiovascular Fitness 127
Ratings of perceived exertion can be used to monitor the intensity of physical activity. The ACSM suggests that regularly active people can use RPE to determine if they are exercising in the target zone (see Table 4 ). Ratings of perceived exertion have been shown to correlate well with HRR. For this reason, RPE can be used to estimate exercise intensity, avoiding the need to stop and count heart rate during exercise. A rating of 12 is equal to threshold, and a rating of 16 is equal to the upper limit of the target zone. With practice, most people can recognize when they are in the target zone using rat- ings of perceived exertion.
Guidelines for Heart Rate and Exercise Monitoring Learning to count heart rate can help you monitor the intensity of your physical activity. Each time your heart beats, it pumps blood into the arteries. The surge of blood causes a pulse, which can be felt by holding a finger against an artery. The major arteries that are easy to locate and are frequently used for pulse counts are the radial just below the base of the thumb on the wrist (see Figure 6 ) and the carotid on either side of the Adam’s apple (see Figure 7 ). Counting the pulse at the carotid is the most popular procedure,
Rating Description
6
7 Very, very light
8
9 Very light
10
11 Fairly light
12
13 Somewhat hard
14
15 Hard
16
17 Very hard
18
19 Very, very hard
20
Source: Data from Borg.
Table 4 ▶ Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE)
Figure 6 ▶ Counting your radial (wrist) pulse. Figure 7 ▶ Counting your carotid (neck) pulse.
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128 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
probably because the carotid pulse is easy to locate. The radial pulse is a bit harder to find because of the many tendons near the wrist, but it works better for some people.
To count the pulse rate, simply place the finger- tips (index and middle finger) over the artery at the wrist or neck location. Move the fingers around until a strong pulse can be felt. Press gently so as not to cut off the blood flow through the artery. Counting the pulse with the thumb is not recommended because the thumb has a relatively strong pulse of its own, and it could be confusing when counting another person’s pulse.
Counting heart rates during exercise presents some additional challenges. To obtain accurate exer- cise heart rate values, it is best to count heart beats or pulses while moving; however, this is difficult during most activities.
The most practical method is to count the pulse imme- diately after exercise. During physical activity, the heart rate increases, but immediately after exercise, it begins to slow and return to normal. In fact, the heart rate has already slowed considerably within 1 minute after activity ceases. Therefore, you must locate the pulse quickly and count the rate for a short period in order to obtain accu- rate results. For best results, keep moving while quickly
locating the pulse; then stop and take a 15-second count. Multiply the number of pulses by 4 to convert heart rate to beats per minute.
You can also count the pulse for 10 seconds and mul- tiply by 6, or count the pulse for 6 seconds and multi- ply by 10 to estimate a 1-minute heart rate. The latter method allows you to calculate heart rates easily by add- ing 0 to the 6-second count. However, short-duration pulse counts increase the chance of error because a mis- count of 1 beat is multiplied by 6 or 10 beats rather than by 4 beats.
The pulse rate should be counted after regular activ- ity, not after a sudden burst. Some runners sprint the last few yards of their daily run and then count their pulse. Such a burst of exercise will elevate the heart rate con- siderably. This gives a false picture of the actual exercise heart rate. Everyone should learn to determine resting heart rate accurately and to estimate exercise heart rate by quickly and accurately making pulse counts after activity (see Lab 7A).
Declines in resting heart rate and exercise heart rate signal improvements in cardiovascular fitness. As described in this concept, the heart beats to provide the body (and working muscles) with oxygen. Oxygen is used to produce energy using aerobic metabolism. During rest, the heart can beat relatively slowly to pro- vide sufficient oxygen to the body. During exercise, the demand for energy increases, so the body increases heart rate (and respiration) to help distribute more oxygen to
T E C H N O L O G Y U P D A T E
New Technology in Activity Monitoring Physical activity researchers have been using accelerometry- based devices to monitor physical activity behavior for 15 to 20 years. However, the development and deploy- ment of low-cost accelerometers in gaming devices such as the Wii and Kinect made it possible for compa- nies to develop more competitively priced monitoring devices. The monitors are more expensive than stan- dard pedometers but they can capture the intensity of physical activity and most can link wirelessly to the Internet or your cell phone through Bluetooth tech- nology. Some devices also have built-in connections with social media applications, including Facebook, to enable friends to hold each other accountable as virtual exercise buddies. The new devices provide consumers advanced activity monitoring devices to keep track of their exercise sessions.
Would real-time monitoring devices help you stay committed to your exercise goals?
ACTIVITY
A CLOSER LOOK
Online Fitness Memberships and Consulting Many people take advantage of employee fitness pro- grams to get advice about exercise. Others prefer to enroll in private gyms where they may contract with a per- sonal trainer. A relatively new option for exercisers is to enroll in an online fitness program. One company offers opportunities for individuals to enroll in the Lifespan Fit- ness Club to access personalized health and exercise tracking software and exercise tip sheets. Members can also connect with online health coaches who review your status and provide suggestions for programming.
Would you use this type of support to maintain your health status or would you rather do it on your own?
A
Online Fitness MFitnessi e Fitness
ACTIVITY
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Concept 7 ▶ Cardiovascular Fitness 129
Figure 8 ▶ Comparison of resting and exercise heart for three 22-year-old individuals (maxHR 5 193) with different levels of fitness (A 5 low fitness, B 5 moderate fitness, C 5 high fitness).
A
Low Fit
Rest HR HR
RPE
90 160 17
70 130 14
50 100 11
Mod Fit High Fit
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
B C
H ea
rt r
at e
Exercise
Resting
the body. Changes in resting heart rate and exercise heart rate provide good indicators of improvements in fitness because they indicate that the heart can pump fewer times to provide the same amount of blood flow to the body. A fit individual has a stronger heart and can pump more blood with each beat.
A comparison of resting and exercise heart rates for three hypothetical individuals performing the same bout of exercise is shown in Figure 8 . The column labeled “A” shows the response of an unfit person. This person has a high resting heart rate of 90, and this increases to 160 during the exercise. This intensity would feel pretty hard, so an RPE would likely be about 17. Compare this response to the results for a moderately or highly fit person. Both have a lower resting heart rate and a lower exercise heart rate, so exercise is easier and can be main- tained more easily.
Strategies for Action
An important first step in developing and maintaining cardiovascular
fitness is assessing your current status. For an activity pro- gram to be most effective, it should be based on personal needs. Some type of testing is necessary to determine your personal need for cardiovascular fitness. The best measure of cardiovas- cular fitness is a laboratory assessment of V
∙ O2 max, but this is
not possible for most people. To provide alternatives, research- ers have developed other tests that give reasonable estimates. Commonly used tests are the step test, the swim test, the 12-minute run, the Astrand-Ryhming bicycle test, and the walking test. These tests are developed based on comparisons with measured V
∙ O2 max and are good
general indicators of cardiovascular fitness. In Lab 7B you will be able to compare estimates from several tests.
The self-assessment you choose depends on your current fitness and activity levels, the availability of equipment, and other factors. The walking test is probably best for those at beginning levels because more vigorous forms of activity may cause discomfort and discourage future participation. The step test is somewhat less vigorous than the running test and takes only a few minutes to complete. The bicycle test is also submaximal or relatively moderate in intensity. It is quite accurate but requires more equipment and expertise than the other tests. You may need help from a fitness expert to do this
test properly. The swim test is especially useful to those with musculoskeletal problems and other disabilities. The running test is the most vigorous and for this reason may be best for more advanced exercisers with high levels of motivation.
Results on the walking, running, and swimming tests are greatly influenced by the motivation of the test taker. If the test taker does not try hard, fitness results are underestimated. The bicycle and step tests are influenced less by motivation because one must exercise at a specified workload and at a regular pace. Because heart rate can be influenced by emo- tional factors, by exercise prior to the test, and other factors, tests using heart rate can sometimes give incorrect results. Thus, do your self-assessments when you are relatively free from stress and are rested.
Prior to performing any of these, be sure that you are physi- cally and medically ready. Prepare yourself by doing some regular physical activity for 3 to 6 weeks before actually taking the tests. If possible, take more than one test and use the sum- mary of your test results to make a final assessment of your cardiovascular fitness. In Lab 7B, you will have the opportunity to self-assess your cardiovascular fitness using one or more tests. A nonexercise estimate of cardiovascular fitness is also provided for comparison. Although this self-report tool has limitations, it is increasingly being used as a screening tool in physicians’ offices to deter- mine if patients have risks associated with poor fitness.
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130 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
Healthy People
ACTIVITY
2020 The objectives listed below are societal goals designed to help all Americans improve their health between now and the year 2020. They were selected because they relate to the content of this concept.
• Increase overall cardiovascular health, reduce heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, and high blood cholesterol, increase screening, and increase emergency treatment by professionals or bystanders.
• Increase proportion of adults who meet guidelines for moderate to vigorous aerobic activity.
• Increase percentage of college students receiving risk factor information.
• Increase counseling about physical activity by physicians.
• Increase weight-control efforts and activity levels of adults with high LDL.
• Increase young adult awareness of CHD signs and symptoms.
• Attain high-quality, longer lives free of preventable disease, injury, and premature death.
A national goal is to promote and encourage counseling about physical activity by physicians. Many physicians suggest that people get more exercise, but often offer few specifics. What type of information do you think physicians should provide? Suggest cost-effective ways they can provide information to their patients.
Web Resources American College of Sports Medicine www.acsm.org American Heart Association www.americanheart.org The Cooper Institute www.cooperinst.org Fitnessgram Youth Fitness Test www.fitnessgram.net Plugout Fitness www.plugoutfitness.com
Suggested Readings ACSM. 2010. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and
Prescription. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Chapters 4 and 7.
Ding, E. L., and F. B. Hu. 2010. Commentary: Relative importance of diet vs. physical activity for health. International Journal of Epidemiology 39(1):209–211.
Garber, C. E., et al. 2011. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculosk- eletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults:
Guidance for prescribing exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 43(7):1334–1359.
Gulati, M., et al. Heart rate response to exercise stress testing in asymptomatic women. The St. James Women Take Heart Project. Circulation. Published online June 28, 2010, http:// circ.ahajournals.org
Heroux, M., et al. 2010. Dietary patterns and the risk of mor- tality: Impact of cardiorespiratory fitness. International Journal of Epidemiology 39(1):197–209.
Kodama, S., et al. 2009. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and car- diovascular events in healthy men and women: A Meta- analysis. J ournal of the American Medical Association 301(19):2024–2035.
Kohl, H. W., and T. D. Murray. 2012. Foundations of Physical Activity and Public Health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Liu, R. et al. (2012). Cardiorespiratory fitness as a predictor of dementia mortality in men and women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 44(2): 253–259.
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Lab R
eso urce
M aterials
131
E valuating C
ard iovascular Fitness
Source: James M. Rippe, M.D.
The ratings in Chart 1 are for ages 20 to 29. They provide reasonable ratings for people of all ages.
Note: The walking test is not a good indicator of high performance; the running and bicycle tests are recommended.
14 or less
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 or moreTime (min.)
Marginal zone
Low zone
Females
170+
160
150
140
130
120
110
H ea
rt r
at e
(b pm
)
Good fitness zone
12 or less
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 or moreTime (min.)
Marginal zone
Low zone
Males
170+
160
150
140
130
120
110
H ea
rt r
at e
(b pm
)
Good fitness zone
Chart 1 Walking Ratings for Males and Females
Classification 60-Second Heart Rate
High-performance zone 84 or less
Good fitness zone 85–95
Marginal zone 96–119
Low zone 120 and above
Source: Kasch and Boyer.
As you grow older, you will want to continue to score well on this rat- ing chart. Because your maximal heart rate decreases as you age, you should be able to score well if you exercise regularly.
Chart 2 Step Test Rating Chart
Lab Resource Materials: Evaluating Cardiovascular Fitness
The Walking Test • Warm up; then walk 1 mile as fast as you can without
straining. Record your time to the nearest second.
• Immediately after the walk, count your heart rate for 15 seconds; then multiply by four to get a 1-minute heart rate. Record your heart rate.
• Use your walking time and your postexercise heart rate to determine your rating using Chart 1.
Step Test • Step up and down on a 12-inch bench for
3 minutes at a rate of 24 steps per minute. One step consists of four beats—that is, “up with the left foot, up with the right foot, down with the left foot, down with the right foot.”
• Immediately after the exercise, sit down on the bench and relax. Don’t talk.
• Locate your pulse or have someone locate it for you.
• Five seconds after the exercise ends, begin count- ing your pulse. Count the pulse for 60 seconds.
• Your score is your 60-second heart rate. Locate your score and your rating on Chart 2.
The Astrand-Ryhming Bicycle Test
• Ride a stationary bicycle ergometer for 6 minutes at a rate of 50 pedal cycles per minute (one push with each foot per cycle). Cool down after the test.
• Set the bicycle at a workload between 300 and 1,200 kpm. For less fit or smaller people, a setting in the range of 300 to 600 is appropriate. Larger or fit- ter people will need to use a setting of 750 to 1,200. The workload should be enough to elevate the heart rate to at least 125 bpm but no more than 170 bpm during the ride. The ideal range is 140–150 bpm.
• During the sixth minute of the ride (if the heart rate is in the correct range—see previous step), count the heart rate for the entire sixth minute. The carotid or radial pulse may be used.
• Use Chart 3 (males) or 4 (females) to determine your predicted oxygen uptake score in liters per minute. Locate your heart rate for the sixth minute of the ride in the left column and the work rate in kp·m/min. across the top. The number in the chart where the heart rate and work rate intersect repre- sents your predicted O2 uptake in liters per minute. The bicycle you use must allow you to easily and accurately determine the work rate in kp·m/min.
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s • Ratings are typically assigned based on milliliters
per kilogram of body weight per minute. To convert your score to milliliters per kilogram per minute (mL/ kg/min.), the first step is to multiply your score from Chart 3 or 4 by 1,000. This converts your score from liters to milliliters. Then divide your weight in pounds by 2.2. This converts your weight to kilograms. Then divide your score in milliliters by your weight in kilo- grams. This gives you your score in mL/kg/min.
• Example: An oxygen uptake score of 3.5 liters is equal to a 3,500-milliliter score (3.5 × 1,000). If the person with this score weighed 150 pounds, his or her weight in kilograms would be 68.18 kilograms (150 divided by 2.2). The person’s oxygen uptake would be 51.3 mL/kg/min. (3,500 divided by 68.18).
• Use your score in mL/kg/min. to determine your rat- ing (Chart 5).
Heart Rate
Work Rate (kp·m/min.) Heart Rate
Work Rate (kp·m/min.) Heart Rate
Work Rate (kp·m/min.)
300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 400 600 750 900
123 2.4 3.1 3.9 4.6 5.1 139 1.8 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.0 155 1.9 2.4 2.8 3.2
124 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.5 5.1 140 1.8 2.4 2.8 3.4 4.0 156 1.9 2.4 2.8 3.2
125 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.4 5.0 141 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.4 3.9 157 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.2
126 2.3 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.0 142 1.7 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.9 158 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.1
127 2.2 2.9 3.5 4.2 4.8 143 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 159 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.1
128 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.8 144 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.8 160 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
129 2.2 2.8 3.4 4.1 4.8 145 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 161 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
130 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.7 146 1.6 2.2 2.6 3.2 3.7 162 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
131 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.6 147 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 163 1.7 2.2 2.5 2.9
132 2.0 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.6 148 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 164 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9
133 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.5 149 1.5 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.5 165 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9
134 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.4 150 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 166 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.8
135 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.4 151 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.4 167 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
136 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.6 4.3 152 1.4 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.4 168 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
137 1.9 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.2 153 1.4 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.3 169 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
138 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.2 154 1.4 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.3 170 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.7
Chart 4 Determining Oxygen Uptake Using the Bicycle Test—Women (Liters O2/min.)
Heart Rate
Work Rate (kp·m/min.) Heart Rate
Work Rate (kp·m/min.) Heart Rate
Work Rate (kp·m/min.)
450 600 900 1,200 450 600 900 1,200 1,500 450 600 900 1,200 1,500
123 3.3 3.4 4.6 6.0 139 2.5 2.6 3.6 4.8 6.0 155 2.0 2.2 3.0 4.0 5.0
124 3.3 3.3 4.5 6.0 140 2.5 2.6 3.6 4.8 6.0 156 1.9 2.2 2.9 4.0 5.0
125 3.2 3.2 4.4 5.9 141 2.4 2.6 3.5 4.7 5.9 157 1.9 2.1 2.9 3.9 4.9
126 3.1 3.2 4.4 5.8 142 2.4 2.5 3.5 4.6 5.8 158 1.8 2.1 2.9 3.9 4.9
127 3.0 3.1 4.3 5.7 143 2.4 2.5 3.4 4.6 5.7 159 1.8 2.1 2.8 3.8 4.8
128 3.0 3.1 4.2 5.6 144 2.3 2.5 3.4 4.5 5.7 160 1.8 2.1 2.8 3.8 4.8
129 2.9 3.0 4.2 5.6 145 2.3 2.4 3.4 4.5 5.6 161 1.7 2.0 2.8 3.7 4.7
130 2.9 3.0 4.1 5.5 146 2.3 2.4 3.3 4.4 5.6 162 1.7 2.0 2.8 3.7 4.6
131 2.8 2.9 4.0 5.4 147 2.3 2.4 3.3 4.4 5.5 163 1.7 2.0 2.8 3.7 4.6
132 2.8 2.9 4.0 5.3 148 2.2 2.4 3.2 4.3 5.4 164 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.6 4.5
133 2.7 2.8 3.9 5.3 149 2.2 2.3 3.2 4.3 5.4 165 1.6 1.9 2.7 3.6 4.5
134 2.7 2.8 3.9 5.2 150 2.2 2.3 3.2 4.2 5.3 166 1.6 1.9 2.7 3.6 4.5
135 2.7 2.8 3.8 5.1 151 2.2 2.3 3.1 4.2 5.2 167 1.5 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.4
136 2.6 2.7 3.8 5.0 152 2.1 2.3 3.1 4.1 5.2 168 1.5 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.4
137 2.6 2.7 3.7 5.0 153 2.1 2.2 3.0 4.1 5.1 169 1.5 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.3
138 2.5 2.7 3.7 4.9 154 2.0 2.2 3.0 4.0 5.1 170 1.4 1.8 2.6 3.4 4.3
Chart 3 Determining Oxygen Uptake Using the Bicycle Test—Men (Liters O2/min.)
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133
E valuating C
ard iovascular Fitness
The 12-Minute Run Test • Locate an area where a specific distance is already
marked, such as a school track or football field, or measure a specific distance using a bicycle or automobile odometer.
• Use a stopwatch or wristwatch to accurately time a 12-minute period.
• For best results, warm up prior to the test; then run at a steady pace for the entire 12 minutes (cool down after the test).
• Determine the distance you can run in 12 minutes in fractions of a mile. Depending upon your age, locate your score and rating in Chart 6.
Men (Age)
17–26 27–39 40–49 50+
Classification—Men Miles Km Miles Km Miles Km Miles Km
High-performance zone 1.80+ 2.90+ 1.60+ 2.60+ 1.50+ 2.40+ 1.40+ 2.25+
Good fitness zone 1.55–1.79 2.50–2.89 1.45–1.59 2.35–2.59 1.40–1.49 2.25–2.39 1.25–1.39 2.00–2.24
Marginal zone 1.35–1.54 2.20–2.49 1.30–1.44 2.10–2.34 1.25–1.39 2.00–2.24 1.10–1.24 1.75–1.99
Low zone <1.35 <2.20 <1.30 <2.10 <1.25 <2.00 <1.1 <1.75
Women (Age)
17–26 27–39 40–49 50+
Classification—Women Miles Km Miles Km Miles Km Miles Km
High-performance zone 1.45+ 2.35+ 1.35+ 2.20+ 1.25+ 2.00+ 1.15+ 1.85+
Good fitness zone 1.25–1.44 2.00–2.34 2.20–1.34 1.95–2.19 1.15–1.24 1.85–1.99 1.05–1.14 1.70–1.84
Marginal zone 1.15–1.24 1.85–1.99 1.05–1.19 1.70–1.94 1.00–1.14 1.60–1.84 .95–1.04 1.55–1.69
Low zone <1.15 <1.85 <1.05 <1.70 <1.00 <1.60 <.95 <1.55
Source: Based on data from Cooper.
Chart 6 Twelve-Minute Run Test Rating Chart
Men
Age 17–26 27–39 40–49 50–59 60–69
High-performance zone 50+ 46+ 42+ 39+ 35+
Good fitness zone 43–49 35–45 32–41 29–38 26–34
Marginal zone 35–42 30–34 27–31 25–28 22–25
Low zone <35 <30 <27 <25 <22
Women
Age 17–26 27–39 40–49 50–59 60–69
High-performance zone 46+ 40+ 38+ 35+ 32+
Good fitness zone 36–45 33–39 30–37 28–34 24–31
Marginal zone 30–35 28–32 24–29 21–27 18–23
Low zone <30 <28 <24 <21 <18
Chart 5 Bicycle Test Rating Scale (mL/O2/kg/min.)
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The 12-Minute Swim Test • Locate a swimming area with premeasured dis-
tances, preferably 20 yards or longer.
• After a warm-up, swim as far as possible in 12 minutes using the stroke of your choice.
• For best results, have a partner keep track of your time and distance. A degree of swimming compe- tence is a prerequisite for this test.
• Determine your score and rating using Chart 7.
Men (Age)
17–26 27–39 40–49 50+
Classification—Men Yards Meters Yards Meters Yards Meters Yards Meters
High-performance zone 700+ 650+ 650+ 600+ 600+ 550+ 550+ 500+
Good fitness zone 600–699 550–649 550–649 500–599 500–599 475–549 450–549 425–499
Marginal zone 500–599 450–549 450–459 400–499 400–499 375–475 350–449 325–424
Low zone Below 500 Below 450 Below 450 Below 400 Below 400 Below 375 Below 350 Below 325
Women (Age)
17–26 27–39 40–49 50+
Classification—Women Yards Meters Yards Meters Yards Meters Yards Meters
High-performance zone 600+ 550+ 550+ 500+ 500+ 450+ 450+ 400+
Good fitness zone 500–599 450–549 450–549 400–499 400–499 375–449 350–449 325–400
Marginal zone 400–499 350–449 350–449 325–399 300–399 275–375 250–349 225–324
Low zone Below 400 Below 350 Below 350 Below 325 Below 300 Below 275 Below 250 Below 225
Source: Based on data from Cooper.
Chart 7 Twelve-Minute Swim Rating Chart
Rating Score
Needs Improvement 1–4
Marginal 5–9
Good Conditioning 10–13
Highly Conditioned 13+
Chart 8 Non-Exercise Fitness Assessment Rating Chart
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Lab 7A
C ounting Target H
eart R ate and
R atings of P
erceived E
xertion
Lab 7A Counting Target Heart Rate and Ratings of Perceived Exertion
Name Section Date
Purpose: To learn to count heart rate accurately and to use heart rate and/or ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) to establish the threshold of training and target zones
Procedure
1. Practice counting the number of pulses felt for a given period of time at both the carotid and radial locations. Use a clock or watch to count for 15, 30, and 60 seconds. To establish your heart rate in beats per minute, multiply your 15-second pulse by four, and your 30-second pulse by two.
2. Practice locating your carotid and radial pulses quickly. This is important when trying to count your pulse after exercise.
3. Run a quarter mile; then count your heart rate at the end of the run. Try to run at a rate you think will keep the rate of the heart above the threshold of training and in the target zone. Use 15-second pulse counts (choose either carotid or radial) and multiply by four to get heart rate in beats per minute (bpm). Record the bpm in the Results section.
4. Rate your perceived exertion (RPE) for the run (see RPE chart below). Record your results. 5. Repeat the run a second time. Try to run at a speed that gets you in the heart rate and RPE target zone. Record
your heart rate and RPE results.
Results: Record your resting heart rates in the boxes below. Carotid Pulse Heart Rate per Minute Radial Pulse Heart Rate per Minute
15 seconds × 4 5 15 seconds × 4 5
30 seconds × 2 5 30 seconds × 2 5
60 seconds × 1 5 60 seconds × 1 5
Record your heart rate and rating of perceived exertion for run 1.
Pulse Count Heart Rate per Minute
15 seconds × 4 5
Rating of Perceived Exertion
Record your heart rate and rating of perceived exertion for run 2.
Pulse Count Heart Rate per Minute
15 seconds × 4 5
Rating of Perceived Exertion
Rating Description
6 7 Very, very light
8 9 Very light
10 11 Fairly light
12 13 Somewhat hard
14 15 Hard
16 17 Very hard
18 19 Very, very hard
20
Source: Data from Borg, G.
Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE)
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*Thanks to Ginnie Atkins for suggesting this lab supplement.
Answer the following questions:
Which pulse-counting technique did you use after the runs? Carotid Radial
What is your heart rate target zone (to calculate, see pages 125 and 126) bpm
Was your heart rate for run 1 enough to get in the heart rate target zone? Yes No
Was your RPE for run 1 enough to get in the target zone (12–16)? Yes No
Was your heart rate for run 2 enough to get in the heart rate target zone? Yes No
Was your RPE for run 2 enough to get in the target zone (12–16)? Yes No
Conclusions and Implications: In several sentences, discuss your results, including which method you would use to count heart rate and why. Also discuss heart rate versus RPE (Rating of Perceived Exertion) for determining the target zone.
Lab Supplement:* You may want to keep track of your exercise heart rate over a week’s time or longer to see if you are reaching the target zone in your workouts. Shade your target zone with a highlight pen and plot your exercise heart rate for each day of the week (see sample).
200
Exercise Heart Rate
Write in your daily exercise heart rate in the boxes above.
Sample
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Day 2 162
Day 1 155
190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80
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E valuating C
ard iovascular Fitness
Lab 7B
Step Test
Heart rate bpm
Rating (see Chart 2, page 131)
12-Minute Run Test
Distance miles
Rating (see Chart 6, page 133)
12-Minute Swim Test
Distance yards
Rating (see Chart 7, page 134)
Lab 7B Evaluating Cardiovascular Fitness
Name Section Date
Purpose: To acquaint you with several methods for evaluating cardiovascular fi tness and to help you evaluate and rate your own cardiovascular fi tness
Procedure
1. Perform one or more of the four cardiovascular fi tness tests and determine your ratings using the information in the Lab Resource Materials.
2. Perform each of the four steps for the Non-Exercise Estimate of Cardiovascular Fitness using the information on the back of this page. Learning this technique will allow you to estimate your fi tness when you are injured or for some other reason cannot do a performance test.
Results
1. Record the information from your cardiovascular fi tness test(s) in the spaces provided. 2. After you have completed the four steps for the Non-Exercise Estimate of Cardiovascular Fitness, use Chart 8 in
Lab Resource Materials (page 134) to determine your fi tness rating.
Walking Test
Time minutes
Heart rate bpm
Rating (see Chart 1, page 131)
Bicycle Test
Workload kpm
Heart rate bpm
Weight pounds
Weight in kg*
mL/O2/kg
Rating (see Chart 5, page 133)
Non-Exercise Test
Score
Rating (see Chart 8, page 134)
*Weight in lb. ÷ 2.2.
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Conclusions and Implications
1. In several sentences, explain why you selected the tests you selected. Discuss your current level of cardiovascular fi tness and steps you will need to take to maintain or improve it. Comment on the effectiveness of the tests you selected.
2. In several sentences, explain your results from the non-exercise assessment by comparing the results with the other test(s). Did the self-report version classify you into the same fi tness category? Try to explain any differences you noted.
Non-Exercise Cardiovascular Fitness Rating Record your scores and do the calculations to determine scores for A to E below.
• Look up your activity score on Chart 1 (below). Record score in box A. (A)
• Record your gender (female = 0/male = 1) ______ × 2.77 = (B)
• Determine your resting heart rate (Lab 7A), record here ______ × 0.03 = (C)
• Calculate your BMI (see Lab 13B), record here ______ × 0.17 = (D)
• Record your age in years. ______ × 0.10 = (E)
Use the following formula to calculate your score. Use Chart 8 on page 134 to get your rating.
18.07 + A + B – C – D – E = Estimated Cardiovascular Fitness (METs)
18.07 + + – – – =
Activity Score Choose the Score That Best Describes Your Physical Activity Level
0.00 I am inactive or do little activity other than usual daily activities.
0.32 I regularly (> 5 d/wk) participate in physical activities requiring low levels of exertion that result in slight increases in breathing and heart rate for at least 10 minutes at a time.
1.06 I participate in aerobic exercises such as brisk walking, jogging, or running, cycling, swimming, or vigorous sports at a comfortable pace, or activities requiring similar levels of exertion for 20 to 60 minutes per week.
1.76 I participate in aerobic exercises such as brisk walking, jogging, or running at a comfortable pace, or other activities requiring similar levels of exertion for 1 to 3 hours per week.
3.03 I participate in aerobic exercises such as brisk walking, jogging, or running at a comfortable pace, or other activities requiring similar levels of exertion for over 3 hours per week.
Chart 1 Self-Reported Activity Score (for Step 1 Above)
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this concept, you will be able to:
▶ Explain the difference between moderate and vigorous physical activity and describe the unique benefits of vigorous physical activity.
▶ Identify several different types of vigorous aerobic activities and describe the advantages of each as possible activities in a personal activity program.
▶ Identify several different types of vigorous sports activities, describe the advantages of sports activities in a personal activity program, and explain the importance of skill learning to sports performance.
▶ Identify several different types of vigorous recreational activities and explain how they differ from vigorous aerobic and sports activities.
▶ Plan and self-monitor a vigorous physical activity program, and evaluate the factors that will help you adhere to it.
Vigorous Aerobics, Sports, and Recreational Activities
C o
n c
e p
t 8
Vigorous physical activity— including vigorous aerobics, sports,
and recreational activities— promotes health, fitness, and
enhanced performance.
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140 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
the activities of preference. The ACSM and AHA also indicate that moderate and vigorous physical activities can be combined to meet the guidelines.
Physical Activity Pyramid: Steps 2 and 3 A variety of popular vigorous aerobic activities are included at step 2 of the pyramid. The word aerobics literally means “with oxygen.” Aerobic activity is gener- ally defined as activity that is rhythmical, uses the large muscles, and is performed in a continuous manner. Many activities meet these criteria, including walking, doing housework, and performing many other light to moder- ate physical activities.
Dr. Ken Cooper of the Cooper Institute in Dallas popularized the term aerobics in his book, Aerobics, published in 1968. His book featured vigorous aerobic activities such as those in step 2 of the physical activity pyramid (see Figure 1 ). The activities included in step 2 of the pyramid
are at least 6 METs (six times more intense than resting) and significantly elevate the heart rate. Examples include jogging, aerobic dance, and cycling.
An advantage of these vig- orous aerobic activities is that they provide a good cardio- vascular workout in a short time and can often be done by oneself. A disadvantage (or barrier) for some people is that they are generally more vigor- ous and fast paced than other forms of activity. The more vigorous nature is the most likely explanation for the age- related patterns that exist for participation in vigorous aero- bic activity. Young adults are far more likely to participate in vigorous aerobic activity than are older adults. Most statistics report three- to five- fold differences in participa- tion rates for young adults and older adults (40 to 60). The declining interest in vigorous activity for older adults is a concern to public health offi- cials only if older adults fail to substitute moderate physical activity when they discontinue more vigorous activity.
I n Concept 6, you learned the many values of moderate physical activity. In this concept, you learn the value of vigorous physical activity as shown in steps 2 and 3 of the physical activity pyramid (see Figure 1 ). The threshold of training and target zones described in Concept 7 for building cardiovascular fitness help define the nature of vigorous physical activity. Except for those with low fit- ness or who are sedentary, activities intense enough to build cardiovascular fitness are considered to be vigorous in nature.
We look at three different types of vigorous physi- cal activity: vigorous aerobics, sports, and recreational activities. In the past, vigorous physical activity was recommended for people who wanted to build cardio- vascular fitness and for enhancing performance, but it was not included as a method of meeting the national physical activity guidelines. The new activity guidelines explicitly include vigorous physical activity. In other words, people can choose moder- ate activity or vigorous activity to meet the guidelines, depending on
Figure 1 ▶ Vigorous aerobics, sports, and recreational activities are included at the second and third steps of the physical activity pyramid. Source: C. B. Corbin
Vigorous Sports and Recreation
Vigorous Aerobics
Moderate Physical Activity
Flexibility Exercises
Muscle Fitness Exercises
• Tennis • Hike
• Yoga • Stretch
• Jog • Bike • Aerobic dance
• Walk • Yard work • Golf
• Calisthenics • Resistance exercise
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
Avoid Inactivity
Energy Balance
Energy Out (Activity)
Energy In (Diet)
STEP 5
STEP 4
VIDEO 1
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Concept 8 ▶ Vigorous Aerobics, Sports, and Recreational Activities 141
Vigorous sports and recreation at step 3 of the pyramid can provide the same benefits as vigorous aerobic activities. Vigorous sports are not always con- tinuous in nature. These activities involve intermittent activity with bursts of activity and short periods of rest but typically are at an intensity that provides benefits similar to vigor- ous aerobic activities. Examples of vigorous sports include rowing, racquetball, soccer, and hockey. Swimming and cycling are also popular activities that can be considered sports. However, most people do these activities noncompeti- tively, so they are considered as vigorous aerobics in this book. Sports such as golf, bowling, and billiards/pool are aerobic but are light to moderate in intensity. For this reason, they are classified as moderate physical activities.
Activities such as hiking, boating, fishing, horseback riding, and other such outdoor activities are generally classified as recreation. Because many of these activities can be performed at intensities suitable for building cardiovascular fitness, some can be categorized as vigorous recreational activities. Hiking, skiing, kaya- king, canoeing, hunting, and rock climbing are examples of recreation activities that may involve a considerable amount of activity. Recreation activities such as fishing and boating are typically done at lower intensities and can be considered as moderate activities.
Physical activities at steps 2 and 3 of the pyramid produce improvements in cardiovascular fitness and health in addition to those produced by moderate physical activities. Participation in moderate activity provides important health benefits, but vigorous aero- bic activity results in additional health benefits, such as improved cardiovascular fitness and improved perfor- mance (see Table 1 ). The guidelines call for performing vigorous activity at least 3 days a week for 20 minutes at the appropriate target intensity. The ACSM/AHA guide- lines indicate that “physical activity above the recom- mended minimum provides even greater health benefits” than meeting only minimum standards. The guidelines further indicate that “the point of maximum benefits for most health benefits has not yet been established . . . but exceeding the minimum recommendation further reduces the risk of inactivity-related chronic disease.”
Moderate and vigorous physical activity can be com- bined to meet national guidelines. National guide- lines specify the total amount of activity that should be performed rather than having separate recommendations for moderate and vigorous activity. This approach helps people incorporate both moderate and vigorous activity into their lifestyle. The guidelines are based on tracking
the total “MET-minutes” of physical activity performed. Because vigorous activity is performed at higher intensi- ties (higher MET values), it makes a larger contribution to total activity than moderate-intensity activity performed for the same time. To determine MET-minutes, you multi- ply the MET value of an activity by the number of minutes that you perform it. For example, if a person walked for 10 minutes at 4 mph (4 METs), the MET-minutes would be 40 (4 METs 3 10 minutes). If the person also jogged for 20 minutes at 5 mph (8 METs), the MET-minutes for jogging would be 160 (8 METs 3 20 minutes); the total MET-minutes for the day would be 200.
To meet the new physical activity guidelines, a per- son must accumulate a minimum of 500 MET-minutes per week. These are considered to be minimal levels and the physical activity guidelines encourage people to move toward the target of 1,000 MET-minutes per
• Vigorous activity meets national guidelines for reducing risk of chronic disease and early death.
• Vigorous activity provides disease risk reduction in addition to moderate activity alone (even when calorie expenditure is the same).
• Vigorous activity provides disease risk reduction in addi- tion to moderate activity when done in addition to moderate physical activity.
• Vigorous activity improves cardiovascular fitness.
• Vigorous activity enhances ability to perform activities that require good cardiovascular fitness.
*Benefits depend on regular participation (at least 3 days a week) and appropriate intensity and duration (at least 20 minutes at target intensity).
Table 1 ▶ Benefi ts of Vigorous Physical Activity *
Vigorous Aerobic Activities Aerobic activities of an intensity at least six times that of resting (6 METs), commonly defined as activities with enough intensity to produce improvements in cardiovascular fitness. Vigorous Sports Sports are competitive activities that have an organized set of rules, along with win- ners and losers. Vigorous sports are those of similar intensity to vigorous aerobic activities. Vigorous Recreational Activities Recreational activities are those that are done during leisure time that do not meet the characteristics of sports. Vigor- ous recreational activities are of similar intensity to vigorous aerobics.
VIDEO 2
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week for additional benefits. Activity should be done at least 3 days a week when the combined method is used, even though the MET-minute standard could be met with large amounts of activity performed on 1 or 2 days. Bouts of activity must be at least 10 minutes in length to be counted toward the recommendation. MET val- ues for a variety of moderate activities are included in Concept 6 (Table 5) on page 108. A complete list of the MET values for a variety of activities can be found at http:// prevention.sph.sc.edu/tools/compendium.htm . In Lab 8C you will learn more about how to combine moderate and vigorous activity to meet national goals.
Not all activities at level 2 and 3 of the pyramid are equally safe. Sports medicine experts indicate that certain types of physical activities are more likely than others to result in injury. Walking and low-impact dance aerobics are among the least risky activities. Skating, an aerobic activity, is the most risky, followed by basket- ball and competitive sports. Among the most popular aerobic activities, running has the greatest risk, with cycling, high-impact dance aerobics, and step aerobics having moderate risk for injury. Swimming and water aerobics are among those least likely to cause injuries because they do not involve impact, falling, or col- lision. In general, activities that require high-volume training (aerobics and jogging), collision (football, basketball, and softball), falling (biking, skating, cheerleading, and gymnastics), the use of specialized equipment that can fail (biking), and repetitive movements that stress the joints (tennis and high-impact aerobics) increase risk for injury. These
statistics reinforce the importance of using proper safety equipment, proper performance techniques, and proper training techniques.
Vigorous Aerobic Activities A variety of vigorous aerobic activities are available for meeting individual needs and interests. Because there are so many choices, many beginning exercisers want to know which type of aerobic exercise is best. The best form of exercise is clearly whatever form you enjoy and will do regularly. Some people tend to be very con- sistent in performing their favorite form of activity, while others stay active by participating in a variety of activi- ties. Seasonal differences are also common with physi- cal activity participation. Many people choose to remain indoors during very hot or very cold weather and perform outdoor activ- ities when temperatures are more moderate.
Vigorous aerobics can be done either continuously or intermittently. We generally think of vigorous aero- bics as being continuous. Jogging, swimming, and cycling at a steady pace for long periods are classic examples. Experts have shown that aerobic exercise can be done intermittently as well as continuously. Both continuous and intermittent aerobic activities can build cardiovas- cular fitness. For example, studies have shown that three 10-minute exercise sessions in the target zone are as effective as one 30-minute exercise session. Still, experts recommend bouts of 20 to 60 minutes in length, with several 10- to 15-minute bouts being an acceptable alter- native when longer sessions are not possible.
Vigorous aerobic activities are often rhythmical and typically involve the large muscle groups of the legs. The rhythmical nature of aerobic activity allows it to be performed continuously and in a controlled manner. The activation of a large muscle mass is important in providing an appropriate challenge to the cardiovascular system.
Descriptions of the most common individual forms of vigorous aerobic activity are provided below:
• Fitness Walking: A safe and popular aerobic activity. Walking is generally considered a moderate physi- cal activity, but it is effective in promoting metabolic fitness and overall health. To achieve cardiovascular fitness, walking must be done intensely enough to ele- vate the heart rate to target zone levels.
• Running (jogging): The prototypical aerobic activity. Running is convenient and the intensity can be easily modified to suit individual needs. Some people view running as the only way they can truly challenge their
VIDEO 3
VIDEO 4
Health is available to Everyone for a Lifetime, and it’s Personal
Former Olympic swimmer Diana Nyad has pushed the limits of endurance and perseverance. In her 60s, Nyad has embarked on some of the boldest and most chal- lenging open water swims in history. Her main quest has been to swim 1001 miles from Cuba to Florida. If it weren’t for the battles with sharks and jellyfish, she would likely be able to pull it off. The commitment and impressive performance of Nyad are certainly inspira- tional. Regular exercisers often become hooked and enjoy challenging the limits of endurance. Imagine the mental toughness it would take to train for and perse- vere through this extreme challenge.
What lessons can people take away from this example of commitment if they are struggling to maintain motivation for exercise?
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Concept 8 ▶ Vigorous Aerobics, Sports, and Recreational Activities 143
cardiovascular system. However, many others may be limited in their ability to run due to previous injuries (e.g., knee problems) or gait problems.
• Bicycling: An excellent vigorous aerobic activity requiring special equipment and time. Cycling is a very popular activity and there are different types of bikes to fit the needs and interests of almost any rider. Road bikes are most common, but mountain bikes are also popular. Many people prefer a versatile bike suitable for dif- ferent conditions and select a “city bike” or “hybrid bike” that is good for a variety of conditions. Cycling is more efficient than running and some other aerobic activities because of the mechanical effi- ciency of a bike (a pace of 13 mph might correspond to a running speed of 5 mph). Speed is not a good indicator of exer- tion on a bike, so heart rate or a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) should be used. Biking may need to be performed for longer periods of time than jogging to get the same benefit.
• Swimming: An outstanding whole body conditioning activity. Most people know how to swim but a relatively small number have the skill and technique required to swim efficiently. Swimming provides a great cardiovascular workout but a person must be able to swim long enough to benefit. Even highly trained athletes can be exhausted after a few hundred yards if they do not have good skills. Because of the water environment and the non-weight- bearing status, the heart rate response to swimming is typically lower for the same intensity of exercise. The heart rate does not increase as rapidly in response to swimming, so target heart rates should be set about 5 to 10 beats lower than for other aerobic activities.
• Cross-country skiing: A low-impact, whole body exercise that challenges the cardiovascular system. Cross-country skiing is one of the more popular aerobic activities in colder climates and it can be done for transportation, recreation, or sport. There are two main techniques: classic, or diagonal stride, and skating. Each requires a different type of ski and technique. Classic skiing is more common since it can be done at various paces and in various settings and on tracked or untracked snow. Skate skiing is faster, but more technical as it requires a variety of sub- techniques for different ter- rain. Because skiing involves both the arms and legs in a coordinated movement, cross-country skiing is one of the most effective types of cardiovascular fitness exercises. The downside is that it requires some degree of skill to perform the movements correctly.
• Inline skating: A popular, low-impact aerobic activity. Inline skating, or “rollerblading,” offers speed and freedom of movement, but the risk of injury is greater than most other activities. Special equipment is recommended,
including a helmet, knee and elbow pads, wrist sup- porters, and hand protectors. Some degree of skill is necessary to perform skating safely and effectively, so it is wise to practice in a controlled environment before taking to the streets. Like cycling, rollerblad- ing is mechanically very efficient. A person may need to work out longer to derive the same benefit from rollerblading.
Vigorous physical activity builds cardiovascular fitness.
Continuous Aerobic Activities Aerobic activities that are slow enough to be sustained for relatively long periods without frequent rest periods. Intermittent Aerobic Activities Aerobic activities, relatively high in intensity, alternated with frequent rest periods.
VIDEO 5
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Cardiovascular exercise machines provide an engaging indoor alternative to traditional aerobic exercises. The popularity of exercise machines has increased in recent years, due perhaps to increased access, ease of use, safety, and convenience. Treadmills are the most commonly used exercise machine, followed by sta- tionary bikes and stair climbers. Elliptical trainers have increased in popularity, leading to reductions in the use of other equipment, such as rowing machines and ski machines. Most machines have modes that allow users to specify different types and intensities of exercise. Newer machines feature feedback systems, which provide con- tinuous readouts of total exercise time, distance traveled, target and goal intensity, and estimates of calories burned. The estimates of calories expended may not be accurate unless it incorporates your body weight. These numbers should not be considered especially accurate.
A drawback of exercise machines is that interest and nov- elty may wear off over time. Many new features have been developed to enhance interest and ease of use. Some clubs have personalized key systems, which automatically track personal preferences and settings and record time spent on each machine. This information can then be downloaded onto computers for automatic logging. Newer machines have started to utilize gaming technology to further enhance the user experience. Interactive displays in these machines allow you to feel like you are exercising outdoors and you can compete against virtual or real opponents. Through wireless computer networks, it is now possible for users to save their data on websites and/or share their results through social media applications (see Technology Update ).
Vigorous exercise in a group setting provides a social exercise experience. Although most vigorous aerobics can be done individually, many people prefer the social interactions and challenge of group exercise classes. Many fitness centers and community recreation centers offer group exercise classes.
An advantage of group exercise classes is that there is a social component, which helps to increase motiva- tion and promote consistency. A disadvantage is that all participants are generally guided through the same exercise. A vigorous routine can cause unfit people to overextend themselves, while an easy routine may not be intense enough for experienced exercisers. A well- trained group exercise leader can help participants adjust the exercise to their own level and ability. Check the qualifications of the exercise leader to be sure that he or she is certified to lead group exercise. Descrip- tions of the most common individual forms of aerobic activity are provided below:
• Dance aerobics: A choreographed series of movements done to music. A variety of forms of dance aerobics accom- modate different interests and abilities. Traditional dance aerobic classes are characterized as “high impact” aerobics because both feet leave the ground simultaneously for a good part of the routine. While this provides a good workout, it may not be ideal for everyone. “ Low-impact” aerobics reduce the risk for injury or soreness. In this form, one foot stays on the floor at all times. Low-impact is an especially wise choice for beginners or older exercisers. Step aero- bics, also known as bench stepping and step training, is another adaptation in which the performer steps up and down on a bench when performing various dance steps. In most cases, step aerobics is considered to be low impact, but it is higher in intensity than many forms of aerobics due to the stepping.
• Rhythmic dance: A more fluid dance-oriented form of aerobics. Rhythmic dance evolved naturally out of the aerobic dance movement and there are many examples of dance-based classes. Jazzercize is one of the more long-lasting and well-known forms. Jazzercise classes developed a unique style that paved the way for more hybridized group exercise classes, incorporating a variety of exercises and movements including yoga, Pilates, kickboxing, and resistance training. Classes in Hip Hop Aerobics were popular for a while but the new craze is Zumba ® and other Latin-based dance classes. This type of dance aerobics incorporates Latin moves with a party or club-like atmosphere (see A Closer Look on page 146).
• Martial arts: Popular, vigorous aerobic activities. In addi- tion to traditional martial arts, such as karate and tae kwon do, a number of other alternative forms have been developed, including kickboxing, aerobic boxing,
T E C H N O L O G Y U P D A T E
Interactive Gaming in Exercise Equipment Interactive games are popular on platforms such as Wii, Kinect, and PlayStation 3, but interactive exergames are making their way into fitness centers. The Expresso Inter- active Gaming bikes are designed to combine a realistic indoor biking experience with gaming and associated social media applications. The user chooses a course and then navigates through the virtual terrain by turning the handlebars and shifting the gears. The display pro- vides updates of your progress and completed workouts can be saved on the Internet or sent to an associated smartphone app. If you want competition, you can try to set the course record or share your workout and perfor- mance on Facebook to challenge your friends.
The technology may make the workout more engaging but is this enough to keep you motivated long-term?
ACTIVITY
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Concept 8 ▶ Vigorous Aerobics, Sports, and Recreational Activities 145
cardio karate, box fitness, and tae bo. These activities involve intermittent bouts of high-intensity move- ments and lower-intensity recovery. Because martial arts involve a lot of arm work, they can be effective in promoting good overall fitness. Some activities are more intense than others, so consider the alternatives to find the best fit for you.
• Spinning classes: Attracting new people to the benefits of bicycling exercise. A spinning class is a group cycling class performed on specialized indoor bike trainers. A group leader typically instructs participants on what pace, gear, and/or cadence to use. In most cases, the routines involve intermittent bursts of high-intensity intervals followed by spinning at lower resistance to recover. The instructor may help riders simulate hill climbing or extended sprints to simulate com- petitive biking conditions. Although the class relates most directly to cycling, the format has appealed to a broader set of fitness enthusiasts who just enjoy the challenge it provides.
• Water-based classes: Taking advantage of the resistive prop- erties of water. Water walking and water exercise classes are popular alternatives to swimming. Although these
activities can be done alone, they are typically con- ducted in group settings to provide access to pools and certified instructors trained in water safety. Water aerobics are especially good for people with arthri- tis or other musculoskeletal problems and for people relatively high in body fat. The body’s buoyancy in water assists the participant and reduces injury risk. The resistance of the water provides an overload that helps the activity promote health and cardiovascular benefits. Exercises done in shallow water tend to be low in impact, while deeper-water exercises are con- sidered to be higher-impact activities. An advantage of water walking and water exercise is that neither requires the ability to swim. Many classes include activities designed to promote flexibility and muscle fitness development, as well as cardiovascular bene- fits. Many injured athletes use water activity as a way to rehabilitate from injuries without losing too much fitness.
• Hybridized “combo” classes: Cross-training applications. Most fitness centers now offer “combo” classes designed to combine aerobic movements with resistance exercise movements, plyometrics, or calisthenic exercises. An advantage of these cross-training classes is that a person can get a complete workout in a structured and engaging group environment. The classes typically use cus- tomized names to reflect the nature of the activities involved (e.g., CardioPump, PowerPump, Cardio Sculpt. BodyJam, BodyAttack, etc.). These hybrid- ized classes have become increasingly popular and there are a number of certification programs and leadership models being developed to ensure con- sistency and quality of programming in fitness cen- ters all over the world.
• Individualized small group fitness centers: A personal focus. Large commercial fitness centers remain popu- lar but many small private fitness centers provide an appealing alternative for some people. An example is the Curves franchise that provides a structured group exercise format, allowing people to exercise in a more convenient, small group setting. A simi- lar line of centers branded under the name Kosama offer shorter enrollments and personalized atten- tion over a set period of time rather than an ongoing membership.
Kickboxing and martial arts are popular ways to stay in shape.
Cross Training A term used to describe the perfor- mance of a variety of activities to meet exercise goals (e.g., performing a variety of activities from different steps of the physical activity pyramid).
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146 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
Vigorous Sport and Recreational Activities Some sports are more vigorous than others. Some sports require many muscles from different parts of the body and are more vigorous than those that involve fewer muscles. Some are of high intensity and others are less intense. When done vigorously, tennis and basket- ball involve many different muscle groups and are high in intensity. Soccer involves many muscle groups and is high in intensity but does not emphasize the use of the arms. Golf, on the other hand, is less intense and relies more on skill and technique. The action in basketball, tennis, and soccer involves bursts of activity followed by rest but requires persistent, vigorous activity over a relatively long time. Golf requires little vigorous activity. Sports that have characteristics similar to those of basket- ball, tennis, and soccer have benefits like those of vigor- ous aerobic activities. Of course, any sport can be more or less active, depending on how you perform it. Shooting baskets or even playing half-court basketball is not as vig- orous as playing a full-court game.
The most popular sports share characteristics that contribute to their popularity. The most popular sports are often considered to be lifetime sports because they can be done at any age. The characteristics that make these sports appropriate for lifelong participation proba- bly contribute significantly to their popularity. Often, the popular sports are adapted so people without exceptional skill can play them. For example, bowling uses a handicap system to allow people with a wide range of abilities to compete. Slow-pitch softball is much more popular than fast-pitch softball or baseball because it allows people of all abilities to play successfully.
One of the primary reasons sports participation is so popular is that sports provide a challenge. For the great- est enjoyment, the challenge of the activity should be balanced by the person’s skill in the sport. If you choose to play against a person with lesser skill, you will not be challenged. On the other hand, if you lack skill or your opponent has considerably more skill, the activity will be frustrating. For optimal challenge and enjoyment, the skills of a given sport should be learned before competing. Likewise, choose an opponent who has a similar skill level.
Some recreational activities can also be classified as vigorous. Activities that you do in your free time for personal enjoyment or to “re-create” yourself are con- sidered recreational activities. Recreational activities that exceed threshold intensity for cardiovascular fitness are considered vigorous. They are more vigorous than activi- ties such as fishing, bowling, and golf, which are typically classified as lifestyle or moderate-level activities (step 1 in the pyramid). Examples of vigorous recreational activities include common snow activities (downhill skiing, snowboarding), water activities (surfing, wake- boarding, kayaking, canoeing), and mountain activities (hiking, mountain biking). These are simply examples as there are many other recreational activities. As with sports, recreational activities can be done at different intensities. If done for a sufficient length of time, vigor- ous recreational activities can provide the same benefits
A CLOSER LOOK
The Zumba ® Craze Zumba ® is an incredibly popular dance aerobics activity that started from a rather fortunate accident. According to the Zumba ® website, the founder (a Colombian fitness leader named Beto Perez) forgot his traditional aerobics dance music and improvised using his own music and creativity. His experimentation led to a form of “dance fitness” that has captured the imagination of millions of people across the world. Zumba ® classes are offered in over 110,000 loca- tions in more than 125 countries.
What elements make Zumba ® such a popular fitness program?
The Zum
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Cramba® CZumba®®® C
ACTIVITY
Disc golf is a popular recreational activity but it would not be classified as a vigorous activity.
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Concept 8 ▶ Vigorous Aerobics, Sports, and Recreational Activities 147
as vigorous sports or other vigorous activities. Note that vigorous activities such as cycling, jogging, and skiing, could be classified in the vigorous recreation as well as in the vigorous aerobics section. Sports can also be considered vigorous recre- ational activities, depending on how the individual views them. Many people view recreation as simply time to relax and be outdoors, and find the resulting improve- ments in fitness to be just an additional benefit. This is a healthy attitude since activities pursued purely for enjoyment are easier to maintain than activities pur- sued purely for fitness.
Becoming skillful will help you enjoy sports and recreation. Improving your skill can increase the prob- ability that you will do sports for a lifetime. The following self-management guidelines can help you improve your sport performance:
• When learning a new activity, concentrate on the general idea of the skill first; worry about details later. For example, a diver who concentrates on pointing the toes and keep- ing the legs straight at the end of a flip may land flat on his or her back. To make it all the way over, the diver should concentrate on merely doing the flip. When the general idea is mastered, then concentrate on details.
• The beginner should be careful not to emphasize too many details at one time. After the general idea of the skill is
acquired, the learner can begin to focus on the details, one or two at a time. Concentration on too many details at one time may result in paralysis by analysis . For example, a golfer who is told to keep the head down, the left arm straight, and the knees bent cannot possibly concentrate on all of these details at once. As a result, neither the details nor the general idea of the golf swing is performed properly.
Vigorous Exercise Boosts Metabolism for up to 14 Hours The benefits of exercise persist even after the workout is over. A recent study reported that
a single 45-minute bout of vigorous exercise helps you burn calories long after the exercise session is over. Study partici- pants lived and exercised in an enclosed metabolic chamber in order to quantify this effect. The vigorous 45-minute bike workout burned approximately 330 calories, but participants
expended an extra 190 calories (37 percent of the total energy expenditure) long after the workout was done (up to 14 hours). This extra boost to the metabolism can have important impli- cations for energy balance and weight control.
How does this information influence your perception about the importance of vigorous exercise?
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In the News
Learning new skills can be challenging but rewarding.
Paralysis by Analysis An overanalysis of skill behav- ior. This occurs when more information is supplied than a performer can use or when concentration on too many details results in interference with performance.
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• Once the general idea of a skill is learned, a skill analy- sis of the performance may be helpful. Be careful not to overanalyze; it may be helpful to have a knowledge- able person help you locate strengths and weaknesses. Movies and videotapes of skilled performances can be helpful to learners.
• In the early stages of learning a lifetime sport or physical activity, it is not wise to engage in competition. Beginners who compete are likely to concentrate on beating their opponent rather than on learning a skill properly. For example, in bowling, the beginner may abandon the newly learned hook ball in favor of the sure-thing straight ball. This may make the person more success- ful immediately, but is not likely to improve the per- son’s bowling skills for the future.
• To be performed well, sports skills must be overlearned. Often, when you learn a new activity, you begin to play the game immediately. The best way to learn a skill is to overlearn it, or practice it until it becomes habit. Frequently, games do not allow you to over- learn skills. For example, during a tennis match is not a good time to learn how to serve because there may be only a few opportunities to do so. For the begin- ner, it is much more productive to hit many serves (overlearn) with a friend until the general idea of the serve is well learned. Further, the beginner should not sacrifice speed to concentrate on serving for accuracy. Accuracy will come with practice of a properly per- formed skill.
• When unlearning an old (incorrect) skill and learning a new (correct) skill, a person’s performance may get worse before it gets better. For example, a golfer with a base- ball swing may want to learn the correct golf swing. It is important for the learner to understand that the score may worsen during the relearning stage. As the new skill is overlearned, skill will improve, as will the golf score.
• Mental practice may aid skill learning. Mental practice (imagining the performance of a skill) may benefit performance, especially if the performer has had pre- vious experience in the skill. Mental practice can be especially useful in sports when the performer cannot participate regularly because of weather, business, or lack of time.
• For beginners, practicing in front of other people may be det- rimental to learning a skill. An audience may inhibit the beginner’s learning of a new sports skill. This is espe- cially true if the learner feels that his or her perfor- mance is being evaluated by someone in the audience.
• There is no substitute for good instruction. Getting good instruction, especially at the beginning level, will help you learn skills faster and better. Instruction will help you apply these rules and use practice more effectively.
Patterns and Trends in Physical Activity Participation The popularity of different forms of physical activities changes over time. The Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association (SGMA) conducts regu- lar surveys to monitor changes in consumer prefer- ences related to physical activity. While the surveys are designed primarily for marketing purposes, they pro- vide useful data to evaluate trends in physical activity and sports participation. The results suggest that con- sumers are motivated by aerobic fitness as 8 of the top 20 activities were aerobic in nature, including walking (1st), treadmill (3rd), running (4th), biking (7th), ellip- tical machines (14th), aerobics (16th), indoor cycling (19th), and home exercise (20th). Four resistance train- ing activities—calisthenics (5th), machines (9th), dumb- bells (10th), barbells (15th), and stretching (11th)—also made the top 20. The remaining activities include 3 popular outdoor activities—fishing (8th), hiking (12th), and camping (13th)—and four sports—bowling (2nd), billiards (6th), basketball (17th), and golf (18th). It may surprise you that only four sports made the top 20 list, but it is important to remember that this survey asked whether people had participated in the activity at least once in the past year.
Because the focus of this concept is on aerobic activi- ties, the specific rates of participation in common aer- obic activities are shown in Figure 2 . The figures are scaled to reflect the percentage of the population in the various activities (participation was indicated by per- forming it at least once). Walking for fitness is by far the most popular aerobic activity with over 40 percent of the population indicating some participation. Activities with the largest growth trajectories were high-impact aerobics (41 percent), spinning /cycling (41 percent), car- dio kickboxing (37 percent), step aerobics (32 percent), low-impact aerobics (21 percent), running/jogging (20 percent), and elliptical motion training (19 percent). The trend toward efficient (value-oriented) activities was attributed in part to the weak economy as consum- ers seemed to favor accessible, low-cost, and “efficient” sports and fitness options.
Participation in physical activity is different than “regular” participation in physical activity. The participation rates in Figure 2 show overall popular- ity but results vary when tracking “regular” participa- tion. While over 40 percent of the population reported walking for fitness at least once, a smaller number can be considered regular walkers. Over 10 million women and 6 million men walk for exercise more than 100 days a year, but not all likely walk in bouts long enough to meet national activity guidelines. Similarly, over 25 million Americans report jogging/running for exercise,
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but only 10 million report running regularly (about 6 million males and 4 million females). Distinctions in participation and regular participation are even more evident for other activities. An estimated 50 million Americans report riding their bike for recreation but approximately 15 million report frequent recreational bike riding, and a still smaller segment of the popu- lation (about 2 million) participates in regular fitness bicycling. Nearly 100 million people report participat- ing in “recreational swimming”; however, the number of people that report regular fitness swimming is only about 2.5 million.
Rates of participation in vigorous activity change during college years. Activity levels tend to be high in young adults, but a recent study indicated that sig- nificant declines occur between high school and col- lege. The study, conducted on a representative sample of college students from 119 schools, found declines
in participation between high school and college. Approximately 48 percent of college students met the recommended criteria for vigorous physical activity, a sharp decline from the percentage of the same students who met the criteria when they were in high school. Participation in high school athletics was associated with higher participation rates in vigorous activity in college. A concern to public health researchers is the decline in participation with age in college and the lower levels of participation for college students over age 25.
A trend for declining activity was also evident in the SGMA reports referenced above. The report indicated that over 30 percent of Americans said they were not participating in a single physical activity and over 30 per- cent of these inactive respondents were under the age of 34. The percentage of inactive 18- to 24-year-olds has increased in the past 3 years of this report while the percentage of inactive people 65 and older actually
10.00%0.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00%
Walking for fitness
Treadmill
Running/jogging
Elliptical motion trainer
Aerobics (low-impact)
Stationary cycling (upright)
Other exercise to music
Swimming (fitness/competition)
Aerobics (high-impact)
Stair-climbing machine
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Aquatic exercise
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41%
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Figure 2 ▶ U.S. Adult Participation in Primary Aerobic Activities (%) and 3-year Change Rates. Source: The Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association, 2010
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decreased. Many students presume they will be able to establish regular exercise habits once they finish college, but results from these studies suggest that regular involvement in vigorous physical activity is important for establishing a lifelong pattern.
There is increased interest in group exercise programming. According to a separate SGMA report ( Tracking the Fitness Movement ), participation in group exercise has seen the greatest growth of any other fitness activity. The popularity of aerobics was fueled in large part by the explosion of inter- est in Zumba ® and other cultural dancing activities. However, there has been an overall interest in classes that fuse traditional aerobic movements with other movement activities (e.g., pilates, yoga, dance) and resistance activities. As reported in Figure 2 , there were dramatic increases in the popularity of high- impact aerobics, step aerobics, low-impact aerobics, cardio kickboxing, and spinning classes.
Consumer experts from SGMA attribute much of the changes to different generational interests (see Figure 3 ). Based on the report, Generation X (born 1965 to 1979) is more likely to do activities out- side (biking, fishing, hiking, running, etc.); however, this generation is also more likely to belong to health clubs, exercise with machines, and use personal trainers. Gen- eration Y (born 1980 to 1999) was characterized as hav- ing interest in strength (i.e., working out with weights, etc.) and social activities (i.e., fitness classes, etc.). The fun and engaging environment of hybridized group fit- ness classes seems to be meeting the needs of Gen X and Gen Y consumers.
Vigorous recreation and extreme sports are popular with some segments of the population. Vigorous recreation provides ways to experience new things, to socialize, and to obtain important health benefits. Some “extreme” sports have become popularized through the
X Games and other media outlets, and there have been corresponding increases in participation for some of these activities. For example, activities such as surfing, snow- boarding, and skateboarding had had some of the highest increases in reported participation. Other activities high- lighted in the SGMA survey with strong growth over the past 10 to 15 years are mountain biking, kayaking, and wakeboarding. These may or may not be “extreme,” but they are typically more appealing to individuals interested in outdoor adventures.
Self-Promoting Activities Activities that do not require a high level of skill to be successful.
Strategies for Action
Use self-management skills to enjoy activities at the second and third steps of the pyramid.
• Select self-promoting activities. Self-promoting activities require relatively little skill and can be done in a way that avoids comparison with other people. They allow you to set your own standards of success and can be done
individually or in small groups that are suited to your per- sonal needs. Examples include wheelchair distance events, jogging, resistance training, swim- ming, bicycling, and dance exercise.
• Find activities that you enjoy. There is no best form of activity! The key for long-term exercise adherence is to find exercises that you enjoy and that fit
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Gen X (1965–1979)
Gen Y (1980–1999)
Figure 3 ▶ Patterns and Trends in Physical Activity Preference by Generation. Source: The Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association
VIDEO 6
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Concept 8 ▶ Vigorous Aerobics, Sports, and Recreational Activities 151
Web Resources American Council on Exercise www.acefitness.org Disabled Sports USA www.dsusa.org National Academy of Podiatric Sports Medicine www.aapsm.org National Athletic Trainers Association www.nata.org National Center on Physical Activity and Disability
www.ncpad.org and www.ncpad.org/newsletter President’s Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition
www.fitness.gov Special Olympics International www.specialolympics.org Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association www.sgma.com US Product Safety Commission www.cpsc.gov X Sports www.expn.com
Suggested Readings ACSM. 2010. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and
Prescription. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
Berg, K. 2010. Sports and games: Fitness, function and fun. ACSM’s Health and Fitness Journal 14(2):9–15.
Bishop, J. G. 2010. Fitness Through Aerobics. 8th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
Cooper, K. H. 1982. The Aerobics Program for Total Well-Being. New York: M. Evans.
Dong-Chul, D., and M. Torabi. 2007. Differences in vigorous and moderate physical activity by gender, race/ethnicity,
age, education and income among U.S. adults. American Journal of Health Education 38(3):122–129.
Garber, C. E., et al. 2011. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculosk- eletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: Guidance for prescribing exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 43(7):1334–1359.
Kahn, L. K., et al. 2009. Recommended community strategies and measurements to prevent obesity in the United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports 58(RR07):1–26.
Khan, K. M., et al. 2012. Sport and exercise as contributors to the health of nations. Lancet. 380(9836):59–64.
Knab, A. M., et al. 2011. 45-minute vigorous exercise bout increases metabolic rate for 14 hours. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 43(9):1643–1648.
Kohl, H. W., and T. D. Murray. 2012. Foundations of Physical Activity and Public Health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Magill, R. A. 2010. Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and Applications. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Montgomery, J., and M. Chambers. 2009. Mastering Swimming. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Pappas-Baun, M. 2008. Fantastic Water Workouts. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Schurman, C., and D. Schurman. 2009. The Outdoor Athlete. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Thompson, W. R. 2009. Worldwide survey reveals fitness trends for 2010. ACSM’s Health and Fitness Journal 13(6):9–16.
into your lifestyle. Sports are a common form of activity for younger people, but other aerobic and recreational activities have become more common among adults. This is partially because of changing interests, but also because of chang- ing opportunities and lifestyles. In Lab 8A , you will evalu- ate predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors that may help you identify the types of activity best suited to you.
• Self-monitor your activity to help you stick with your plan. Self-monitoring encourages long-term activity adherence. A self-monitoring chart is provided in Lab 8B to help you plan and log the activities you perform in a 1-week period. This is a short-term record sheet, but you can copy it and make a log book for long-term self-monitoring.
• Consider combining moderate and vigorous physical activity to meet activity guidelines. Cross training is a
term used to describe the performance of a variety of activities to meet exercise goals. For example, on differ- ent days you can do a moderate activity such as walking, a vigorous aerobic activity such as jogging on a treadmill, a vigorous sport such as tennis, and a vigorous recre- ational activity such as mountain biking. As discussed on page 141, these activities from different levels on the activity pyramid can be combined to meet activity guide- lines. Lab 8C will help you learn and use this MET-minute system.
• Improve your performance skills and technique. Consider taking lessons and practice the skills you want to learn. Also, work to try to improve your technique. Better skills and better technique can make exercise more enjoyable (and safer).
ACTIVITY
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152 Section 3 ▶ The Physical Activity Pyramid
Healthy People
ACTIVITY
2020 The objectives listed below are societal goals designed to help all Americans improve their health between now and the year 2020. They were selected because they relate to the con- tent of this concept.
• Increase proportion of adults who meet guidelines for moderate to vigorous aerobic activity.
• Reduce proportion of adults who do no leisure-time activity.
• Increase access to employee-based exercise facilities and programs.
• Create social and physical environments that promote good health for all.
• Attain high-quality, longer lives free of preventable disease, injury, and premature death.
A national goal is to increase moderate to vigorous physical activity. Vigorous activity provides added benefits to those from moderate activity. For some people, vigorous activity is not as appealing as moderate activity. Why do some enjoy the challenge of pushing their body to this level while others do not?
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Lab 8A
The P hysical A
ctivity A d
herence Q uestionnaire
Lab 8A The Physical Activity Adherence Questionnaire
Name Section Date
Purpose: To help you understand the factors that infl uence physical activity adherence and to see which factors you might change to improve your chances of achieving the action or maintenance level for physical activity
Procedures
1. The factors that predispose, enable, and reinforce adherence to physically active living are listed below. Read each statement. Place an X in the circle under the most appropriate response for you: very true, somewhat true, or not true.
2. When you have answered all of the items, determine a score by summing the four numbers for each type of factor. Then sum the three scores (predisposing, enabling, reinforcing) to get your total score.
3. Record your scores in the Results section and answer the questions in the Conclusions and Implications section.
Very Somewhat Not True True True
Predisposing Factors
1. I am very knowledgeable about physical activity. 3 2 1
2. I have a strong belief that physical activity is good for me. 3 2 1
3. I enjoy doing regular exercise and physical activity. 3 2 1
4. I am confident of my abilities in sports, exercise, and other physical activities. 3 2 1
Predisposing Score =
Enabling Factors
5. I possess good sports skills. 3 2 1
6. I know how to plan my own physical activity program. 3 2 1
7. I have a place to do physical activity near my home or work. 3 2 1
8. I have the equipment I need to do physical activities I enjoy. 3 2 1
Enabling Score =
Reinforcing Factors
9. I have the support of my family for doing my regular physical activity. 3 2 1
10. I have many friends who enjoy the same kinds of physical activities that I do. 3 2 1
11. I have the support of my boss and my colleagues for participation in activity. 3 2 1
12. I have a doctor and/or an employer who encourages me to exercise. 3 2 1
Reinforcing Score =
Total Score (Sum 3 Scores) =
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Physical Activity Adherence Ratings
Adherence Category Score Rating
Predisposing
Enabling
Reinforcing
Total
Physical Activity Adherence Ratings Chart
Classification Predisposing
Score Enabling
Score Reinforcing
Score Total Score
Adherence likely 11–12 11–12 11–12 33–36
Adherence possible 9–10 9–10 9–10 25–32
Adherence unlikely <9 <9 <9 <25
Conclusions and Implications: In several sentences, discuss your ratings from this questionnaire. Also discuss the predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors you may need to alter in order to increase your prospects for lifetime activity.
Results: Record your scores in the “Score” column. Use your score and the Physical Activity Adherence Rating Chart to determine your ratings. Record your ratings in the “Rating” column below.
In several sentences, discuss what type of activity you fi nd most enjoyable (vigorous aerobics, vigorous recreation, or vigorous sports). Comment on why you enjoy the activities that you have selected.
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Lab 8B
P lanning and
Logging P articip
ation in V igorous P
hysical A ctivity
Lab 8B Planning and Logging Participation in Vigorous Physical Activity
Name Section Date
Purpose: To set 1-week vigorous physical activity goals, to prepare a plan, and to self-monitor progress in your 1-week vigorous aerobics, vigorous sports, and recreation plan
Procedures
1. Consider your current stage of change for vigorous activity using the questions provided below. Read the five stages of change questions below and place a check by the stage that best represents your current vigorous physical activity level.
2. Determine vigorous activity (active aerobics, active sports, or active recreation) goals for each day of a 1-week period. In the columns (Chart 1) under the heading “Vigorous Activity Goals,” record the total minutes per day that you expect to perform. Record the specific date for each day of the week in the “Date” column and the activity or activities that you expect to perform in the “Activity” column.
3. Only bouts of 10 minutes or longer should be considered when selecting your daily minutes goals. The daily goals should be at least 20 minutes a day in the target zone for vigorous activity for at least 3 days of the week.
4. Use Chart 2 to keep track of the number of minutes of activity that you perform on each day of the 7-day period. Record the number of minutes for each bout of activity of at least 10 minutes in length performed during each day in Chart 2. Determine a total number of minutes for the day and record this total in the last column of Chart 2 and in the “minutes performed” column of Chart 1.
5. After completing Charts 1 and 2, answer the questions and complete the Conclusions and Implications section (use full sentences for your answers).
Determine your stage for vigorous physical activity. Check only the stage that represents your current vigorous activity level.
Precontemplation. I do not meet vigorous activity guidelines and have not been thinking about starting.
Contemplation. I do not do vigorous activity guidelines but have been thinking about starting.
Preparation. I am planning to start doing regular vigorous activity to meet guidelines.
Action. I do vigorous activity, but I am not as regular as I should be.
Maintenance. I regularly meet national goals for vigorous activity.
Results
Chart 1 Vigorous Physical Activity Goals and Summary Performance Log
Select a goal for each day in a 1-week plan. Keep a log of the activities performed to determine if your goals are met (see Chart 2), and record total minutes performed in the chart below.
Vigorous Activity Goals Summary Performance Log Total Minutes Peformed/DayDate Minutes/Day Activity
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
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Chart 2 Vigorous Physical Activity Log (Daily Minutes Performed)
Record the number of minutes for each bout of vigorous activities performed each day. Add the minutes in each column for the day and record a daily total (total minutes of vigorous activity per day) in the “Daily Total” column. Record your daily totals in the last column of Chart 1.
Vigorous Activity Bouts of 10 Minutes or More
Date Bout 1 Bout 2 Bout 3 Bout 4 Bout 5 Daily Total
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
Did you meet your vigorous activity goals for at least 3 days of the week? Yes No
Do you think that you can consistently meet your vigorous activity goals? Yes No
What activities did you perform most often when doing vigorous activity? List the most common activities that you performed in the spaces below.
Vigorous Aerobics Vigorous Sports Vigorous Recreation
Conclusions and Interpretations
Are the activities that you listed above ones that you think you will perform Yes No regularly in the future?
Did setting goals and logging activity make you more aware of your daily vigorous physical activity patterns? Explain why or why not.
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Lab 8C
C om
b ining M
od erate and
V igorous P
hysical A ctivity
Lab 8C Combining Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activity
Name Section Date
Purpose: To learn about MET-minutes and how to combine moderate and vigorous physical activity to meet physical activity guidelines and goals
Procedures
1. National guidelines recommend at least 150 minutes of moderate or 75 minutes of vigorous physical activity as the minimum amount per week. The guidelines indicate that you can combine the two forms to meet your activity goal. When combining moderate and vigorous activities, MET-minutes are used. The minimum goal for beginners is 500 MET-minutes and 1,000 MET-minutes is the minimum goal for a reasonably fit and active person. Consider this information as you complete the rest of this lab.
2. In Chart 1 below list several moderate activities and several vigorous activities for each day of one week. Next to the activities indicate the number of minutes you plan to perform each activity. Be sure to choose both moderate and vigorous activities.
3. Use the information in Chart 2 to determine a MET value for each activity or use the compendium of activities web- site to determine values for those not listed in Chart 2. Record the MET value in the space provided for each activity.
4. Multiply the MET values for each activity by the number of minutes you plan to perform each activity to determine MET-minutes for each activity.
5. Total the MET-minute columns for both moderate and vigorous activities to be performed during the week. 6. Answer the questions in the Conclusions and Implications Section.
Results
Chart 1 Moderate and vigorous activity plan for one week
Moderate Activity Vigorous Activity
Day Date Activity Min. METs MET-min. Activity Min. METS MET-min.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Totals + =
Total MET-minutes for the Week
Did you meet the 500 MET-minute recommendation for beginners? Yes No
Did you meet the 1,000 MET-minute recommendation for more active people? Yes No
Which is your weekly activity plan most likely to include?
Moderate activity only
Vigorous activity only
Both moderate and vigorous activity
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Conclusions and Implications: In the space provided below discuss the MET-minute method of combining activities to meet goals. Do you think that this method will be useful to you? Explain why or why not using full sentences.
MET values based on the Compendium of Physical Activities (available at http://prevention.sph.sc.edu/tools/docs/documents_compendium.pdf).
Chart 2 MET Values for Selected Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities
Moderate Activities METs Vigorous Activities METs
Vacuuming/Mopping 3.0 Shoveling Snow 6.0
Walking (3 mph) 3.0 Walking (4.5 mph) 6.3
Bowling 3.0 Aerobic Dance 6.5
Child Care 3.5 Bricklaying 7.0
Golf (riding) 3.5 Cross-Country Skiing (leisure) 7.0
Biking (10 mph flat) 4.0 Soccer (leisure) 7.0
Fishing (moving, not stationary)
4.0 Basketball (game) 8.0
Raking Leaves 4.0 Biking (12–17 mph) 8.0
Table Tennis 4.0 Hiking Terrain (pack) 8.0
Volleyball (non-comp.) 4.0 Jogging (5 mph) 8.0
Waitress 4.0 Tennis (singles) 8.0
Ballroom (social) 4.5 Volleyball (games) 8.0
Basketball (shooting) 4.5 Step Aerobics 8.5
Mowing Lawn (power) 4.5 Digging Ditches 8.5
Painting 4.5 Cross-Country Skiing (fast-5–7 mph) 9.0
Tennis Doubles 5.0 Swimming Laps (varies with strokes) 9.0
Walking (4 mph) 5.0 Jogging (6 mph) 10.0
Construction 5.5 Racquetball (games) 10.0
Farming 5.5 Soccer (competitive) 10.0
Golf (walking) 5.5 Running (11.5 mph) 11.5
Softball (games) 5.5 Handball (games) 12.0
Swimming (leisure) 5.5
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