1000 words and three scholarly references

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Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary thinks it’s pret- ty clever. A person who consults it to find the origin of the word research learns that it comes from the Middle French recercher, which means “to go about seeking”— after which Webster’s promises “more at SEARCH.”

In looking up search, one learns that the word comes from the Late Latin circare, which means “to go about” and which comes from the Latin circum, which means “round about.” Then Webster’s indicates there is “more at CIRCUM-.”

Circum-, it turns out, comes from the Latin circus, which means “circle,” and, yes, there’s “more at CIRCLE.” Circle comes from circus, of course, but it is also from (or akin to) the Greek krikos, which means “ring” and which is akin to the Old English hring, and—you guessed it—there’s “more at RING.”

So, you see, the clever editors of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary are not content simply to provide you the etymology of research. They want you to research research. They want you “to go about seeking,” to go “round about” in “circles” that feel like “circuses” and are all about “rings.” They don’t just define research for you—they give you a quick sampler of doing it.

In this chapter, you’ll learn how research is about searching and re-searching and going about in circles—circles that will nevertheless lead you, through whatever tangents and side trips, to the knowledge you are seeking.

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26 Doing Your Research Learning Outcomes

1 Learn keyword searching.

2 Conduct primary research.

3 Do library research.

4 Use books.

5 Find periodical articles.

6 Understand the Internet.

7 Find reliable free-Web information.

8 Evaluate online sources.

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Boolean operators words or symbols used when searching research databases and that describe the relationship between various words or phrases in a search

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Learn keyword searching. Keyword searching can help you find solid informa- tion in electronic library catalogs, online databases that index periodical articles (LexisNexis, EBSCO- host), print indexes to periodical publications, Inter- net resources, print books, and e-books. If you need additional help, consult with an information specialist in your library.

Navigate the search. Keywords give you compass points for navigating the vast sea of information ahead of you. To plot the best course, choose the best keywords.

Begin brainstorming a list of possible key- words—topics, titles, and names—based on your current knowledge and background reading. Then consult the Library of Congress subject headings to find the keywords librarians use when classifying ma- terials. Topic entries like the one in the next column contain keywords to use, along with narrower, related, and/or broader terms. When you are conducting sub- ject searches of catalogs and databases, these are the terms that will get the best results.

Employing Keyword Search Strategies The goal of a keyword search is to find quality sources of information. To realize the best sources, employ these strategies:

Keyword Strategy • Get to know the database. Look for

answers to these questions: What mate- rial does the database contain? What time frames? What are you searching—authors, titles, subjects, full text? What are the search rules? How can you narrow the search?

• Use a shotgun approach. Start with the most likely keyword. If you have no “hits,” choose a related term. Once you get some hits, check the citations for clues regarding which words to use as you continue search- ing.

• Use Boolean operators to refine your search. When you combine keywords with Boolean operators—such as those in the next column—you will obtain better results.

Immigrants (May Subd Geog) Here are entered works on foreign-born per-

sons who enter a country intending to become per- manent residents or citizens. This heading may be locally subdivided by names of places where im- migrants settle. For works discussing emigrants from a particular place, an additional heading is assigned to designate the nationality of origin of the emigrant group and the place to which they have immigrated, e.g., Chinese—United States: American—Foreign countries.

UF Emigrants Foreign-born population Foreign population BT Persons RT Aliens NT Children of immigrants Social work with immigrants Teenage immigrants Women immigrants

— Employment USE Alien labor — Housing (May Subd Geog) — — Great Britain — Legal status, laws, etc. USE Emigration and immigration law

Topic

“Used for”

Subtopic

Recommended keywords

“Broader term” “Related term”

“Narrower term”

Tips

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Conduct primary research. When published sources can’t give you the informa- tion that you need, consider conducting primary re- search. Primary research gives you direct, hands-on access to your topic, providing information precisely tailored to your needs. Such research takes time, how- ever. It also requires special skills like designing sur- veys or analyzing statistics and original documents. The following quick guide is an overview of research methods. Choose those that best suit your project.

Quick Guide: Boolean Operators

Narrowing a Search and, +, not, – Use when one term gives you too many hits, espe- cially irrelevant ones.

buffalo and bison or buffalo + bison

Searches for citations containing both keywords

buffalo not water or buffalo -water

Searches for “buffalo” but not “water,” so that you eliminate material on water buffalo

Expanding a Search or Combine a term providing few hits with a related word

buffalo or bison Searches for citations containing either term

Specifying a Phrase quotation marks Indicate that you wish to search for the exact phrase enclosed

“reclamation project”

Searches for the exact phrase “reclamation project”

Sequencing Operations parentheses Indicate that the operation should be performed before other operations in the search string

(buffalo or bison) and ranching

Searches first for citations containing either “buffalo” or “bison” before checking the resulting citations for “ranching”

Finding Variations wild card symbols Depending on the database, symbols such as $, ?, or # can find variations of a word

ethic# ethic$

Searches for terms like ethics and ethical

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322 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s

Student Model Student writer Cho Lang created the following paper survey to determine how many athletes at her college used training supplements, how, and why. She also created a Web-based version of the survey, asking ath- letes to sign on anonymously to complete it.

(A) The introduction includes the essential information about the survey. (B) The survey begins with clear, basic questions. (C) The survey asks an open-ended question. (D) The survey covers the topic thoroughly.

Confidential Survey My name is Cho Lang, and I’m cond

ucting research about the use

of training supplements. I’d like to h ear from you, Alfred University’s

athletes. Please answer the question s below by circling or writing

out your responses. Return your sur vey to me, care of the Dept. of

Psychology, through campus mail b y Friday, April 5. Your responses

will remain confidential.

1. Circle your gender.

Male Female

2. Circle your year.

Freshman Sophomore Jun ior Senior

3. List the sports that you play.

4. Are you presently using a train ing supplement?

Yes No

Note: If you circled “no,” you ma y turn in your survey at this point.

5. Describe your supplement use (type, amount, and frequency).

6. Who supervises your use of thi s training supplement?

Coach Trainer Self Others

7. How long have you used it?

Less than 1 month 1–12 mo nths 12+ months

8. How many pounds have you g ained while using this supplement?

9. How much has your athletic pe rformance improved?

None 1 2 3 4 5 Greatly

10. Circle any side effects you’ve e xperienced.

Dehydration Nausea Diarrhea

Thank you for taking the time to com plete this confidential survey.

Please return it by Friday, April 5, to Cho Lang, care of the Dept. of

Psychology, through campus mail.

Quick Guide: Primary Research Methods Surveys • Surveys and questionnaires gather writ- ten responses you can review, tabulate, and analyze. These research tools pull together varied informa- tion—from simple facts to personal opinions and attitudes. Interviews • Interviews involve consulting two types of people. First, you can interview experts for their insights on your topic. Second, you can interview people whose direct experiences with the topic give you their personal insights. (See pages 000-000 for more about interviews.) Observations • Observations, inspections, and field research require you to examine and ana- lyze people, places, events, and so on. Whether you rely simply on your five senses or use scientific techniques, observing provides insights into the present state of your subject. (See page 252 for more on field reports.) Experiments • Experiments test hypotheses—predictions about why things do what they do—to arrive at conclusions that can be accepted and acted upon. Such testing often explores cause-ef- fect relationships. (See page 252 for more on lab reports.) Analysis • Analysis of documents and artifacts involves studying original reports, statistics, leg- islation, literature, artwork, and historical records. Such analysis provides unique, close-up inter- pretations of your topic.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

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survey/questionnaire a set of questions created for the purpose of gathering information from respondents about a specific topic

observation noting information received in person through the senses

inspection the purposeful analysis of a site or situation in order to understand it

field research an on-site scientific study conducted for the purpose of attaining raw data

closed questions questions that can be answered with a simple fact or with a yes or a no

open-ended questions questions that require elaborate answers

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Conducting Surveys Your goal is to create a survey or questionnaire that collects facts and opinions from a target audience about your topic. To get valid information, follow these guidelines: 1. Find a focus. Define the writing situa tion. What

is your specific topic? What is the purpose of your survey (what do you want to find out)? Who is the audience for your survey?

2. Create effective questions. Phrase questions so that they can be easily understood. Use neu- tral language to avoid skewing results. Use closed questions (e.g., rating, multiple choice, yes/no) to generate data that can be charted and quantified. Use open-ended questions (e.g., fill-in-the-blank, write-in answers) to bring in a wider variety of complex data.

3. Draft your survey. Whether you present your survey on paper or online, organize it so that it’s easy to complete.

Opening: State who you are and why you need the information. Explain how to com- plete the survey and when and where to re- turn it.

Middle: Provide the questions. Guide the reader with numbers, instructions, and headings. Begin with basic, closed ques- tions and progress to complex, open-ended questions. Move in a logical order from topic to topic.

Ending: Thank the respondent for taking the survey and remind the person when and where to return it.

4. Revise your survey. Ask a friend or classmate to take your survey and help you revise it, if neces- sary, before publishing it. Take the survey yourself. Note questions that should be added or reworded or removed, parts that should be reorganized, places in which the voice should be more neutral, and instructions that should be clearer. After re- vising, try out your survey with a small test group, and revise again.

5. Edit your survey. Check sentences, words, let- ters, and each punctuation mark. Make certain your survey is error free before publishing it.

6. Conduct your survey. Distribute the survey to a clearly defined group that won’t prejudice the sample (random or cross section). Encourage the target group to respond, aiming for 10 percent re- sponse if at all possible. Tabulate responses care- fully and objectively. To develop statistically valid results, you may need expert help. Check with your instructor.

Writing Guidelines

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collections the materials housed within a library

subscription databases online services that, for a fee, provide access to hundreds of thousands of articles

● Keyword ● Browse ● Exact

SEARCH AUTHOR TITLE SUBJECT SERIES

PERIODICAL EVERYTHING TITLE

1. Enter the word(s) you want to find. Keyword returns records containing the word(s) entered. Browse returns catalog headings beginning with the first

word entered. Exact returns records that exactly match the word(s)

entered. 2. Choose a target search field. Search everything targets all indexed fields within a

record. All other choices target specified fields within a record.

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Do library research. The library door is your gateway to informa- tion. Inside, the college library holds a wide range of research resources, from books to periodi- cals, from reference librarians to electronic data- bases.

Making the Library Work To improve your ability to succeed at all your research assignments, become familiar with your college li- brary system. Take advantage of tours and orientation sessions to learn its physical layout, resources, and services. Check your library’s Web site for policies, tu- torials, and research tools.

Knowing Where to Go The college library offers four basic resources for your research projects. Librarians are information experts who manage the library’s materials and guide you to resources. They also can help you perform online searches. Collections are the materials housed within the library, including books and electronic materials, periodicals, reference materials, and special collections. Research tools are the systems and services to help you find what you need. They include online catalogs, print indexes and subscription databases, and Internet access to other libraries and online references. Special services are additional options to help you complete research, including interlibrary loan, “hold” and “reserve” services, the reference desk, photocop- ies, CD burners, scanners, and presentation software.

Catalog Searches Library materials are cataloged so that they are easy to find. In most college libraries, books, videos, and other holdings are cataloged in an electronic database. To find material, use book titles, author names, and related keyword searching. (See pages 320–321.)

When you find a citation for a book or other re- source (see below), the result will likely provide the author or editor’s name, the title and subtitle, publish- er and copyright date, descriptive information, subject headings (crucial list of topics), call number, and loca- tion. Use that information to determine whether the resource is worth exploring further and to figure out other avenues of research. Note: A number of items appearing in blue underlined type provide links to re- lated books and other resources in the catalog.

Cudworth, Erika, 1966–

Title: Environment and Society

Publisher: London; New York: Routledge, 2003.

Physical descript.: xii, 232 p.: ill.; 24 cm.

Subjects: Human ecology [65 rec.]

Nature—Effect of human being on [15 rec.]

Environmental protection [25 rec.]

Call number: GF 41 .C83 2003

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Library of Congress call numbers a set of numbers and letters specifying the subject area, topic, and authorship or title of a book

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Locating by Call Numbers Library of Congress (LC) call numbers combine letters and numbers to specify a resource’s broad subject area, topic, and authorship or title. Finding a book, DVD, or other item involves combining both the alphabetical and the numerical order.

To find the example resource in the library, first note the tab VIDEO. Although not part of the call number, this locator will send you to a specific area of the library. Once there, follow the parts of the call number one at a time:

1. Find the section on natural history containing videos with the “QH” designation.

2. Follow the numbers until you reach “84.”

3. Within the “84” items, find those with the sub- topic “1.”

4. Use the cutter number “A72” to locate the re- source alphabetically with “A” and numerically with “72.”

Note: In the LC system, pay careful attention to the ar- rangement of subject area letters, topic numbers, and subtopic numbers: Q98 comes before QH84; QH84 before QH8245; QH84.A72 before QH84.1.A72.

Classification Systems The LC classification system combines letters and numbers. The Dewey decimal system, which is used in some libraries, uses numbers only. Here is a list of the subject classes for both the LC and Dewey sys- tems.

subject area (QH)

topic number (84)

subtopic number (1)

cutter number (A72)

Category LC Dewey Decimal

General Works A 000–999 Philosophy Psychology Religion

B 100–199 150–159 200–299

History: Auxiliary Sciences C 910–929 History: General and Old World

D 930–999

History: American E–F 970–979 Geography Anthropology Recreation

G 910–919 571–573 700–799

Social Sciences H 300–399 Political Science J 320–329 Law K 340–349 Education L 370–379 Music M 780–789 Fine Arts N 700–799 Language Literature

P 800–899 400–499

Science Q 500–599 Medicine R 610–619 Agriculture S 630–639 Technology T 600–699 Military Science U 355–359, 623 Naval Science V 359, 623 Bibliography and Library Science

Z 010–019 020–029

Arctic Refuge: A Vanishing Wilderness?: VIDEO QH84.1.A72 1990

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Use books. Your college library contains a range of books, from scholarly studies and reference works to trade books and biographies.

When you find a helpful book, browse nearby shelves for more books. If your library subscribes to an e-book service such as NetLibrary, you can con- duct electronic searches, browse or check out promis- ing books, and read them online.

Unfortunately, for most research projects, you simply don’t have time to read an entire book, and rarely do the entire contents relate to your topic. In- stead, use the strategy outlined in the next column to refine your research effort.

Research Strategy • Check out front and back information. The title and copyright pages give the book’s full title and sub- title; the author’s name; and publication information, including publication date and Library of Congress subject headings. The back may contain a note on the author’s credentials and other publications. • Scan the table of contents. Examine the con- tents page to see what the book covers and how it is organized. Ask yourself which chapters are relevant to your project. • Using key words, search the index. Check the index for coverage and page locations of the topics most closely related to your project. Are there plenty of pages, or just a few? Are these pages concentrated or scattered throughout the book? • Skim the foreword, preface, or introduction. Skimming the opening materials will often indicate the book’s perspective, explain its origin, and preview its contents. • Check appendixes, glossaries, or bibliographies. These special sections may be good sources of tables, graphics, definitions, statistics, and clues for further research. • Carefully read appropriate chapters and sec- tions. Think through the material you’ve read and take good notes. (See pages 347–348.) Follow referenc- es to authors and other works to do further research on the topic. Study footnotes and endnotes for insights and leads.

appendixes sections (in a book) that provide additional or background information

glossaries lists of important terms and their definitions

bibliographies lists of works that cover a particular subject

Section IV: Landing a Job

17 Career Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Reviewing a Career Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Completing a Career Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Using Career Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Career-Plan Writing Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

18 Job Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Completing Job Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Planning Your Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Reviewing a Sample Application . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Completing Online Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

19 Résumés. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Gathering Information for Your Résumé . . . . . . 192

Understanding Résumé Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Choosing a Résumé Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Drafting Your Résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Preparing an E-Résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Editing Your Résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Designing Your Résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Résumé-Writing Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

20 Job-Related Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Writing a Cover Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Writing a Post-Interview Thank-You Lette r . . . . . 206

Writing a Job-Acceptance Letter . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Writing a Job-Declining Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Editing a Job-Related Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Job-Related Letter Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

21 Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Understanding Interview Questions . . . . . . . . . 212

Answering Performance-Based Questio ns . . . . 213

Understanding Legal Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Paraphrasing in Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Interview Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Interview Preparation Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Section V: Proofreader’s Guide

22 Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Punctuation Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Ellipsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Using Periods and Ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Comma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Using Commas I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Using Commas II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Using Commas III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

444

Index

A a, 274, 380, 384 a lot, 272, 276 abbreviations, 266

avoiding use of, 51, 58 capitalization of, 254 in charts, graphs, and tables,

251, 266 commas with, 230 at end of sentence, 222 numerals with, 264 periods with, 222 plural of, 244 postal, 84–85 slash in, 240 word division and, 235

ability, modal auxiliary verbs for expressing, 396

absolute phrase, 346 abstract, in APA-style research

report, 119 abstract noun, 314 accept, 274 accident report form, 42–43 acronyms, 266 action

in AIDA formula for proposal, 122

repeated, modal auxiliary verb for expressing, 396

action verb, in questions, 416 active listening, 146, 156 active voice, 312, 322, 326 adapt, 274 additional information,

transitions for, 27 address

commas in, 226 direct, 226 of letter writer, 76 numbers in, 230, 251, 262,

264

addressing people, 28, 138, 140, 141

adept, 274 adjective clause, 350

dependent, object in, 413, 420

adjectives, 313, 330 commas separating, 224 demonstrative, 386 forms of, 330 indefi nite, 386 nouns as, 404 ordering of, 402 participles as, 404 possessive, 386 proper, 252

Adobe Reader, 198 adopt, 274 adverb clause, 224, 350 adverbs, 313, 332

conjunctive, 232, 332 ending with ly, 234 forms of, 332 modifying other adverbs,

406 placement of, 406

advice, 274 advisability, modal auxiliary

verbs for expressing, 396 advise, 274 aff ect, 274 African languages, transfer

errors by speakers of, 433

agenda, of meeting, 90 agreement

pronoun-antecedent, 17, 94, 312, 318, 366

subject-verb, 17, 68, 360, 362, 364

AIDA formula, 122 all ready, 276 all right, 276 all together, 276

allot, 272, 276 already, 276 alright, 276 alternate, 276 alternative, 276 altogether, 276 a.m., 264, 266 ambiguous wording, 374 among, 276 amount, 278 amounts, apostrophe in

expressions of, 246 an, 274, 380, 384 analysis

cost, 41 in report, 108, 114

and joining antecedents, 366 substituted for to, 361, 376

anecdotes, in presentations, 162

antecedents, 312, 318 number, person, and gender

of, 366 vague, 361, 374

anxious, 278 any one (of), 278 any way, 278 anyone, 278 anyway, 278 anyways, 278 APA citation style, 116, 117, 118,

119 apologizing, 143 apostrophe, 244, 246

missing, 58 for plurals, 244, 260 in possessive adjective, 386 in possessive forms, 244,

246, 316 for plural possessive, 246 for singular possessive, 221,

244 applications. See job

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Reference Works as Research Tools Guides and handbooks help readers explore specific topics: The Handbook of North American Indians, A Guide to Prairie Fauna. Indexes point you to useful resources. Some indexes are general, such as Readers’ Guide to Periodical Lit- erature; others are more specific, such as Environment Index or Business Periodicals Index. (Many are now available online in databases your library subscribes to.)

Bibliographies list resources on a specific topic. A good current bibliography can be used as an example when you compile your own bibliography on a topic. Abstracts, like indexes, direct you to ar- ticles on a particular topic. But abstracts also summarize those materials so you learn whether a resource is relevant before you invest time in locating and reading it. Abstracts are usually organized into sub- ject areas: Computer Abstracts, Environ- mental Abstracts, Social Work Abstracts. They are incorporated in many online subscription databases.

327C h a P t e r 2 6 : d o i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h

Quick Guide: Informational Reference Resources

Encyclopedias supply facts and overviews for topics arranged alphabetically. General encyclopedias, such as Encyclopedia Britannica or Collier’s Encyclopedia, cover many fields of knowledge. Specialized encyclo- pedias, such as McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology and the Encyclopedia of American Film Comedy, focus on a single topic.

Almanacs, yearbooks, and statistical resources, normally published annually, contain diverse facts. The World Almanac and Book of Facts presents infor- mation on politics, history, religion, business, social programs, education, and sports. Statistical Abstract of the United States provides data on population, ge- ography, politics, employment, business, science, and industry.

Vocabulary resources supply information on lan- guages. General dictionaries, such as The American Heritage College Dictionary, supply definitions and histories for a whole range of words. Specialized dic- tionaries, such as the Dictionary of Engineering or The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, define words com- mon to a field, topic, or group. Bilingual dictionaries translate words from one language to another.

Biographical resources supply information about people. General biographies, such as Who’s Who in America, cover a broad range of people. Other biog- raphies, such as the Dictionary of Scientific Biography or World Artists 1980-1990, focus on people from a specific group.

Directories supply contact information for people, groups, and organizations: The National Directory of Addresses and Telephone Numbers, USPS ZIP Code Lookup and Address Information (online), Official Congressional Directory.

encyclopedias reference works filled with articles written about a variety of topics

almanacs/yearbooks regularly published references that chronicle the major events of a specific time period

directories references that provide contact information for people, groups, and organizations

indexes searchable lists of resources on various topics

abstracts summaries of resources; a collection of summaries in a specific subject area

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periodicals publications or broadcasts produced at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly)

magazines weekly, monthly, or semimonthly publications providing information to a broadly focused audience

journals generally quarterly publications providing specialized scholarly information for a narrowly focused audience

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Find periodical articles. Periodicals are publications or broadcasts produced at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly). Although some periodicals are broad in their subject matter and audience, as a rule they focus on a narrow range of topics geared toward a particular audience.

There are basically three forms of periodical pub- lications. Daily newspapers and newscasts provide up-to-date information on current events, opinions, and trends—from politics to natural disasters (Wall Street Journal, USA Today, The NewsHour). Weekly and monthly magazines and newscasts generally pro- vide more in-depth information on a wide range of topics (Time, Newsweek, 60 Minutes). Finally, journals, generally published quarterly, provide specialized scholarly information for a narrowly focused audience (English Journal).

Online Databases If your library subscribes to EBSCOhost, Lexis-Nexis, or another database service, use keyword searching (see pages 320–321) to find citations on your topic. You might start with the general version of such databases, such as EBSCOhost’s Academic Search Elite, which provides access to more than 4,100 scholarly publica- tions covering all disciplines.

Basic Search The example (Sample 1 on next page) shows an EB- SCOhost search screen for a search on hybrid elec- tric cars. Notice how limiters, expanders, and other advanced features help you find the highest-quality materials.

Making the Advanced Search A more focused research strategy involves turning to specialized databases, which are available for virtually every discipline and are often an option within search services such as EBSCOhost (for example, Business Source Elite, PsycINFO, ERIC) and Lexis-Nexis (for example, Legal, Medical, and Business databases). If a basic search turns up little, turn to specialized data- bases, seeking help from a librarian if necessary.

Citation Lists Your database search should generate lists of citations, brief descriptions of articles that were flagged through keywords in titles, subject terms, abstracts, and so on. For example, a search focused on hybrid electric cars leads to the results shown (Sample 2 on the next page). At this point, study the results and do the fol- lowing:

■ Refine the search by narrowing or expanding it.

■ Mark specific citations for “capture” or further study.

■ Re-sort the results. ■ Follow links in a specific citation to further in-

formation.

Identifying Information By studying citations (especially abstracts), you can determine if the article is relevant to your research, is available in an electronic version, and is available as a periodical. To develop your working bibliography (see page 346), you should also “capture” the article’s identifying details by using the save, print, or e-mail

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function, or by recording the periodical’s title, the is- sue and date, and the article’s title and page numbers.

Full-Text Articles When citations indicate that you have promising articles, access those articles efficiently, preferably through a direct link in the citation to an electronic copy. From there you can print, save, or e-mail the ar- ticle. If the article is not available electronically, track down a print version.

Check the online citation to see if your library has the article. If necessary, check your library’s inventory of periodicals held; this list should be available online and/or in print. Examine espe- cially closely the issues and dates available, the form (print or microfilm), and the location (bound or current shelves).

To get the article, follow your library’s procedure. You may have to submit a request slip so that a librar- ian can get the periodical, or you may be able to get it yourself in the current, bound, or microfilm collec- tion. If the article is not available online or in your library, use interlibrary loan.

Sample 1: Online Database (A) Keyword field and database list (B) Limiters available (C) Expanders available

(A) Folder feature for “capturing” citations (B) “Sort” options

(D) Narrowed subject links

Particularly if you need articles published be- fore 1985, you may need to go to the Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature or another print

index. While databases are converting pre-1985 arti- cles to digital form (for example, the JSTOR database), many excellent periodical articles are available only in print. To use the Readers’ Guide, consult a librarian.

Sample 2: Online Database Citation List

Images courtesy of EBSCO Publishing

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Understand the Internet. If you’re familiar with the Internet, you already un- derstand the basics of searching this medium. Howev- er, the following information may help you do quality research on the Net.

The Internet is a worldwide network of connected local computers and computer networks that allows computers to share information with one another. Your college’s network likely gives you access to the library, local resources, and the Internet.

How the Network Works The World Wide Web provides access to much of the material on the Internet. Millions of Web pages are available because of hypertext links that connect them.

These links appear as clickable icons or high- lighted Web addresses. A Web site is a group of related Web pages posted

by the same sponsor or organization. A home page is a Web site’s “entry” page. A Web browser such as Safari, Internet Explorer, or Firefox gives you access to Web resources through a variety of tools, such as di- rectories and search engines. (Directories and search engines are special Web sites that provide a searchable listing of many services on the Web.)

Distinguish between the deep Web and the free Web. The deep Web includes material not generally accessible with popular search engines, such as all the scholarly research available through your library’s subscription databases. The free Web offers less reli- able information.

Understanding Internet Addresses An Internet address is called a uniform resource loca- tor (URL). The address includes the protocol indicating how the computer file should be accessed—often http: or ftp: (followed by a double slash); a domain name— often beginning with www; and additional path infor- mation (following a single slash) to access other pages within a site.

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/news/

Internet a worldwide network of connected computers that allows a sharing of information

World Wide Web the collection of Web sites on the Internet accessible to Web browsers and search engines

hypertext link a clickable bit of text that connects the user to another location on the Web

Web site a group of related Web pages posted by the same sponsor or organization

Web page a page viewable as a single unit on a Web site

Web browser a program that provides access to Web resources through a variety of tools

deep Web Internet materials not accessible via popular search engines but available through a library’s subscription databases

URL the uniform resource locator; the Web address telling the browser how to access a certain file

(A) Title bar (B) Navigation bar

(E) Text links

Sample Web Page

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The domain name is a key part of the address be- cause it indicates what type of organization created the site and gives you clues about its goal or purpose— to educate, inform, persuade, sell, and/or entertain. Most sites combine a primary purpose with second- ary ones.

Sample Domain Names .com a commercial organization or business .gov a government organization—federal, state,

or local .edu an educational institution .org a nonprofit organization .net an organization that is part of the

Internet’s infrastructure .mil a military site .biz a business site .info any site primarily providing information

International addresses generally include national abbreviations (for example, Canada = .ca). This clue helps you determine the origin of the information and communicate more sensitively on the Internet.

Saving Internet Information Accurately saving Internet addresses and material is an essential part of good research. Moreover, you may want to revisit sites and embed URLs in your research writing. Save Internet information through these methods:

Bookmark: Your browser can save a site’s address through a “bookmark” or “favorites” function on your menu bar. Printout: If a document looks promising, print a hard copy of it. Remember to write down all details needed for citing the source. (Although many details will automatically print with the document, some could be missing.) Save or download: To keep an electronic copy of material, save the document to a specific drive on your computer. Beware of large files with many graphics: They take up a lot of space. To save just the text, high- light it, copy it, and then paste it into a word-process- ing program. E-mail: If you’re not at your own computer, you can e-mail the document’s URL to your e-mail address through copy and paste.

Find reliable free-Web information. Because the Internet contains so much information of varying reliability, you need to become familiar with search tools that locate information you can trust. The key is knowing which search tool to use in which re- search situation. It’s also important to proceed with caution.

Adhere to your assignment’s restrictions on using Web sites (number and type). In fact, some instruc- tors may not allow Web resources for specific projects, limiting you to print sources and scholarly articles available in subscription databases.

When you are using Web resources, make sure the sites are sponsored by legitimate, recognizable or- ganizations: government agencies, nonprofit groups, and educational institutions. For most projects, avoid relying on personal, commercial, and special-interest sites, as well as chat rooms, blogs, and news groups. Test the quality and reliability of online information by using the benchmarks outlined on page 338.

Avoid developing your paper by simply copying and pasting together chunks of Web pages. By doing so, you not only fail to engage your sourc- es meaningfully, but you also commit plagiarism. For more on plagiarism, see pages 354–355.

domain name the name of a site, including the extension after the dot (.), which indicates what type of organization created the site

bookmark a digital tag that allows the user to easily return to a favor- ite site

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marilyn barbone, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 332

Reliable Web Sites Your library may sponsor a Web site that gives you access to quality Internet resources. For example, it may provide tutorials on using the Internet, guides to Internet resources in different disciplines, links to on- line document collections (Project Gutenberg, Etext Archives, New Bartleby Digital Library, and so on), or connections to other virtual resources (virtual librar- ies, subscription databases, search engines, directories, government documents, and online reference works). If your library provides access to the global catalog WorldCat, click on the “Internet” limiter to search for information recommended by librarians.

Finding other useful Web sites can be as easy as typing in a URL. If you don’t have the exact URL, sometimes you can guess it, especially for an orga- nization (company, government agency, or nonprofit group). Of course, you can also search for the Web site, checking the URLs that are presented to make sure you select the actual site you seek, not a copycat.

You can also find useful sites by following links provided on other useful sites. If you come across a helpful link (often highlighted in blue), click on the link to visit that new page. Note that the link may take you to another site.

Your browser keeps a record of the pages you visit. Click the back arrow to go back one page or the for- ward arrow to move ahead again. Clicking the right mouse button on these arrows shows a list of recently visited pages.

Subject Trees A subject tree, sometimes called a subject guide or directory, lists Web sites that have been orga- nized into categories by experts who have re- viewed those sites. Use subject trees or di- rectories if you need to narrow a broad topic or if you want sites that have been evaluated (quality over quantity).

How does a subject tree work? Es- sentially, it allows you to select from a broad range of subjects or “branches.” With each

topic choice, you narrow your selection until you ar- rive at a list of Web sites, or you can keyword-search a limited number of Web sites.

Check whether your library subscribes to a service such as NetFirst, a database in which subject experts have cataloged Internet resources by topic. Here are some other common subject directories that you can likely access at your library:

subject tree a listing of Web sites, arranged by experts

To get the best results from your search, avoid these problems: misspelling keywords; using vague or broad keywords (education or busi- ness); incorrectly combining Boolean operators; or shortening keywords too much.

WWW Virtual Library • http://vlib.org/ Overview.html

Argus • http://www.clearinghouse.net

Google Directory • http://www.google.com/dirhp

LookSmart • http://looksmart.com

Internet Public Library • http://www.ipl2.org

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Courtesy of Librarians’ Internet Index.

C h a P t e r 2 6 : d o i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h 333

Examine the subject-tree search explained below and on the next page. Afterward, conduct your own search using a subject tree available through your li- brary.

Subject-Tree Search (Invasive Plant Species)

Step 1: Select an appropriate broad category. Study the subject tree to the left provided by the In- ternet Public Library (ipl2). To find reviewed Web sites containing infor- mation on invasive plant species, you could select from this start page a range of categories, depending on the angle you want to explore: Business and Economics, Health and Medi- cal Sciences, Science and Technol- ogy, and so on. Each of these starting points will lead to a different listing of relevant sites. Another option would be to use the keyword search feature shown.

Step 2: Choose a fitting sub- category. If you chose Science and Technology, the subcategories shown in the sidebar would appear. At this point, you would again have several choices: to select Agriculture and Aquaculture, to follow Environmen- tal Sciences and Ecology, and so on. Each choice might lead to a distinct set of Web sites.

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 334

Visiting, Exploring, and Evaluating Look through the listing of recommended sites. Once you have identified a promising site, follow the links provided. Study and evaluate the site by asking ques- tions such as these: 1. Who authored or sponsored the site? What is the

author’s or sponsor’s perspective on the topic? Why did the author post these pages? What can you find out about the author through a broader Internet search?

2. What content does the site offer? What depth of information is available?

3. Does the Web site function as a primary, second- ary, or tertiary source?

4. What external links does the site offer? Might these links take you to additional resources that are rele- vant and reliable?

Step 3: Work toward a listing of Web sites. As you work down through nar- rower branches of the tree, you will see listings of relevant Web sites in the main area of the window. Such sites, remember, have all been reviewed in terms of quality, though you still need to evaluate what you find. In the cita- tion for a site, study the site title and the description of information available. Visit the site and notice its Web address (particularly the domain name). Use that information to determine the site’s relevance to your research.

(A) Site title and link (B) Site description, and types of content

Insight: Careful investigation and evaluation of Web sites is even more important when you use search engines like those discussed on the next page. Use the resource evaluation guidelines on page 338 for Web pages that you find through either subject directories or search engines. Al- ways proceed with caution, making sure that your research writing does not rely on unstable, shallow Web pages.

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C h a P t e r 2 6 : d o i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h 335

Metasearch tools search several basic search en- gines at once, and they include sites such as Ask, Dog Pile, Ixquick, and Northern Light. (The URL for each of these is the engine name, without spaces, followed by <.com>.)

Deep-Web tools check Internet databases and other sources not accessible to basic search en- gines. One excellent deep-Web tool is Complete

Planet at www.completeplanet.com.

Search and Metasearch Unlike a subject directory, which provides a list craft- ed with human input, a search engine provides a list generated automatically by scouring millions of Web sites. Not all search engines are the same. Some search citations of Internet materials, whereas others conduct full-text searches. Choose a search engine that covers a large portion of the Internet, offers quality indexing, and provides high-powered search capabilities.

Basic search engines search millions of Web pages, and they include engines such as Alta Vista, AllTheWeb, Google, HotBot, Vivisimo, and Yahoo. (The URL for each of these is the engine name, with- out spaces, followed by <.com>.)

Reprinted by permission of Google.

Refinement through search questions with drop-down lists (A) Results: sponsored sites (primarily

advertising)

(B) Results: other Web pages

Basic Web Search (toyota hybrid electric Cars)

Step 1: Begin the search with precise terms. Using Boolean operators and quotation marks, you might begin with the search terms “Wisconsin” and “invasive plant species.” The more precise your terms are, the better your results will be. Step 2: Study the results and refine your search. The results of the initial search appear here. At this point, you can click one of the resulting Web links, click a sponsored link, follow links on the right to related topics, or nar- row or broaden your search.

search engines sites that search other Web sites using key words

metasearch tools sites that search other search engines

Sofos Design, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com

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Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 336

Screen Features 1 Semi-protected article icon 2 History tab 3 Discussion page 4 Title 5 Introduction 6 Links 7 Wikipedia’s

search field 8 Wikipedia’s menus 9 Contents Menu 10 Essential facts

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a wide range of topics—especially strong in pop culture, current events, computer, and science topics.

■ Links: Articles are linked throughout so that readers can pursue associated topics, sources, recommended reading, and related categories.

Understand Wikipedia’s standards for truth. Wikipedia applies a different standard of truth than more traditional sources of information. In his reveal- ing article, “Wikipedia and the Meaning of Truth,” Simson L. Garfinkle provides an explanation. (See pages 119–123 for the complete essay.)

Understanding the Uses and Limits of Wikipedia You likely recognize the screen below—an article from Wikipedia. From its beginning in 2001 to today, a large population of volunteer writers and editors has made Wikipedia a top-ten Internet-traffic site. But is Wikipedia acceptable for college-level research? Put simply, Wikipedia is a controversial resource for aca- demic research.

Know Wikipedia’s strengths. Because of its wiki nature, Wikipedia offers research- ers a number of advantages.

■ Consensus Model of Knowledge: Articles represent a collaborative agreement about a topic—a topical knowledge base that is fair and fairly comprehensive. Generally, articles im- prove over time, offering “open-source” knowl- edge.

■ Currency of Information: Because they are Web based, articles are regularly monitored and updated—a distinct advantage over print ency- clopedias.

■ Breadth of Information: With its size and global community, Wikipedia offers articles on

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C h a P t e r 2 6 : d o i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h 337

3. Use Wikipedia as a semi-authoritative refer- ence source. Generally, the more academic your research assignment, the less you should rely on Wikipedia articles, which are essentially sources of basic and background information.

4. Use Wikipedia as one starting point. From a Wikipedia article, you can learn what is consid- ered “open-source” knowledge on your topic, gather ideas for developing a topic, find links to related topics and other resources, and begin to build a bibliography.

5. Study individual articles to get a sense of their reliability. When you find a Wikipedia article rel- evant to your research project, check the article for quality and stability. Use the evaluation criteria on the following pages, but also check the article’s history, its discussion page, any tags or icons indi- cating the article’s state, and the “what links here” link in the toolbox at the left of the screen.

Evaluate online sources. The Internet contains a wealth of information, but much of it is not suitable for a research report. The information may be incorrect, biased, outdated, pla- giarized, or otherwise unreliable. These pages discuss issues to watch for.

Assignment Restrictions Before engaging any Web resources, carefully review your assignment and note any restrictions on what type of sources may be used. If Web resources are al- lowed, abide by the number or percentage indicated in the assignment.

Author/Organization When using Web resources, make sure the sites are sponsored by legitimate, recognizable organizations: government agencies, nonprofit groups, and educa- tional institutions. For most projects, avoid relying on personal or special-interest sites, as well as chat rooms, blogs, news groups, or wikis. (These sources may help

Know Wikipedia’s weaknesses. In some ways, Wikipedia’s strengths are closely related to its weaknesses for college-level research. Consider these issues:

■ Popularity Model of Knowledge: The dy- namics of popularity can lead to bias, imbal- ance, and errors. In some ways, this approach minimizes the value of training, education, and expertise while promoting a kind of democracy of knowledge.

■ Anonymity of Authorship: Wikipedia allows contributors to remain anonymous. Research- ers thus have little way of checking credentials and credibility.

■ Variable Quality of Content: While many well-established articles are quite stable, bal- anced, and comprehensive, other articles can be partial, driven by a biased perspective, errone- ous, and poorly sourced.

■ Variable Coverage: Wikipedia’s strength in some content areas is matched by gaps and in- completeness in other content areas.

■ Vulnerability to Vandalism: Wikipedia has a number of processes in place to limit people from harming articles with misinformation, with the result that most vandalism is corrected within hours, but some errors have persisted for months.

■ Tertiary Nature of Information: For most re- search projects, Wikipedia articles function as tertiary sources—reports of reports of research. As such, Wikipedia articles are not substantial enough for academic projects.

Use Wikipedia cautiously. Based on Wikipedia’s strengths and weaknesses, fol- low these guidelines: 1. Respect your assignment. Instructors may give

you varied instruction about using Wikipedia. Respect their guidelines.

2. Verify Wikipedia information. If you use information from

Wikipedia, also use other more traditional sources

to verify that infor- mation.

Matthias Pahl, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com

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you explore a topic, but they do not provide scholarly material suitable for most research reports.)

Balance or Bias Be aware of the purpose of a site or an article. Editori- als and reviews, for example, express the point of view of a given author but are not sources for unbiased in- formation. Unless your purpose is to show the author’s point of view or point out two sides of an argument, avoid sources that show a bias toward or against a spe- cific region, country, political party, industry, gender, race, ethnic group, or religion. Also, avoid sites that promote a specific cause, product, service, or belief.

Quality of Information Test the quality of information on a site. Note whether the information is current (when was it posted/up- dated last), and check it against other sources for cor- roboration. Also, favor sites with a depth of informa- tion and those that show they truly engage their topic rather than treat it superficially.

Quality of Writing and Design Avoid sites that show sloppy editing and poor design. These surface flaws can reveal a lack of scholarly rigor or serious commitment on the part of the site’s cre- ators.

Checklist: Evaluation Use this checklist to assess the reliability of Web sources. The more items you check off, the more reli- able the source is.

Assignment Restrictions

✔ Does the source fit with the type and number allowed in the assignment?

Author/Organization

✔ Is the person or organization behind the site reliable?

✔ Is contact information for the person or organization provided?

✔ Is the site well known and well connected in the field?

✔ Does the site have a clear “About Us” page and mission statement?

Balance or Bias

✔ Is the material on the site balanced and unbiased?

✔ Does the site avoid unfair and inflammatory language?

✔ Does the site avoid pushing a particular product, cause, service, or belief?

✔ Does the site provide ample support for its claims?

✔ Does the site avoid logical fallacies and twisted statistics? (See pages 182–185.)

Quality of Information

✔ Is the material current?

✔ Is the Web site often updated?

✔ Is the Web site information-rich?

✔ Is the information backed up by other reputable print and online sources?

Quality of Writing and Design

✔ Is the text free of errors in punctuation, spelling, and grammar?

✔ Is the site effectively and clearly designed?

gladcov, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com

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Sample Evaluations

Reliable

■ The site below would be appropriate for most assignments about the life and work of William Faulkner, as long as free-Web sources are allowed.

■ This site is sponsored by the University of Mississippi, a scholarly source for information, and the article’s author, Dr. John B. Padgett, is an author- ity on Faulkner.

■ The site clearly extols Faulkner as a great writer but does not shy from showing his shortcomings. The claims are fair and amply supported, with- out logical fallacies.

■ The Web site is current, often updated, and information-rich. It is also connected to many other Faulkner resources available on the Web.

■ The site is well designed, with easy navigation, readable text, informative headings, helpful photos, and strong links. The text is well written and well edited.

Assignment Restrictions

Author/ Organization

Balance or Bias

Quality of Information

Quality of Writing and Design

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Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 340

Sample Evaluations

Unreliable

■ As a blog, the made-up Web site below would not be appropriate for an assign- ment about the life and work of William Faulkner. A site such as this should be recognized as reflective only of the writer’s opinion, not of reliable information or fact.

■ There is no author or organization listed for this Web site. The domain name— myviewsonliterature.wordpress.com—shows that this is a personal opinion blog. Its lack of connection to other Web sites shows it represents an isolated opinion.

■ This blog post shows a strong bias against William Faulkner. The few facts cited inadequately support the writer’s main point, and logical fallacies are ap- parent. The tone of the post is unscholarly, with inflammatory language.

■ Though this Web site is frequently updated, the blog post does not represent current scholarship about William Faulkner. The Web site is information-poor and is not backed up by any reputable print or online sources.

■ The site has an amateurish design and numerous errors, including the persis- tent misspelling of William Faulkner’s name. The writing is slipshod and the editing is poor.

Assignment Restrictions

Author/ Organization

Balance or Bias

Quality of Information

Quality of Writing and Design

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

C h a P t e r 2 6 : d o i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h 341

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following critical-thinking and writing activities by yourself or with classmates. 1. Focus on a research project that you are doing now.

How might primary research and library research (scholarly books and journal articles) strengthen your writing? Why not do all your research on the free Web using Google and resources like Wiki- pedia? What blend of primary research, library research, and/or free-Web research might this project require?

2. By working with your library’s Web site and its orientation tools, identify where you can physi- cally and/or electronically locate books, reference resources, and journals. Similarly, explore your library’s handouts and Web site for information about Internet research. What services, support, and access does the library provide? Now use what you have discovered to conduct research for your current project.

3. Indicate which section of the library would house the following items: (a) JAMA, the Journal of the American Medical Association, (b) Places Rated Almanac, and (c) Principles of Corporate Finance, a book.

4. Brainstorm issues related to food production, consumption, or culture. Choosing one focused topic, use your library’s catalog and journal data- base tools to track down print books and periodi- cal articles. Assess the nature, breadth, and depth of what you find. Then do a free-Web search of the topic, comparing the results.

5. Using the variety of Internet search methods out- lined in this chapter, work with some classmates to search the free Web for information on a con- troversial topic, event, person, or place. Carefully analyze and evaluate the range of Web informa- tion you find—the quality, perspective, depth, and reliability. Create a report on your findings for the rest of the class.

Checklist: Learning Outcomes Use the checklist below to assess what you have learned about planning a research project, as well as to mea- sure what you have done to plan a specific project.

I have generated keywords for my project and know how to use them. I understand methods of primary research and have chosen accordingly for my project. I am familiar with my library’s research tools and holdings. I have learned to use online catalogs to find books, and I understand how to use scholarly and trade books for my project. I have learned to use the library’s periodical databases, and I have tracked down periodical articles for my project. I understand the strengths and limitations of the Internet for college-level research. I have learned to find reliable resources on the free Web, and have done so for my current project. I can and have effectively evaluated online sources for credibility and reliability.

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 342

“ The outcome of any serious research can only be to make two questions grow where only

one grew before.” —Thorstein Veblen

Darko Kovacevic, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

C h a P t e r 2 7 : W o r k i n g W i t h y o U r s o U r C e s 343

27 Working with Your Sources What does it mean to speak from authority? It doesn’t come from a mere title. Titles can be withdrawn as easily as awarded. Instead, authority comes from familiarity with a topic. You probably know someone you trust to advise about family issues, someone you consult for mechani- cal problems, someone who can help with a difficult subject in your coursework. Each of these people is an authority based on knowledge of a subject.

When you write a report, you need to become an authority on your chosen topic. You must gain a broad knowledge of the information available, evaluate it for trustworthiness and applicability, and effectively incorpo- rate it into your writing—with proper credit. This chapter will help you with those things, so that your reader will recog- nize your authority.

Learning Outcomes

1 Evaluate your sources.

2 Create a working bibliography.

3 Take notes effectively.

4 Summarize, paraphrase, and quote.

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

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Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 344

Evaluate your sources. Sources of information can be rated for depth and reliability based on their authorship, length, topic treatment, documentation, method of publication, distance from primary sources, and so on. Remem- ber that credible sources boost your own credibility; sources that are not credible, destroy it.

Rate sources. Don’t automatically use sources simply because they support your opinion; conversely, don’t reject sources simply because they disagree with your perspective. Instead, base your selection of information on reliable, thoughtful criteria.

From Good to Bad Use this table to target sources that fit your project’s goals, to assess the quality of the sources, and to build a strong bibliography. The table is organized accord- ing to the depth and reliability of different sources, with “10” being the deepest and most reliable, and “0” being the thinnest, most unreliable.

Test print and online source reliability. When assessing the credibility of a source, consider the author and his or her perspective (or bias), and consider the source’s timeliness and accuracy. The benchmarks in the quick guide on the next page ap- ply to both print and online sources; note, however, the additional tests concerning sources on the Web, as well as the discussion on pages 337–340 concerning how to evaluate Web sites.

10 Scholarly Books and Articles: largely based on careful research; written by experts for experts; address topics in depth; involve peer review and careful editing; offer stable discussion of topic

9 Trade Books and Journal Articles: largely based on careful research; written by experts for educated general audience; sample periodicals: The Atlan- tic, Scientific American, Nature, Orion

8 Government Resources: books, reports, Web pages, guides, statistics developed by experts at government agencies; provided as service to citi- zens; relatively objective; sample source: Statisti- cal Abstract of the United States

7 Reviewed Official Online Documents: Internet resources posted by legitimate institutions—col- leges and universities, research institutes, service organizations; although offering a particular per- spective, sources tend to be balanced

6 Reference Works and Textbooks: provide gen- eral and specialized information; carefully re- searched, reviewed, and edited; lack depth for fo- cused research (e.g., general encyclopedia entry)

5 News and Topical Stories from Quality Sources: provide current-affairs coverage (print and online), introduction-level articles of interest to general public; may lack depth and length; sam- ple sources: the Washington Post, the New York Times; Time, Psychology Today; NPR’s All Things Considered

4 Popular Magazine Stories: short, introductory articles often distant from primary sources and without documentation; heavy advertising; sam- ple sources: Glamour, Seventeen, Reader’s Digest

3 Business and Nonprofit Publications: pam- phlets, reports, news releases, brochures, manu- als; range from informative to sales-focused

2 List Server Discussions, Usenet Postings, Blog Articles, Talk Radio Discussions: highly open, fluid, undocumented, untested exchanges and publications; unstable resource

1 Unregulated Web Material: personal sites, joke sites, chat rooms, special-interest sites, advertising and junk e-mail (spam); no review process, little accountability, biased presentation

0 Tabloid Articles (print and Web): contain exag- gerated and untrue stories written to titillate and exploit; sample source: the National Enquirer, the Weekly World News

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

C h a P t e r 2 7 : W o r k i n g W i t h y o U r s o U r C e s 345

Quick Guide: Reliability Test

Credible Author Is the author an expert on this topic? What are her or his credentials, and can you confirm them? For example, an automotive engineer would be an expert on hybrid-vehicle technology, whereas a celebrity in a commercial would not.

Web test: Is an author indicated? If so, are the author’s credentials noted and contact information offered (for example, an e-mail address)?

Reliable Publication Has the source been published by a scholarly press, a peer-reviewed professional journal, a quality trade- book publisher, or a trusted news source? Did you find this resource through a reliable search tool?

Web test: Which individual or group posted this page? Is the site rated by a subject directory or library organi- zation? How stable is the site—has it been around for a while and is the material current, well-documented, and readily accessible? Check the site’s home page, and read “About Us” pages and mission statements.

Unbiased Discussion While all sources come from a specific perspective and represent specific commitments, a biased source may be pushing an agenda in an unfair, unbalanced, incomplete manner. Watch for bias toward a certain region, country, political party, industry, gender, race, ethnic group, or religion. Be alert to connections among authors, financial backers, and the points of view shared. For example, if an author has functioned as a consultant to or a lobbyist for a particular indus- try or group (oil, animal rights), his or her allegiances may lead to a biased presentation of an issue.

Web test: Is the online document one-sided? Is the site nonprofit (.org), government (.gov), commercial (.com), educational (.edu), business (.biz), information- al (.info), network-related (.net), or military (.mil)? Is the site U.S. or international? Is this organization pushing a cause, product, service, or belief? How do advertising or special interests affect the site? You might suspect, for example, the scientific claims of a site sponsored by a pro-smoking organization.

Current Information A five-year-old book on computers may be outdated, but a forty-year-old book on Abraham Lincoln could still be the best source. Given what you need, is this source’s discussion up-to-date?

Web test: When was the material originally posted and last updated? Are links live or dead?

Accurate Information Bad research design, poor reporting, and sloppy docu- mentation can lead to inaccurate information. Check the source for factual errors, statistical flaws, and con- clusions that don’t add up.

Web test: Is the site information-rich or -poor—filled with helpful, factual materials or fluffy with thin, unsubstantiated opinions? Can you trace and confirm sources by following links or conducting your own search?

Full, Logical Support Is the discussion of the topic reasonable, balanced, and complete? Are claims backed up with quality evidence? Does the source avoid faulty assumptions, twisted statistical analysis, logical fallacies, and unfair persuasion tactics? (See pages 182–184 for help.)

Web test: Does the Web page offer well-supported claims and helpful links to additional information?

Quality Writing and Design Is the source well written? Is it free of sarcasm, deroga- tory terms, cliches, catch phrases, mindless slogans, grammar slips, and spelling errors?

Web test: Are words neutral (“conservative perspec- tive”) or emotionally charged (“fascist agenda”)? Are pages well designed—with clear rather than flashy, distracting multimedia elements? Is the site easy to navigate?

Positive Relationship with Other Sources Does the source disagree with other sources? If yes, is the disagreement about the facts themselves or about how to interpret the facts? Which source seems more credible?

Web test: Is the site’s information logically consistent with print sources? Do other reputable sites offer links to this site?

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Howells, Coral Ann.

Alice Munro. Contemporary World Writers. Man- chester and New York: Manchester UP, 1998.

PS 8576.U57 Z7 1998

Book provides good introduction to Alice Munro’s fiction, chapters arranged by Munro’s works; con- tains intro, conclusion, and bibliography; 1998 date means author doesn’t cover Munro’s recent fiction

“Alice Munro.” Athabasca University Centre for Lan- guage and Literature: Canadian Writers. Updated 31 January 2011. Accessed 17 April 2011.

http://www.athabascau.ca/writers/munro.html

Site offers good introduction to Munro’s writing, along with links to bibliography and other resources

Valdes, Marcela. “Some Stories Have to Be Told by Me: A Literary History of Alice Munro.” Virginia Quar- terly Review 82.3 (Summer 2006): 82-90.

EBSCOhost Academic Search Premier http://web.ebscohost.com

Article offers good introduction to Munro’s life, her roots in Ontario, her writing career, and the key features of her stories

Thacker, Robert. E-mail interview. 7 March 2011.

[email protected]

Author of critical biography on Munro, Alice Munro: Writing Her Lives, offered really helpful insights into her creative process, especially useful for story “Car- ried Away”

Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 346

To evaluate visual resources, ask yourself the following types of questions: Is the graphic in- formative or merely decorative? Is the graphic

manipulative in any way? What does it include or ex- clude? Is it well designed? And is it the product of a reliable source?

Create a working bibliography. A working bibliography lists sources that you have used and/or intend to use. Compiling this list helps you track your research, develop your final bibliogra- phy, and avoid plagiarism.

Building a Bibliography Use note cards (see below), a small notebook, or a com- puter for your work. Research software such as Tak- eNote, EndNote, or Bookends Pro may prove helpful.

Include identifying information. The explanations that follow tell you which details to include for each type of source you use. You may find it helpful later to record bibliographic details in the format of the documentation system you are expected to use—MLA or APA (pages 370–397). Also give each source a code number or letter.

Sample Working Bibliography Entries

Periodicals: author, article title, journal name, pub- lication information (volume, number, date), page numbers, method of access (stacks, current periodi- cal, database)

Books: author, title and subtitle, publication details (place, publisher, date), call number

Online sources: author (if available), document title, site sponsor, database name, publication or posting date, access date, other publication information, URL

Primary or field research: date conducted, name and/or descriptive title of person interviewed, place observed, survey conducted, document analyzed

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

PROBLEMS WITH INTERNAL- COMBUSTION CARS

“In one year, the average gas-powered car produces five tons of carbon dioxide, which as it slowly builds up in the atmosphere causes global warming.” (p. 43)

— helpful fact about the extent of pollution caused by the traditional i-c engine

— How does this number compare with what a hybrid produces?

C h a P t e r 2 7 : W o r k i n g W i t h y o U r s o U r C e s 347

Take notes effectively. Accurate, thoughtful notes serve as the foundation for your research writing. A good note-taking system should help you (1) work efficiently, (2) glean key in- formation from sources, (3) engage sources critically and reflectively, and (4) record summaries, quotations, and paraphrases. Effective notes separate source ma- terial from your own ideas, which, in turn, helps you to avoid unintentional plagiarism.

Select a system. When taking notes, think carefully about the infor- mation that you record. Each idea should clearly relate to or enhance your understanding of the topic. What you shouldn’t do is simply collect quotations to plunk in your paper, gather a lot of disconnected facts and details, or create extensive notes for every source.

Four note-taking systems are outlined in this sec- tion. Choose the system that works best for your proj- ect, or combine elements to develop your own system. Be aware that one note-taking style may work better than another, depending on the discipline. For ex- ample, in a literature class, the copy-and-annotating method works especially well.

System 1: Paper or electronic note cards . . . Using paper note cards is the traditional method of note taking; however, note-taking software is now available with most word-processing programs and with programs like TakeNote, EndNote Plus, and Bookends Pro. Here’s how a note-card system works: 1. Establish one set of cards (3 × 5 inches, if paper)

for your bibliography. 2. On a second set of cards (4 × 6 inches, if paper),

take notes on sources: • Record one point from one source per card. • Clarify the source: List the author’s last name,

a shortened title, or a code from the matching bibliography card. Include a page number.

• Provide a topic or heading: Called a slug, the topic helps you categorize and order informa- tion.

• Label the note as a summary, paraphrase, or quotation of the original.

• Distinguish between the source’s information and your own thoughts.

Pros & Cons: Although note cards can be initially te- dious and time consuming, they are very helpful for categorizing and organizing material for an outline and a first draft.

System 2: Copy (or save) and annotate . . . The copy-and-annotate method involves working with photocopies, print versions, or digital texts of sources: 1. Selectively photocopy, print, or save important

sources. Copy carefully, making sure you have full pages, including the page numbers.

2. As needed, add identifying information on the copy—author, publication details, and date. Each page should be easy to identify and trace. When working with books, simply copy the title and copyright pages and keep them with the rest of your notes.

3. As you read, mark up the copy and highlight key statements. In the margins or digital file, record your ideas: • Ask questions. In-

sert a “?” in the margin, or write out the question.

• Make connections. Draw arrows to link ideas, or make notes like “see page 36.”

working bibliography a list of sources that you have read and/or intend to use in your research

annotate underline or highlight important passages in a text and make notes in the margins

Slug

Quotation

Page Number

Comments

Source

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 348

• Add asides. Record what you think and feel while reading.

• Define terms. Note important words that you need to understand.

• Create a marginal index. Write key words to identify themes and main parts.

Pros & Cons: Even though organizing the various pages for drafting can be inconvenient, copying, printing, or saving gives you an accurate record of your sources. And annotating, when approached with more care than mere skimming and highlighting, en- courages critical thinking.

System 3: The computer notebook or research log . . . The computer notebook or research log method in- volves taking notes on a computer or on sheets of pa- per. Here’s how it works: 1. Establish a central location for your notes—a

notebook, a file folder, a binder, or an electronic folder.

2. Take notes one source at a time, making sure to identify the source fully. Number your note pages.

3. Using your initials or some other symbol, distinguish your own thoughts from source material.

4. Use codes in your notes to identify which information in the notes re- lates to which topic in your out- line. Then, under each topic in the outline, write the page number in your notes where that information is recorded. With a notebook or log, you may be able to rearrange your notes into an outline by us- ing copy and paste—but don’t lose source information in the pro- cess!

Pros & Cons: Taking notes in this way feels natural, although using them to outline and draft may require some time-consuming paper shuffling.

Cudworth, Erika. Environment and Society. Routledge Introductions to Environment Series. London and New York: Routledge, 2003.

Ch. 6 “Society, Culture and Nature—Human Relations with Animals”

Chapter looks at how social scien- tists have understood, historically, the relationship between people and animals (158).

The word “animal” is itself a prob- lem when we remember that people too are animals, but the distinction is often sharply made by people themselves (159)

“In everyday life, people interact with animals continually” (159). Author gives many common examples.

I’ve actually had a fair bit of personal experience with animals—the horses, ducks, dogs, and cats on our hobby farm. Will this chapter make trouble for my thinking?

Yes, what really are the connec- tions and differences between people and animals? Is it a different level of intelligence? Is there something more basic or fundamental? Are we afraid to see ourselves as animals, as creatures?

Many examples—pets, food, TV programs, zoos—apply to me. Hadn’t thought about how much my life is integrated with animal life! What does that integration look like? What does it mean for me, for the animals?

Bibliographic Info and Notes Responses

System 4: The double-entry notebook . . . The double-entry notebook involves parallel note taking—notes from sources beside your own brain- storming, reaction, and reflection. Using a notebook or the columns feature of your word-processing pro- gram, do the following: 1. Divide pages vertically. 2. In the left column, record bibliographic informa-

tion and take notes on sources. 3. In the right column, write your responses. Think

about what the source is saying, why the point is important, whether you agree with it, and how the point relates to other ideas and other sources.

Pros & Cons: Although organizing the double- entry notes for drafting may be challenging, this method creates accurate source records and directly engages the researcher with the material.

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Summarize, paraphrase, and quote. As you work with sources, decide what to put in your notes and how to record it—as a summary, a paraphrase, or a quo- tation. The passage below comes from an article on GM’s development of fuel-cell technology. On the following pages, note how the researchers summarize, paraphrase, and quote material. Then practice the same strategies in your own source notes.

Source Passage From Burns, L. D., McCormick, J. B., and Borroni-Bird, C. E. “Vehicle of Change.” Scientific American 287:4 (October 2002): 10 pp.

When Karl Benz rolled his Patent Motorcar out of the barn in 1886, he literally set the wheels of change in motion. The advent of the automobile led to dramatic alterations in people’s way of life as well as the global economy—transformations that no one expected at the time. The ever increasing availability of economical personal transportation remade the world into a more accessible place while spawning a complex industrial infrastructure that shaped modern society.

Now another revolution could be sparked by automotive technology: one fueled by hydro- gen rather than petroleum. Fuel cells—which cleave hydrogen atoms into protons and electrons that drive electric motors while emitting nothing worse than water vapor—could make the au- tomobile much more environmentally friendly. Not only could cars become cleaner, they could also become safer, more comfortable, more personalized—and even perhaps less expensive. Further, these fuel-cell vehicles could be instrumental in motivating a shift toward a “greener” energy economy based on hydrogen. As that occurs, energy use and production could change significantly. Thus, hydrogen fuel-cell cars and trucks could help ensure a future in which per- sonal mobility—the freedom to travel independently—could be sustained indefinitely, without compromising the environment or depleting the earth’s natural resources.

A confluence of factors makes the big change seem increasingly likely. For one, the petro- leum-fueled internal-combustion engine (ICE), as highly refined, reliable, and economical as it is, is finally reaching its limits. Despite steady improvements, today’s ICE vehicles are only 20 to 25 percent efficient in converting the energy content of fuels into drive- wheel power. And although the U.S. auto industry has cut exhaust emis- sions substantially since the unregulated 1960s—hydrocarbons dropped by 99 percent, carbon monoxide by 96 percent, and nitrogen oxides by 95 percent—the continued production of carbon dioxide causes concern because of its potential to change the planet’s climate.

summarize to condense in your own words the main points in a passage

paraphrase to put a whole passage in your own words

quotation a word-for-word statement or passage from an original source

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

While the introduction of the car in the late nineteenth century has led to dramatic chang- es in society and world economics, another dramatic change is now taking place in the shift from gas engines to hydrogen technolo- gies. Fuel cells may make the car “greener,” and perhaps even safer, cheaper, and more comfortable. These automotive changes will affect the energy industry by making it more environmentally friendly; as a result, people will continue to enjoy mobility while trans- portation moves to renewable energy. One factor leading to this technological shift is that the internal-combustion engine has reached the limits of its efficiency, potential, and development—while remaining problem- atic with respect to emissions, climate change, and health.

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Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 350

Automobile technology may be delivering another radical economic and social change through the shift from gasoline to hydrogen fuel. By breaking hydrogen into protons and electrons so that the electrons run an elec- tric motor with water vapor as the only the by-product, fuel cells could make the car a “green” machine. But this technology could also increase the automobile’s safety, comfort, personal tailoring, and affordability. More- over, this shift to fuel-cell engines in automo- biles could lead to dramatic environmentally friendly changes in the broader energy indus- try, an industry that will be tied to hydrogen rather than to fossil fuels. The result of this shift will be radical changes in the way we use and produce energy. In other words, the shift to clean technology and hydrogen-powered vehicles could maintain society’s valued mo- bility while preserving the environment and earth’s natural resources.

Paraphrase. Paraphrasing puts a whole passage in your own words. Paraphrase passages that present key points, explana- tions, or arguments that are useful to your project. Follow these steps: 1. Quickly review the entire passage for a sense of the

whole, and then reread it sentence by sentence. • State the ideas in your own words. • Edit for clarity, but don’t change the meaning. • Put directly borrowed phrases in quotation

marks. 2. Check your paraphrase against the original for ac-

curate tone and meaning.

Sample Paraphrase: The passage below paraphrases the second paragraph in the source passage on page 349.

Summarize. Summarizing condenses in your own words the main points in a passage. Summarize when the source pro- vides relevant ideas and information on your topic. 1. Reread the passage, jotting down a few key

words. 2. State the main point in your own words. Add key

supporting points, leaving out examples, details, and long explanations. Be objective: Don’t mix your reactions with the summary.

3. Check your summary against the original, mak- ing sure that you use quotation marks around any exact phrases you borrow.

Sample Summary:

For instruction on effectively in- tegrating quotations, paraphras-

es, and summaries into your writing, see pages 357–359.

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This sentence captures the authors’ main claim about the benefits and future of fuel- cell technology.

“[H]ydrogen fuel-cell cars and trucks could help ensure a future in which personal mobil- ity . . . could be sustained indefinitely, without compromising the environment or depleting the earth’s natural resources.”

This quotation offers a well-phrased state- ment about the essential problem.

“[T]he petroleum-fueled internal-combustion engine (ICE), as highly refined, reliable, and economical as it is, is finally reaching its lim- its.”

Quote. Quoting records statements or phrases from an origi- nal source word for word. Quote nuggets only—state- ments that are well phrased or authoritative: 1. Note the quotation’s context—how it fits in the au-

thor’s discussion. 2. Copy the passage word for word, enclosing it in

quotation marks and checking its accuracy. 3. If you omit words, note that omission with an el-

lipsis. If you change any word for grammatical reasons, enclose it in brackets. (See page 437).

Sample Quotations:

INSIGHT Careful note taking helps prevent unintentional plagiarism. Plagiarism—using source material without giving credit—is treated more fully elsewhere (pages 354–355). But at the plan-ning stage, you can prevent this problem by (1) maintaining an accurate working bibliography, (2) distinguishing source material from your own ideas in your notes, (3) paraphrasing, summarizing, and quoting source material selectively and accurately, and (4) clearly identifying the source of the informa-tion, including material gleaned from the Internet.

search projects in the past? Compare and contrast your practices with the guidelines outlined in this chapter: what do you plan to change?

2. Using the rating scale on page 344, find three sources on the same topic: one from a source near the top of the scale, one from the middle, and one near the bottom. Compare and contrast the types of information found in each resource, as well as the depth and reliability.

3. For your current research project, carry out the following tasks based on the results of your pri- mary, library, and free-Web research: • Shape your list of resources into a working bib-

liography. Then add a commentary to the bibli- ography explaining why you believe this list to represent good, balanced research.

• Using the instructions on evaluating sources (pages 344–345), assess the quality and reliabil- ity of three of your sources. Summarize your comparative assessment in a paragraph.

• Summarize a passage from one of your key sources. Then choose a portion of the passage and paraphrase it. Finally, record a significant statement in the passage as a direct quotation.

Checklist: Learning Outcomes Use the checklist below to assess what you have learned about working with sources, as well as to measure what you have accomplished on a specific project.

I have carefully evaluated all my sources for credible authorship, reliable publication, un- biased discussion, information currency, infor- mation accuracy, logical support, quality writ- ing and design. I have created and maintained an accurate working bibliography. I have effectively taken notes from my sources using a note-taking system. In my source notes, I have effectively summa- rized, paraphrased, and quoted relevant pas- sages.

351C h a P t e r 2 7 : W o r k i n g W i t h y o U r s o U r C e s

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 352

“Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passion,

they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence.” —John Adams

Mark Poprocki, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com

PART 2 WRITE

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

In research papers, it is commonly said, “You are com- manded to borrow but forbidden to steal.” To borrow ideas while avoiding plagiarism (see pages 354-355), you must not only mention the sources you borrow from but also document them completely and accurately. You must follow to the last dot the format and documenta- tion conventions required for your paper.

The two styles most frequently used in college have been developed by the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA). Whereas MLA is used most frequently in the Hu- manities, APA is typically used in the Social Sciences—with each system reflecting the specific concerns of the disciplines involved. The systems are similar, however, in that both require (1) parenthetical citations within the body of the paper and (2) a final listing of all resources cited in the paper.

In this chapter, we provide you with instructions for using those two styles to format your research paper pages and to document your sources within the text of your paper and at its end. To best illuminate the rationale of each style, we compare them side by side throughout the chapter. In those few cases where one style calls for an item not covered by the other (as in MLA’s standard for short verse citations, a source not likely to be used in APA), we have called out that informa- tion in a separate box.

As anyone who has studied a foreign tongue can attest, one’s na- tive language is revealed in a brand-new way by comparison. Contrast makes things clear. That has been our goal in presenting MLA and APA styles side by side in this chapter.

C h a P t e r 2 9 : m l a a n d a Pa s t y l e s 371

29 MLA and APA Styles Learning Outcomes

1 Learn the basics of MLA and APA styles.

2 Understand in-text citations. 3 List books and other

nonperiodical documents.

4 List print periodical articles. 5 List online sources. 6 List other sources. 7 Follow format guidelines for MLA

and APA.

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Learn the basics of MLA and APA style. While the rest of this chapter details in-text citations, works-cited and reference entries, and format issues, this page and the next answer frequently asked ques- tions regarding MLA and APA style.

Is a separate title page required?

MLA No (unless your instructor requires one). On the first page of a research paper, type your name, your instructor’s name, the course name and number, and the date, one below the other. The title comes next, centered. Then simply begin the text on the next line.

APA Yes. Include your paper’s title, your name, and the name of your school on three separate lines, dou- ble-spaced, centered, and beginning approximately one-third of the way down from the top of the page. Place the running head (an abbreviated title) in the upper right corner, and the page number 1 in the up- per right.

Is an abstract required?

MLA No. An abstract (a summary of your research paper) is not an MLA requirement.

APA Usually. An APA-style abstract is a paragraph summarizing your research paper. It is 150 to 250 words long. (See page 390.) Place your abstract on a new page and label it “Abstract” (centered); place the running head in the upper right corner, and the page number 2 in the upper right.

Is the research paper double-spaced?

MLA Yes. Double-space everything, even tables, captions, long quotations, or works-cited entries.

APA Yes. Double-space all text lines, titles, head- ings, quotations, captions, and references.

Are page numbers required?

MLA Yes. Pages should be numbered consecutively in the upper right corner, one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin (one inch). Your last name should precede the page number.

APA Yes. Page numbers appear at the top right margin, above the first line of text; but do not include your name. Instead, place the running head in the up- per right corner.

What about longer quotations?

MLA Do not use quotation marks. (1) Indent verse quotations of more than three lines one inch (ten spaces). Each line of a poem or play begins a new line of the quotation. (2) When quoting prose that needs more than four typed lines, indent each line one inch (ten spaces) from the left margin. (3) To quote two or more paragraphs, further indent the first line of each paragraph a quarter-inch (three spaces). However, if the first sentence quoted does not begin a paragraph, do not indent it; use the additional indent only on the first lines of the successive paragraphs.

APA Type quotations of 40 or more words in block style (all lines flush left) one-half inch (five spaces) in from the left margin. Indent the first lines of any addi- tional paragraphs in the long quotation one-half inch (five spaces) in from the margin set for the quotation.

Is an appendix required?

MLA No. In MLA style, tables and illustrations are placed as close as possible to the related text.

APA Maybe. While tables and figures already ap- pear on separate pages, one or more appendices may also be used to supplement the text of the paper.

How wide should the margins be?

MLA Top, bottom, left, and right margins should be one inch (except for page numbering). Do not justify lines, but rather leave the right margin ragged with no word breaks at the ends of lines.

APA Leave a margin of at least one inch on all four sides. Do not justify lines, but rather leave the right margin ragged with no word breaks at the ends of lines.

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Are references placed in the text?

MLA Yes. Indicate only page numbers parentheti- cally if you identify the author in your text. Give the author’s last name in a parenthetical reference if it is not mentioned in the text.

Example, author identified in the text:

Galuszka notes that minorities have limited opportuni- ties for training in this field (9).

Example, author cited in parentheses:

Minorities currently have limited opportunities for training in this field (Galuszka 9).

APA Yes. Include the author’s last name and the year, separated by a comma; for quotations, add the page number after a comma and “p.”

Example without quotation:

Game-design training opportunities are limited for minorities (Galuszka, 2009).

Example with quotation:

“Few historically Black colleges and universities offer much in the way of computer gaming” (Galuszka, 2009, p. 9).

Is a list of sources used in the paper required?

MLA Yes. Full citations for all sources used (e.g., books, periodicals) are placed in an alphabetized list labeled “Works Cited” at the end of the paper, provid- ing full publication details for each work cited in the report. Hanging indentation is required for the entries in this works-cited list.

Example:

Galuszka, Peter. “Getting into the Game.” Diverse: Issues in Higher Education 19 Mar. 2009: 9–10. Print.

APA Yes. Full citations for all sources used (books, periodicals, and so on) are placed in an alphabetized list labeled “References” at the end of the paper, pro- viding full publication details for each work refer- enced in the report. Hanging indentation is the stan- dard format.

Example:

Galuszka, P. (2009, March 19). Getting into the game. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 26(3), 9-10.

What about headings?

MLA MLA style does not specify a particular for- mat for headings within the text; normally, head- ings are used only for separate sections of the paper (“Works Cited” or “Notes,” for example).

APA Headings, like an outline, show the organiza- tion of your APA paper and the importance of each topic. All topics of equal importance should have headings of the same level, or style. Below are the vari- ous levels of headings used in APA papers.

Are reference markers needed if I submit my paper electronically?

MLA Yes. Number (in brackets) each paragraph at its beginning, followed by a space before starting the text.

APA No. APA style does not call for reference markers, but double-check with your instructor or publisher about acceptable file formats for any tables or figures.

Are there any other special instructions? Always ask whether your school, department, or in- structor has special requirements that may take prece- dence over the guidelines listed here.

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Understand in-text citations. As a general rule, keep citations brief and integrate them smoothly into your writing. When paraphrasing or summarizing, make it clear where your borrowing begins and ends. Use stylistic cues to distinguish the source’s thoughts (“Kalmbach points out . . . ,” “Some critics argue . . . ”) from your own (“I believe . . . ,” “It seems obvious, however . . .”). See page 357 for more on integrating sources. Make sure each in-text cita- tion clearly points to an entry in your list of sources. The identifying information (usually the author’s last name) must be the word or words by which the entry is alphabetized in that list. When using a shortened title of a work, begin with the word by which the work is alphabetized in your list of sources (e.g., “Egyptian, Classical,” for “Egyptian, Classical, and Middle East- ern Art”). When including a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence, place it before the end punctua- tion. (See page 373.)

MLA Note When citing inclusive page numbers larger than ninety-nine, MLA calls for giving only the two digits of the second number (Augustyn 113–14; not Augustyn 113–114).

Note: The following pages illustrate the most common citation forms. Refer to this information as you build your draft.

One Author: A Complete Work MLA You do not need an in-text citation if you iden- tify the author in your text. (This is the preferred way of citing a complete work.) Do not offer page numbers when citing complete works, articles in alphabetized encyclopedias, one-page articles, and unpaginated sources.

In No Need for Hunger, Robert Spitzer recommends that the U.S. government develop a new foreign policy to help Third World countries overcome pov- erty and hunger.

However, you must give the author’s last name in an in-text citation if it is not mentioned in the text.

No Need for Hunger recommends that the U.S. government develop a new foreign policy to help Third World countries overcome poverty and hunger (Spitzer).

When a source is listed in your works-cited page with an editor, a translator, a speaker, or an artist, in- stead of the author, use that person’s name in your ci- tation.

APA The correct form for a parenthetical reference to a single source by a single author is parenthesis, last name, comma, space, year of publication, parenthe- sis.

… in this way, the public began to connect certain childhood vaccinations with an autism epidemic (Baker, 2008).

If the author is identified in your text, include the year in parentheses immediately after.

Dohman (2009) argues that parents of affected children . . .

One Author: Part of a Work MLA List the necessary page numbers in paren- theses if you borrow words or ideas from a particular source. Leave a space between the author’s last name and the page reference. No abbreviation or punctua- tion is needed. (The first example below identifies the author in text, the second in parentheses.)

Bullough writes that genetic engineering was dubbed “eugenics” by a cousin of Darwin’s, Sir Fran- cis Galton, in 1885 (5).

Genetic engineering was dubbed “eugenics” by a cousin of Darwin’s, Sir Francis Galton, in 1885 (Bullough 5).

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APA When you cite a specific part of a source, give the page, paragraph, or chapter, using the appropriate abbreviation (p. or pp., para.) or word (chapter). Al- ways give the page number for a direct quotation.

…while a variety of political and scientific forces were at work in the developing crisis, it was parents who pressed the case “that autism had become epidemic and that vaccines were its cause” (Baker, 2008, p. 251).

Two or More Works by the Same Author(s) MLA In addition to the author’s last name(s) and page number(s), include a shortened version of the work’s title when you cite two or more works by the same author(s).

Wallerstein and Blakeslee claim that divorce creates an enduring identity for children of the marriage (Unexpected Legacy 62).

They are intensely lonely despite active social lives (Wallerstein and Blakeslee, Second Chances 51).

APA If the same author has published two or more articles in the same year, avoid confusion by placing a small letter a after the year for the first work listed in the reference list, b after the year for the next one, and so on. Alphabetize by title.

Parenthetical Citation: Reefs harbor life forms heretofore unknown (Milius, 2001a, 2001b).

References: Milius, D. (2001a). Another world hides inside coral

reefs. Science News, 160(16), 244.

Milius, D. (2001b). Unknown squids—with elbows— tease science. Science News, 160(24), 390.

Works by Authors with the Same Last Name MLA When citing different sources by authors with the same last name, it is best to use the authors’ full names in the text to avoid confusion. If circumstances call for parenthetical references, add each author’s first initial. If first initials are the same, use each author’s full name.

Some critics think Titus Andronicus too abysmally melodramatic to be a work of Shakespeare (A. Parker 73). Others suggest that Shakespeare meant it as black comedy (D. Parker 486).

APA When citing different sources by authors with the same last name, add the authors’ initials to avoid confusion, even if the publication dates are different.

While J. D. Wallace (2005) argued that privatizing social security would benefit only the wealthiest citi- zens, others such as E. S. Wallace (2006) supported greater control for individuals.

Works by Multiple Authors MLA When citing a work by two or three authors, give the last names of every author in the same order that they appear in the works-cited section. (The cor- rect order of the authors’ names can be found on the title page of the book.)

Students learned more than a full year’s Spanish in ten days using the complete supermemory method (Ostrander and Schroeder 51).

When citing a work by four or more authors, give the first author’s last name as it appears in the works-cited section, followed by “et al.” (meaning “and others”).

Communication on the job is more than talking; it is “inseparable from your total behavior” (Culligan et al. 111).

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APA When citing from two to five authors, all must be mentioned in the first text citation. The last two authors’ names are always separated by a comma and an ampersand (&) when enclosed in parentheses.

Love changes not just who we are, but who we can become, as well (Lewis, Amini, & Lannon, 2000).

Subsequently, for works with two authors, list both in every citation. For works with three to five authors, list all only the first time; after that, use only the name of the first author followed by “et al.,” like this:

These discoveries lead to the hypothesis that love actually alters the brain’s structure (Lewis et al., 2000).

If your source has six or more authors, refer to the work by the first author’s name followed by “et al.,” both for the first reference in the text and all refer- ences after that. However, be sure to list all the authors (up to seven) in your references list.

According to a recent study, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) continues to dominate the lives of Vietnam veterans, though in modified forms (Tremb- ley et al., 2008).

A Work Authored by an Agency, a Committee, or an Organization MLA If a book or other work was written by an or- ganization such as an agency, a committee, or a task force, it is said to have a corporate author. If the cor- porate name is long, include it in the text (rather than in parentheses) to avoid disrupting the flow of your writing. After the full name has been used at least once, use a shortened form of the name (common ab- breviations are acceptable) in subsequent references. For example, Task Force may be used for Task Force on Education for Economic Growth.

The thesis of the Task Force’s report is that economic success depends on our ability to improve large- scale education and training as quickly as possible (113–14).

APA Treat the name of the group as if it were the last name of the author. If the name is long and easily abbreviated, provide the abbreviation in square brack- ets.

A problem for many veterans continues to be heightened sensitivity to noise (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2005).

Use the abbreviation without brackets in subse- quent references.

In addition, veterans suffering from PTSD continue to have difficulty discussing their experiences (NIMH, 2005).

A Work with No Author Indicated MLA When there is no author listed, give the title or a shortened version of the title as it appears in the works-cited section.

Statistics indicate that drinking water can make up 20 percent of a person’s total exposure to lead (Information 572).

APA If your source lists no author, treat the first few words of the title (capitalized normally) as you would an author’s last name. A title of an article or a chapter belongs in quotation marks; the titles of books or re- ports should be italicized.

…including a guide to low-stress postures (“How to Do It,” 2001).

Two or More Works Included in One Citation To cite multiple works within a single parenthetical reference, separate the references with a semicolon.

MLA The following example refers to a work by Al- bala and another by Lewis.

In Medieval Europe, Latin translations of the works of Rhazes, a Persian scholar, were a primary source of medical knowledge (Albala 22; Lewis 266).

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APA Remember to include the year of publication. Place the citations in alphabetical order, just as they would be ordered in the reference list:

Others report near-death experiences (Rommer, 2000; Sabom, 1998).

MLA: A Series of Citations from a Single Work If no confusion is possible, it is not necessary to name a source repeatedly when making multiple parentheti- cal references to that source in a single paragraph. If all references are to the same page, identify that page in a parenthetical note after the last reference. If the references are to different pages within the same work, you need identify the work only once, and then use a parenthetical note with page number alone for the subsequent references.

Domesticating science meant not only spreading scientific knowledge, but also promoting it as a topic of public conversation (Heilbron 2). One way to en- hance its charm was by depicting cherubic putti as “angelic research assistants” in book illustrations (5).

A Work Referred to in Another Work MLA If you must cite an indirect source—that is, information from a source that is quoted from an- other source—use the abbreviation qtd. in (quoted in) before the indirect source in your reference.

Paton improved the conditions in Diepkloof (a prison) by “removing all the more obvious aids to detention. The dormitories [were] open at night: the great barred gate [was] gone” (qtd. in Callan xviii).

APA If you need to cite a source that you have found referred to in another source (a “secondary” source), mention the original source in your text. Then, in your parenthetical citation, cite the secondary source, using the words “as cited in.”

…theorem given by Ullman (as cited in Hoffman, 1998).

A Work in an Anthology or a Collection MLA When citing an entire work that is part of an anthology or a collection, a work identified by author in your list of works cited, treat the citation as you would for any other complete work.

In “The Canadian Postmodern,” Linda Hutcheon offers a clear analysis of the self-reflexive nature of contemporary Canadian fiction.

Similarly, if you are citing particular pages of such a work, follow the directions for citing part of a work.

According to Hutcheon, “postmodernism seems to designate cultural practices that are fundamentally self-reflexive, in other words, art that is self- consciously artifice” (18).

An entry from a reference work such as an ency- clopedia or a dictionary should be cited similarly to a work from an anthology or a collection. For a diction- ary definition, include the abbreviation def. followed by the particular entry designation.

This message becomes a juggernaut in the truest sense, a belief that “elicits blind devotion or sacrifice” (“Juggernaut,” def. 1).

While many such entries are identified only by title (as above), some reference works include an au- thor’s name for each entry (as below). Others may identify the entry author by initials, with a list of full names elsewhere in the work.

The decisions of the International Court of Justice are “based on principles of international law and cannot be appealed” (Pranger).

See pages 380–387 for guidelines on formatting these entries in your works-cited list.

APA When citing an article or a chapter in an an- thology or a collection, use the authors’ names for the specific article, not the names of the anthology’s edi- tors. (Similarly, the article should be listed by its au- thors’ names in the reference section.)

Phonological changes can be understood from a variationist perspective (Guy, 2005).

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378 Pa r t 2 : F o r m s

A Sacred Text or Famous Literary Work Sacred texts and famous literary works are published in many different editions. For that reason, when you are referring to specific sections of the work, it is best to identify parts, chapters, or other divisions instead of (or in addition to) your version’s page numbers. Note that books of the Bible and other well-known literary works may be abbreviated, if no confusion is possible.

MLA: Quoting Verse Do not use page numbers when referencing classic verse plays and poems. Instead, cite them by divi- sion (act, scene, canto, book, part) and line, using Arabic numerals for the various divisions unless your instructor prefers Roman numerals. Use pe- riods to separate the various numbers.

In the first act, Hamlet comments, “How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable, / Seem to me all the uses of this world” (1.2.133-34).

A slash, with a space on each side, shows where each new line of verse begins. If you are cit- ing lines only, use the word line or lines in your first reference and numbers only in additional ref- erences.

At the beginning of the sestet in Robert Frost’s “Design,” the speaker asks this pointed question: “What had that flower to do with being white, / The wayside blue and innocent heal-all?” (lines 9–10).

See page 372 for instructions for verse quota- tions of more than three lines.

MLA If using page numbers, list them first, fol- lowed by an abbreviation for the type of division and the division number.

The more important a person’s role in society—the more apparent power an individual has—the more that person is a slave to the forces of history (Tolstoy 690; bk. 9, ch. 1).

As Shakespeare’s famous Danish prince observes, “One may smile, and smile, and be a villain” (Ham. 1.5.104).

APA The original date of publication may be un- available or not pertinent. In such cases, use your edi- tion’s year of translation (for example, trans. 2003) or indicate your edition’s year of publication (2003 ver- sion).

An interesting literary case of such dysfunctional family behavior can be found in Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, where it becomes the command- ment of family duty for Gregor’s parents and sister to swallow their disgust and endure him (trans. 1972, part 3).

“Generations come and generations go, but the earth remains forever” (The New International Version Study Bible, 1985 version, Eccles. 1.4).

Citing Internet Sources MLA The current (seventh edition) MLA Hand- book discourages use of Internet addresses, or URLs, as they can so easily change with time. Ideally, you should refer to an entire Web site by its title, or to a specific article on a site by its author; then, include full reference information in your works-cited list. A URL should be listed in your document or in your works- cited list only when the reader probably cannot locate the source without it, or if your instructor requires it. If that is the case, enclose the address in brackets:

<www.thecollegewriter.com/4e>

APA As with print sources, cite an electronic source by the author (or by shortened title if the author is un- known) and the publication date (not the date you accessed the source). If citing a specific part of the source, use an appropriate abbreviation: p. for page and para. for paragraph.

One study compared and contrasted the use of Web and touch screen transaction log files in a hospital setting (Nicholas, Huntington, & Williams, 2001).

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C h a P t e r 2 9 : m l a a n d a Pa s t y l e s 379

Whenever possible, cite a Web site by its author and posting date. In addition, refer to a specific page or document rather than to a home page or a menu page. If you are referring to a specific part of a Web page that does not have page numbers, direct your reader, if possible, with a section heading and a para- graph number.

According to the National Multiple Sclerosis Society (2003, “Complexities” section, para. 2), understand- ing of MS could not begin until scientists began to research nerve transmission in the 1920s.

The works-cited section lists only the sources you have cited in your text. Begin your list on the page after the text and continue numbering each page. Format your works-cited pages using these guidelines and page 389. 1. Type the page number in the upper right corner,

one-half inch from the top of the page, with your last name before it.

2. Center the title Works Cited (not in italics or un- derlined) one inch from the top; then double- space before the first entry.

3. Begin each entry flush with the left margin. If the entry runs more than one line, indent additional lines one-half inch (five spaces) or use the hanging indent function on your computer.

4. End each element of the entry with a period. (Ele- ments are separated by periods in most cases un- less only a space is sufficient.) Use a single space after all punctuation.

5. Double-space lines within each entry and between entries.

6. List each entry alphabetically by the author’s last name. If there is no author, use the first word of the title (disregard A, An, or The as the first word). If there are multiple authors, alphabetize them ac- cording to which author is listed first in the publi- cation.

Quick Guide: MLA Works Cited 7. The MLA Handbook, Seventh Edition, requires

that each source be identified as Print, Web, or other (such as Television or DVD). For print sourc- es, this information is included after the publisher and date. For Web publications, include Web. after the date of publication or updating of the site, and before the date you accessed the site.

8. A basic entry for a book follows:

Black, Naomi. Virginia Woolf as Feminist. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2004. Print.

9. A basic entry for a journal or magazine follows:

Stelmach, Kathryn. “From Text to Tableau: Ek- phrastic Enchantment in Mrs. Dalloway and To the Lighthouse.” Studies in the Novel 38.3 (Fall 2006): 304-26. Print.

10. A basic entry for an online source is given below. Note that the URL is included only if the reader probably cannot locate the source without it, or when your instructor requires it.

Clarke, S. N. “Virginia Woolf (1882-1941): A Short Biography.” Virginia Woolf Society of Great Britain. 2000. Web. 12 Mar. 2012.

APA: Personal Communications If for APA papers you do the kind of personal research recommended elsewhere in COMP, you may have to cite personal communications that have provided you with some of your knowledge. Personal communications may include personal letters, phone calls, memos, and so forth. Because they are not published in a permanent form, APA style does not place them among the citations in your reference list. Instead, cite them only in the text of your paper in parentheses, like this:

…according to M. T. Cann (personal communica- tion, April 1, 2009).

…by today (M. T. Cann, personal communication, April 1, 2009).

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Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 380

The reference section lists all the sources you have cit- ed in your text (with the exception of personal com- munications such as phone calls and e-mails). Begin your reference list on a new page after the last page of your paper. Number each reference page, continuing the numbering from the text. Then format your refer- ence list by following the guidelines below. 1. Type the running head in the upper left corner

and the page number in the upper right corner, approximately one-half inch from the top of the page.

2. Center the title, References, approximately one inch from the top; then double-space before the first entry.

3. Begin each entry flush with the left margin. If the entry runs more than one line, indent additional lines approximately one-half inch (five to seven spaces), using a hanging indent.

4. Adhere to the following conventions about spac- ing, capitalization, and italics: • Double-space between all lines on the reference

page. • Use one space following each word and punc-

tuation mark. • With book and article titles, capitalize only the

first letter of the title (and subtitle) and proper nouns.

Quick Guide: APA References

Example: The impact of the cold war on Asia.

(Note that this capitalization practice differs from the presentation of titles in the body of the essay.)

• Use italics for titles of books and periodicals, not underlining.

5. List each entry alphabetically by the last name of the author, or, if no author is given, by the title (disregarding A, An, or The). For works with mul- tiple authors, use the first author listed in the pub- lication.

6. Follow these conventions with respect to abbre- viations: • With authors’ names, generally shorten first

and middle names to initials, leaving a space af- ter the period. For a work with more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the last au- thor’s name.

• For publisher locations, use the full city name plus the two-letter U.S. Postal Service abbre- viation for the state. For international publish- ers, include a spelled-out province and country name.

• Spell out “Press” or “Books” in full, but omit un- necessary terms like “Publishers,” “Company,” or “Inc.”

List books and other nonperiodical documents. MLA In MLA style, a works-cited entry for a book or similar document follows this general form.

Author’s last name, first name. Title. Place of publica- tion: publisher, year published. Medium (“Print”).

Publishers’ Names: Publishers’ names should be short- ened by omitting articles (A, An, The), business ab- breviations (Co., Inc.), and descriptive words (Books, Press). For publishing houses that consist of the names of more than one person, cite only the first of the sur-

names. Abbreviate University Press as UP. Also use standard abbreviations whenever possible (Assn., Acad.). In addition, use the following abbreviations in place of any information you cannot supply: n.p. No place of publication given n.p. No publisher given n.d. No date of publication given n. pag. No pagination given

APA In APA style, a reference-list entry for a book or similar document follows this general form.

Author, A. (year). Title. Location: Publisher.

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A Book by One Author MLA The example below demonstrates the most basic book entry.

Green, Christopher. Picasso: Architecture and Vertigo. New Haven: Yale UP, 2005. Print.

APA Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first word of any subtitle, along with proper nouns and initialisms.

Kuriansky, J. (2007). Beyond bullets and bombs: Grassroots peacebuilding between Israelis and Palestinians. Westport, CT: Praeger Press.

Two or More Books by the Same Author MLA List the books alphabetically according to title. After the first entry, substitute three hyphens for the author’s name.

Dershowitz, Alan M. Rights from Wrongs. New York: Basic, 2005. Print.

- - - . Supreme Injustice: How the High Court Hijacked Election 2000. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001. Print.

APA Arrange multiple works by the same author in chronological order, earliest first.

Sacks, O. (1995). An anthropologist on Mars: Seven paradoxical tales. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.

Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.

A Work by Two or More Authors MLA For two or three authors, list them all, in ti- tle-page order, reversing only the first author’s name.

Bystydzienski, Jill M., and Estelle P. Resnik. Women in Cross-Cultural Transitions. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1994. Print.

For four or more authors, list only the first, fol- lowed by “et al.”

Schulte-Peevers, Andrea, et al. Germany. Victoria: Lonely Planet, 2000. Print.

APA List up to seven authors by last name and first initial, separating them by commas, with an am- persand (&) before the last.

Hooyman, N., & Kramer, B. (2006). Living through loss: Interventions across the life span. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

For eight or more authors, list the first six fol- lowed by an ellipsis, and then the last.

A Work Authored by an Agency, a Committee, or an Organization MLA & APA Treat the organization as the au- thor.

An Anonymous Book MLA If no author or editor is listed, begin the entry with the title.

Chase’s Calendar of Events 2002. Chicago: Contempo- rary, 2002. Print.

APA If an author is listed as “Anonymous,” treat it as the author’s name. Otherwise, put the title in the author’s spot.

Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). (2001). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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A Single Work from an Anthology MLA Place the title of the single work in quotation marks before the title of the complete work. (Note: Some large single works, such as complete plays, may call for italics instead.)

Mitchell, Joseph. “The Bottom of the Harbor.” Ameri- can Sea Writing. Ed. Peter Neill. New York: Lib. of America, 2000. 584-608. Print.

APA Start with information about the individual work, followed by details about the collection in which it appears, including the page span. When editors’ names come in the middle of an entry, follow the usu- al order: initial first, surname last. Note the placement of Eds. in parentheses in the following example.

Guy, G. R. (2005). Variationist approaches to pho- nological change. In B. D. Joseph & R. D. Janda (Eds.), The handbook of historical linguistics (pp. 369-400). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

MLA: Citing Multiple Works or a Complete Anthology To avoid unnecessary repetition when citing two or more entries from a larger collection, you may cite the collection once with complete publication information (see Rothfield, below). The individual entries (see Becker and Cuno, below) can then be cross-referenced by listing the author, title of the piece, editor of the collection, and page numbers.

Becker, Carol. “The Brooklyn Controversy: A View from the Bridge.” Rothfield 15-21.

Cuno, James. “Sensation and the Ethics of Fund- ing Exhibitions.” Rothfield 162-170.

Rothfield, Lawrence, ed. Unsettling Sensation: Arts-Policy Lessons from the Brooklyn Museum of Art Controversy. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2001. Print. Rutgers Series on the Public Life of the Arts.

If you cite a complete anthology, begin the en- try with the editor(s).

Neill, Peter, ed. American Sea Writing. New York: Lib. of America, 2000. Print.

Smith, Rochelle, and Sharon L. Jones, eds. The Prentice Hall Anthology of African American Literature. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 2000. Print.

One Volume of a Multivolume Work MLA Include the volume number after the title of the complete work.

Cooke, Jacob Ernest, and Milton M. Klein, eds. North America in Colonial Times. Vol. 2. New York: Scribner’s, 1998. Print.

If you cite two or more volumes of a multivolume work, give the total number of volumes in the work. Offer specific references to volume and page numbers in the parenthetical reference in your text, like this: (8: 112–114).

Salzman, Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West. Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. 5 vols. New York: Simon, 1996. Print.

APA Indicate the volume in parentheses after the work’s title.

Salzman, J., Smith, D. L., & West, C. (Eds.). (1996). Encyclopedia of African-American culture and history (Vol. 4). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.

When a work is part of a larger series or collec- tion, make a two-part title with the series and the par- ticular volume you are citing.

The Associated Press. (1995). Twentieth-century America: Vol. 8. The crisis of national confidence: 1974-1980. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational Corp.

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A Chapter, an Introduction, a Preface, a Foreword, or an Afterword MLA To cite a chapter from a book, list the chapter title in quotation marks after the author’s name. For an introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword, identify the part by type, with no quotation marks or under- lining. Next, identify the author of the work, using the word “by.” (If the book’s author and the part’s author are the same person, give just the last name after “by.”) For a book that gives cover credit to an editor instead of an author, identify the editor as usual. Finally, list any page numbers for the part cited.

Proulx, Annie. Introduction. Dance of the Happy Shades. By Alice Munro. Toronto: Penguin Canada, 2005. Print.

APA List the chapter title after the date of publica- tion, followed by a period or appropriate end punctua- tion. Use “In” before the book title, and follow the book title with the inclusive page numbers of the chapter.

Tattersall, I. (2002). How did we achieve humanity? In The monkey in the mirror (pp. 138-168). New York, NY: Harcourt.

A Group Author as Publisher MLA List the unabbreviated group name as author, omitting any initial article (A, An, The), then again as publisher, abbreviated as usual.

Amnesty International. Maze of Injustice: The Failure to Protect Indigenous Women from Sexual Vio- lence in the USA. London: Amnesty Intl., 2007. Print.

APA When the author is also the publisher, simply put Author in the spot where you would list the pub- lisher’s name.

Amnesty International. (2007). Maze of injustice: The failure to protect indigenous women from sexual violence in the USA. London England: Author.

If the publication is a brochure, identify it as such in brackets after the title.

List print periodical articles. MLA The general form for a periodical entry in MLA format follows.

Author’s last name, first name. “Article Title.” Periodi- cal Title Series number or name. Volume.issue. [separated by period but no space]. Publication date: page numbers. Medium (Print).

APA The general form for a periodical entry in APA format follows. If the periodical does not use volume and issue numbers, include some other designation with the year, such as the month and day, the month, or a season.

Author, A. (year). Article title. Periodical Title, volume number (issue number if paginated by issue), page numbers.

An Article in a Magazine or Scholarly Journal MLA For a scholarly journal, list the volume num- ber immediately after the journal title, followed by a period and the issue number, and then the date of publication (in parentheses). For a magazine, do not include volume and issue number. End with the page numbers of the article followed by the medium of publication (Print).

Sanchez, Melissa E. “Seduction and Service in The Tempest.” Studies in Philology 105.1 (Winter 2008): 50-82. Print.

“Feeding the Hungry.” Economist (2004): 74. Print.

Note: For a scholarly journal, if no volume number ex- ists, list the issue number alone.

APA List author and year as for a book reference. (For a magazine, also include other date elements, as the month and day or the season.) In the article’s title, lowercase all but the first word, proper nouns, acro- nyms, initialisms, and the first word of any subtitle. Capitalize the journal’s title normally and italicize it. Italicize the volume number and place the issue num- ber in parentheses, without italics. Provide inclusive page numbers.

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APA For newspaper articles, include the full publi- cation date, year first followed by a comma, the month (spelled out) and the day. Identify the article’s location in the newspaper using page numbers and section let- ters, as appropriate. If the article is a letter to the edi- tor, identify it as such in brackets following the title. For newspapers, use p. or pp. before the page numbers; if the article is not on continuous pages, give all the page numbers, separated by commas.

Schmitt, E., & Shanker, T. (2008, March 18). U.S. adapts cold-war idea to fight terrorists. The New York Times, pp. 1A, 14A-15A.

Benderoff, E. (2008, March 14). Facebook sites face scrutiny for March Madness pools. Chicago Tribune, pp. 2C-3C.

An Abstract An abstract is a summary of a work.

MLA To cite an abstract, first give the publication information for the original work (if any); then list the publication information for the abstract itself. Add the term Abstract and a period between these if the journal title does not include that word. If the journal identifies abstracts by item number, include the word item followed by the number. (Add the section identi- fier [A, B, or C] for those volumes of Dissertation Ab- stracts [DA] and Dissertation Abstracts International [DAI] that have one.) If no item number exists, list the page number(s).

Faber, A. J. “Examining Remarried Couples Through a Bowenian Family System Lens.” Journal of Di- vorce and Remarriage 40.4 (2004): 121-33. Social Work Abstracts 40 (2004): item 1298. Print.

APA When referencing an abstract published sepa- rately from an article, provide publication details of the article followed by information about where the abstract was published.

Shlipak, M. G., Simon, J. A., Grady, O., Lin, F., Wenger, N. K., & Furberg, C. D. (2001, September). Renal insufficiency and cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women with coronary heart disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 38, 705-711. Abstract retrieved from Geriatrics, 2001, 56(12), Abstract No. 5645351.

Weintraub, B. (2007, October). Unusual suspects. Psychology Today, 40(5), 80-87.

Tomatoes target toughest cancer. (2002, February). Prevention, 54(2), 53.

Benson, P., Karlof, K. L., & Siperstein, G. N. (2008). Ma- ternal involvement in the education of young children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism: The International Journal of Research & Practice, 12(1), 47-63.

Note: Do not include an issue number for a journal that continues pagination from issue to issue.

A Newspaper Article MLA Cite the edition of a major daily newspaper (if given) after the date (1 May 1995, Midwest ed.: 1). If a local paper’s name does not include the city of publica- tion, add it in brackets (not italicized) after the name.

Segal, Jeff, and Lauren Silva. “Case of Art Imitating Life?” Wall Street Journal 3 March 2008, Eastern ed.: C9. Print.

Swiech, Paul. “Human Service Agencies: ‘It’s Going to Take a Miracle.’” Pantagraph [Bloomington, IL] 30 June 2009: B7. Print.

To cite an article in a lettered section of the news- paper, list the section and the page number. (For ex- ample, A4 would refer to page 4 in section A of the newspaper.) If the sections are numbered, however, use a comma after the year (or the edition); then in- dicate the section and follow it with a colon, the page number (sec. 1:20), and the medium of publication you used. An unsigned newspaper article follows the same format:

“Bombs—Real and Threatened—Keep Northern Ireland Edgy.” Chicago Tribune 6 Dec. 2001, sec. 1: 20. Print.

If an article is an unsigned editorial, put Editorial (no italics) and a period after the title.

“Hospital Power.” Editorial. Bangor Daily News 14 Sept. 2004: A6. Print.

To identify a letter to the editor, put Letter (no ital- ics) and a period after the author’s name.

Sory, Forrest. Letter. Discover July 2001: 10. Print.

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List online sources. The general form for an online entry in MLA style is given below.

MLA Start with the same elements given for a print source.

Author’s last name, first name. Title of Work (in italics or quotation marks). Web Site Title (if different from title of work). Version or edition used. Publisher or sponsor (or n.p. if none identified). Publication date (or n.d.). Medium (Web). Date of access.

Include a URL only if your reader needs it to lo- cate the source (or if your instructor requires it). See “Using URLs” below for instructions.

APA Whenever possible, use the final, archival ver- sion of an electronic resource (often called the version of record), as opposed to a prepublished version. In the reference entry for an electronic source, start with the same elements in the same order given for a print or other fixed-media resource (author, title, and so on). Then add the most reliable electronic retrieval infor- mation that will (a) clarify what version of the source you used and (b) help your reader find the source.

DOI: If possible, use the electronic document’s digital object identifier (DOI). The DOI will usually be pub- lished at the beginning of the article or be available in the article’s citation.

Author, A. A. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodi- cal, volume number (issue number), pages. doi: code

URL: If a DOI is not available, give the URL (without a period at the end). Use the home or menu-page URL for subscription-only databases and online reference works.

Author, A. A. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number (issue number), pages. Re- trieved from URL

Retrieval Date: If the content of the document is stable (e.g., archival copy or copy of record with DOI), do not include a retrieval date in your reference entry. How- ever, if the content is likely to change or be updated, then offer a retrieval date.

Author, A. A. (year). Title of document. Retrieved date from website: URL

Using URLs MLA and APA documentation styles differ slightly in how they treat URLs (Internet addresses).

MLA If you need to include a URL, place it imme- diately following the date of access, a period, and a space. The URL should be enclosed in angle brackets and end with a period. Give the complete address, in- cluding http, for the work you are citing.

MacLeod, Donald. “Shake-Up for Academic Publish- ing.” Guardian Unlimited. Guardian News and Media Ltd., 10 Nov. 2008. Web. 6 Jan. 2009. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/>.

“Fort Frederica.” National Parks Service. U.S. Depart- ment of the Interior, n.d. Web. 27 Feb. 2009. <http://home.nps.gov/fofr/forteachers/ curriculummaterials.htm>.

If the URL must be divided between two lines, break it only after a single or double slash. Do not add a hyphen.

APA When necessary, break a URL before a slash or other punctuation mark. Do not underline or italicize the URL, place it in angle brackets, or end it with a period.

An Undated Online Item MLA List “n.d.” in place of the missing date.

Booth, Philip. “Robert Frost’s Prime Directive.” Poets. org. Academy of American Poets, n.d. Web. 1 Oct. 2009.

APA List “(n.d.)” in place of the missing date.

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. (n.d.). Antimicrobial (drug) resistance. Retrieved June 19, 2008, from http://www3.niaid.nih.gov /topics/AntimicrobialResistance/default.htm

A Home Page MLA If a nonperiodical publication has no title, identify it with a descriptor such as Home page, Intro-

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duction, or Online posting (using no italics or quota- tion marks). You may add the name of the publica- tion’s creator or editor after the overall site title, if appropriate.

Wheaton, Wil. Home page. Wil Wheaton dot Net. n.p., 31 May 2006. Web. 19 Mar. 2009.

APA Whenever possible, cite a Web site by its au- thor and posting date. In addition, refer to a specific page or document rather than to a home page or a menu page.

An Entry in an Online Reference Work Unless the author of the entry is identified, begin with the entry name.

MLA Place the entry name in quotation marks.

“Eakins, Thomas.” Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Web. 26 Sept. 2008.

APA Use the word “In” to identify the larger source.

Agonism. (2008). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Re- trieved March 18, 2008, from http://search .eb.com

An Electronic Book MLA Include publication information for the origi- nal print version if available. Follow the date of publi- cation with the electronic information.

Simon, Julian L. The Ultimate Resource II: People, Materials, and Environment. College Park: U of Maryland, 1996. U of Maryland Libraries. Web. 9 Apr. 2009.

APA Provide the DOI (see page 264) if one exists. Otherwise, use the phrase “Retrieved from” to intro- duce the URL.

Bittlestone, R. (2005). Odysseus unbound. doi: 10.2277/0521853575

Kafka, F. (2002). Metamorphosis. D. Wylie (Trans.). Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org /etext/5200

MLA: Online Multimedia For online postings of photographs, videos, sound recordings, works of art, and so on, follow the ex- amples on pages 358–386. In place of the original medium of publication, however, include the title of the database or Web site (italicized), followed by the medium (Web) and the date of access, as for other online entries.

Brumfield, William Craft. Church of Saint Nicholas Mokryi. 1996. Prints and Photographs Div., Lib. of Cong. Brumfield Photograph Collec- tion. Web. 9 May 2009.

Sita Sings the Blues. Prod. Nina Paley. 2008. Inter- net Archive. Web. 5 June 2008.

List other sources.

A Television or Radio Program MLA Include the medium (Television or Radio) at the end of the citation, followed by a period.

“U.S. Health Care Gets Boost from Charity.” 60 Minutes. CBS. WBBM, Chicago. 28 Feb. 2008. Television.

APA Indicate the episode by writers, if possible. Then follow with the airing date, the episode title, and the type of series in brackets. Add the producer(s) as you would the editors(s) of a print medium, and com- plete the entry with details about the series itself.

Berger, Cynthia. (Writer). (2001, December 19). Feed- erwatch [Radio series program]. In D. Byrd & J. Block (Producers), Earth & Sky. Austin, TX: The Production Block.

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A Motion Picture or Performance MLA The director, distributor, and year of release follow the title. Other information may be included if pertinent. End with the medium, in this case Film, fol- lowed by a period.

Atonement. Dir. Joe Wright. Perf. James McAvoy, Keira Knightley. Universal Pictures, 2007. Film.

Treat a performance as you would a film, but add its location and date.

Chanticleer: An Orchestra of Voices. Young Auditori- um, Whitewater, WI. 23 Feb. 2003. Performance.

APA Give the name and function of the director, producer, or both.

Cohn, J., & Cohn, E. (Directors). (2007). No country for old men [Motion picture]. United States: Miramax Films.

A Video Recording or an Audio Recording MLA Cite a filmstrip, slide program, videocassette, or DVD as you do a film; include the medium of pub- lication last, followed by a period.

Monet: Shadow & Light. Devine Productions, 1999. Videocassette.

If you are citing a specific song on a musical re- cording, place its title in quotation marks before the title of the recording.

Bernstein, Leonard. “Maria.” West Side Story. Colum- bia, 1995. CD.

APA Begin the entry with the speaker’s or writer’s name, not the producer. Indicate the type of recording in brackets.

Kim, E. (Author, speaker). (2000). Ten thousand sor- rows [CD]. New York, NY: Random House.

For a music recording, give the name and func- tion of the originators or primary contributors. Indi- cate the recording medium in brackets immediately following the title.

ARS Femina Ensemble. (1998). Musica de la puebla de Los Angeles: Music by women of baroque Mexi- co, Cuba, & Europe [CD]. Louisville, KY: Nannerl Recordings.

A Lecture, Speech, Reading, or Dissertation MLA Provide the speaker’s name, the title of the presentation (if known) in quotation marks, the meet- ing and the sponsoring organization, the location, and the date. End with an appropriate descriptive label such as Address, Lecture, or Reading.

Annan, Kofi. “Acceptance of Nobel Peace Prize.” Oslo City Hall, Oslo, Norw. 10 Dec. 2001. Speech.

APA For an unpublished paper presented at a meet- ing, indicate when the paper was presented, at what meeting, in what location.

Lycan, W. (2002, June). The plurality of consciousness. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Philosophy and Psychology, New York, NY.

For an unpublished doctoral dissertation, place the dissertation’s title in italics, even though the work is unpublished. Indicate the school at which the writer completed the dissertation.

Roberts, W. (2001). Crime amidst suburban wealth (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH.

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Follow format guidelines for MLA and APA. While pages 370–387 describe some of the key fea- tures of MLA and APA formats, the sample pages that follow show you these formats.

MLA Format at a Glance You can find a complete model in MLA style, Stevie Jeung’s “‘I Did Not Get My Spaghetti-O’s’: Death Row Consumption in the Popular Media,” at the end of chapter 28 (pages 362–369). Below, however, are the basic rules for formatting the first page, middle pages, and the works-cited page in MLA format.

Jeung 1

Stevie Jeung

Professor Sasha Abramsky

American Studies 101D

17 February 2008

“I Did Not Get My Spaghetti-O’s”:

Death Row Consumption in the Popular Media

Jesus Christ: Roast lamb, matzo, wine; around AD 30. Perry Smith and Richard

Hickock: Identical meals of shrimp, French fries, garlic bread, ice cream and

strawberries with whipped cream; 1965. Timothy McVeigh: Two pints of Ben &

Jerry’s mint chocolate chip ice cream: 2001. Tony Soprano: Holsten’s onion rings;

2007. Karl Chamberlein: final meal yet to be consumed; 15 days from now.

While executions historically demand a certain degree of morbid curiosity,

the last meals of the condemned seem to stimulate heightened interest. Indeed, a

prisoner’s final feast has almost become an event in its own right, not only for the

prisoner, but for the prison staff and the public. Web sites, novels, movies, television

shows, newspapers, and even cookbooks report, dissect, criticize, and speculate

regarding last meals real and imagined. When confronted with the ultimate

consumption of dying people in so many areas of our popular media, the truth

becomes alarmingly clear: This is odd behavior. There must be some reason that we

institutionally allow our most hated and feared prisoners to choose and enjoy their

final meal before we execute them, and there must be some reason that we like to

watch and reproduce the event in popular culture. . . .

The heading (in MLA format) supplies identi- fying details.

The title (cen- tered) indicates the paper’s topic and theme.

The writer opens with a chronologi- cal catalog of executed people and last suppers.

The intro zeros in on the topic, focuses on what is odd or difficult to explain, and announces a search for explanations.

The analysis focuses on spe- cific examples in film and television.

MLA Paper (Excerpt)

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Jeung 8

Works Cited

Abramsky, Sasha. American Furies: Crime, Punishment, and Vengeance in the Age

of Mass Imprisonment. Boston: Beacon Press, 2007. Print.

“Artist serves ‘Last Supper’ on plates.” Lawrence Journal. 29 Oct. 2006. Web. 5

Feb. 2008.

Atwell, Mary Welek. Evolving Standards of Decency: Popular Culture and Capital

Punishment. New York: Peter Lang, 2004. Print.

“Confessions of a Death Row Chef.” The Observer. 14 March 2004. Web. 5 Feb.

2008.

“Death Row Information.” Texas Department of Criminal Justice. 7 Nov. 2007.

Web. 5 Feb. 2008.

Dickerson, James L. Last Suppers: If the world ended tomorrow, what would be your

last meal? New York: Citadel, 2004. Print.

Fritsch, Jane. “Word for Word/Execution Protocol; Please Order Your Last Meal

Seven Days in Advance.” The New York Times. 22 April 2001. Web. 5 Feb.

2008.

The Green Mile. Dir. Frank Darabont. Perf. Tom Hanks, Michael Clarke Duncan,

David Morse, and Bonnie Hunt. Castle Rock, 1999. Film.

Greene, Bob. “They didn’t get to choose their last meals.” Jewish World Review. 12

June 2001. Web. 5 Feb. 2008.

Hyman, Vicki. “Chewing Over Tony’s Last Meal.” The Star Ledger. 23 June 2007.

Web. 5 Feb. 2008.

Karon, Tony. “Why We’re Fascinated by Death Row Cuisine.” TIME. 10 August

2000. Web. 5 Feb. 2008.

LaChance, Daniel. “Last Words, Last Meals, and Last Stands: Agency and

Individuality in the Modern Execution Process.” Law & Social Inquiry 32

(2007): 701-724. JSTOR. Web. 5 Feb. 2008.

“Last Words on Death Row.” CNN: The Best of Court TV. 31 Dec. 2007. Web. 5

Feb. 2008.

“Made in America.” The Sopranos. Dir. David Chase. HBO. 10 June 2007.

Television.

Peck, John. “Last Meals.” Tucson Weekly. 5 Jan. 2006. Print. 5 Feb. 2008.

Price, Brian D. Meals to Die For. San Antonio: Dyna-Paige Corporation, 2001. Print.

“Sleight of Hand.” Prison Break. Dir. Dwight Little. Fox Network. 7 Nov. 2005.

Television.

“The Springfield Connection.” The Simpsons. Dir. Mark Kirkland. Fox Network.

7 May 1995. Television.

The list of works cited begins on a separate page and includes the title, header, and page number.

The paper’s bibliography lists a range of scholarly books, trade books, scholarly ar- ticles, popular articles, and Web sites on the topic.

Sources are listed in alpha- betical order by author (or by title if no author is given) and identified by medium.

Quotation marks and ital- ics are prop- erly used with titles, as are punctuation and abbrevia- tions.

MLA Works-Cited List

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APA Research Report: Format, Documentation, and Structure Student writers Thomas I. DeJong and Adam B. Smit wrote the following research paper based on an ex- periment that they conducted in a psychology course.

You can use the paper to study how a research report based on experimentation structures and builds a discussion, how sources are used and integrated into social-science research writing, and how format and documentation practices work in APA style.

Running head: RUNNING ON EMPTY 1

Running on Empty:

The Effects of Food Deprivation on

Concentration and Perseverance

Thomas I. DeJong and Adam B. Smit

Dordt College

Place manu- script page headers one- half inch from the top. Put five spaces between the page header and the page number.

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APA Title Page

APA Abstract

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Abstract

This study examined the effects of short-term food deprivation on two

cognitive abilities—concentration and perseverance. Undergraduate students

(N-51) were tested on both a concentration task and a perseverance task after

one of three levels of food deprivation: none, 12 hours, or 24 hours. We predicted

that food deprivation would impair both concentration scores and perseverance

time. Food deprivation had no significant effect on concentration scores, which

is consistent with recent research on the effects of food deprivation (Green et al.,

1995; Green et al., 1997). However, participants in the 12-hour deprivation group

spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than those in both the control

and 24-hour deprivation groups, suggesting that short-term deprivation may affect

some aspects of cognition and not others.

The abstract summarizes the problem, participants, hypotheses, methods used, results, and conclusions.

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C h a P t e r 2 9 : m l a a n d a Pa s t y l e s 391

RUNNING ON EMPTY 3

Running on Empty: The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance

Many things interrupt people’s ability to focus on a task: distractions, headaches, noisy environments, and even psychological disorders. To some extent, people can control the environmental factors that make it difficult to focus. However, what about internal factors, such as an empty stomach? Can people increase their ability to focus simply by eating regularly?

One theory that prompted research on how food intake affects the average person was the glucostatic theory. Several researchers in the 1940s and 1950s suggested that the brain regulates food intake in order to maintain a blood-glucose set point. The idea was that people become hungry when their blood-glucose levels drop significantly below their set point and that they become satisfied after eating, when their blood-glucose levels return to that set point. This theory seemed logical because glucose is the brain’s primary fuel (Pinel, 2000). The earliest investigation of the general effects of food deprivation found that long-term food deprivation (36 hours and longer) was associated with sluggishness, depression, irritability, reduced heart rate, and inability to concentrate (Keys, Brozek, Henschel, Mickelsen, & Taylor, 1950). Another study found that fasting for several days produced muscular weakness, irritability, and apathy or depression (Kollar, Slater, Palmer, Docter, & Mandell, 1964). Since that time, research has focused mainly on how nutrition affects cognition. However, as Green, Elliman, and Rogers (1995) point out, the effects of food deprivation on cognition have received comparatively less attention in recent years.

The relatively sparse research on food deprivation has left room for further research. First, much of the research has focused either on chronic starvation at one end of the continuum or on missing a single meal at the other end (Green et al., 1995). Second, some of the findings have been contradictory. One study found that skipping breakfast impairs certain aspects of cognition, such as problem- solving abilities (Pollitt, Lewis, Garza, & Shulman, 1983). However, other research by M. W. Green, N. A. Elliman, and P. J. Rogers (1995, 1997) has found that food deprivation ranging from missing a single meal to 24 hours without eating does not significantly impair cognition. Third, not all groups of people have been sufficiently studied. Studies have been done on 9–11 year-olds (Pollitt et al., 1983), obese subjects (Crumpton, Wine, & Drenick, 1966), college-age men and women (Green et al., 1995, 1996, 1997), and middle-age males (Kollar et al., 1964). Fourth, not all cognitive aspects have been studied. In 1995 Green, Elliman, and Rogers studied sustained attention, simple reaction time, and immediate memory; in 1996 they studied attentional bias; and in 1997 they studied simple reaction time, two-finger tapping, recognition memory, and free recall. In 1983, another study focused on reaction time and accuracy, intelligence quotient, and problem solving (Pollitt et al.).

Center the title one inch from the top. Dou- ble-space throughout.

The introduc- tion states the topic and the main ques- tions to be explored.

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Extensive referencing establishes support for the discussion.

The researchers explain how their study will add to past research on the topic.

Clear transi- tions guide readers through the researchers’ reasoning.

APA Paper

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Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 392

The research- ers state their initial hypoth- eses.

The researchers support their decision to focus on con- centration and perseverance.

Headings and subheadings show the pa- per’s organiza- tion.

The experi- ment’s method is described, using the terms and acronyms of the disci- pline.

Passive voice is used to em- phasize the ex- periment, not the research- ers; otherwise, active voice is used.

According to some researchers, most of the results so far indicate that cognitive function is not affected significantly by short-term fasting (Green et al., 1995, p. 246). However, this conclusion seems premature due to the relative lack of research on cognitive functions such as concentration and perseverance. To date, no study has tested perseverance, despite its importance in cognitive functioning. In fact, perseverance may be a better indicator than achievement tests in assessing growth in learning and thinking abilities, as perseverance helps in solving complex problems (Costa, 1984). Another study also recognized that perseverance, better learning techniques, and effort are cognitions worth studying (D’Agostino, 1996). Testing as many aspects of cognition as possible is key because the nature of the task is important when interpreting the link between food deprivation and cognitive performance (Smith & Kendrick, 1992). Therefore, the current study helps us understand how short-term food deprivation affects concentration on and perseverance with a difficult task. Specifically, participants deprived of food for 24 hours were expected to perform worse on a concentration test and a perseverance task than those deprived for 12 hours, who in turn were predicted to perform worse than those who were not deprived of food.

Method Participants

Participants included 51 undergraduate-student volunteers (32 females, 19 males), some of whom received a small amount of extra credit in a college course. The mean college grade point average (GPA) was 3.19. Potential participants were excluded if they were dieting, menstruating, or taking special medication. Those who were struggling with or had struggled with an eating disorder were excluded, as were potential participants addicted to nicotine or caffeine.

Materials Concentration speed and accuracy were measured using an online numbers-

matching test (www.psychtests.com/tests/iq/concentration.html) that consisted of 26 lines of 25 numbers each. In 6 minutes, participants were required to find pairs of numbers in each line that added up to 10. Scores were calculated as the percentage of correctly identified pairs out of a possible 120. Perseverance was measured with a puzzle that contained five octagons—each of which included a stencil of a specific object (such as an animal or a flower). The octagons were to be placed on top of each other in a specific way to make the silhouette of a rabbit. However, three of the shapes were slightly altered so that the task was impossible. Perseverance scores were calculated as the number of minutes that a participant spent on the puzzle task before giving up.

Procedure At an initial meeting, participants gave informed consent. Each consent form

contained an assigned identification number and requested the participant’s GPA.

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The experi- ment is laid out step by step, with time transitions like “then” and “next.”

Attention is shown to the control features.

The writers summarize their findings, including prob- lems encoun- tered.

Students were then informed that they would be notified by e-mail and telephone about their assignment to one of the three experimental groups. Next, students were given an instruction sheet. These written instructions, which we also read aloud, explained the experimental conditions, clarified guidelines for the food deprivation period, and specified the time and location of testing.

Participants were randomly assigned to one of these conditions using a matched-triplets design based on the GPAs collected at the initial meeting. This design was used to control individual differences in cognitive ability. Two days after the initial meeting, participants were informed of their group assignment and its condition and reminded that, if they were in a food-deprived group, they should not eat anything after 10 a.m. the next day. Participants from the control group were tested at 7:30 p.m. in a designated computer lab on the day the deprivation started. Those in the 12-hour group were tested at 10 p.m. on that same day. Those in the 24-hour group were tested at 10:40 a.m. on the following day.

At their assigned time, participants arrived at a computer lab for testing. Each participant was given written testing instructions, which were also read aloud. The online concentration test had already been loaded on the computers for participants before they arrived for testing, so shortly after they arrived they proceeded to complete the test. Immediately after all participants had completed the test and their scores were recorded, participants were each given the silhouette puzzle and instructed how to proceed. In addition, they were told that (1) they would have an unlimited amount of time to complete the task, and (2) they were not to tell any other participant whether they had completed the puzzle or simply given up. This procedure was followed to prevent the group influence of some participants seeing others give up. Any participant still working on the puzzle after 40 minutes was stopped to keep the time of the study manageable. Immediately after each participant stopped working on the puzzle, he/she gave demographic information and completed a few manipulation-check items. We then debriefed and dismissed each participant outside of the lab.

Results Perseverance data from one control-group participant were eliminated because

she had to leave the session early. Concentration data from another control-group participant were dropped because he did not complete the test correctly. Three manipulation-check questions indicated that each participant correctly perceived his or her deprivation condition and had followed the rules for it. The average concentration score was 77.78 (SD = 14.21), which was very good considering that anything over 50 percent is labeled “good” or “above average.” The average time spent on the puzzle was 24.00 minutes (SD = 10.16), with a maximum of 40 minutes allowed.

We predicted that participants in the 24-hour deprivation group would perform worse on the concentration test and the perseverance task than those in the 12-

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Rudchenko Liliia, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com 394 Pa r t 2 : F o r m s

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The researchers restate their hypotheses and the results, and go on to interpret those results.

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hour group, who in turn would perform worse than those in the control group. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no significant effect of deprivation condition on concentration, F(2,46) = 1.06, p = .36 (see Figure 1). Another one-way ANOVA indicated a significant effect of deprivation condition on perseverance time, F(2,47) = 7.41, p < .05. Post-hoc Tukey tests indicated that the 12-hour deprivation group (M = 17.79, SD = 7.84) spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than either the control group (M = 26.80, SD = 6.20) or the 24-hour group (M = 28.75, SD = 12.11), with no significant difference between the latter two groups (see Figure 2). No significant effect was found for gender either generally or with specific deprivation conditions, Fs < 1.00. Unexpectedly, food deprivation had no significant effect on concentration scores. Overall, we found support for our hypothesis that 12 hours of food deprivation would significantly impair perseverance when compared to no deprivation. Unexpectedly, 24 hours of food deprivation did not significantly affect perseverance relative to the control group. Also unexpectedly, food deprivation did not significantly affect concentration scores.

Discussion The purpose of this study was to test how different levels of food deprivation

affect concentration on and perseverance with difficult tasks. We predicted that the longer people had been deprived of food, the lower they would score on the concentration task, and the less time they would spend on the perseverance task. In this study, those deprived of food did give up more quickly on the puzzle, but only in the 12-hour group. Thus, the hypothesis was partially supported for the perseverance task. However, concentration was found to be unaffected by food deprivation, and thus the hypothesis was not supported for that task.

The findings of this study are consistent with those of Green et al. (1995), where short-term food deprivation did not affect some aspects of cognition, including attentional focus. Taken together, these findings suggest that concentration is not significantly impaired by short-term food deprivation. The findings on perseverance, however, are not as easily explained. We surmise that the participants in the 12-hour group gave up more quickly on the perseverance task because of their hunger produced by the food deprivation. But why, then, did those in the 24-hour group fail to yield the same effect? We postulate that this result can be explained by the concept of “learned industriousness,” wherein participants who

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No deprivation 12-hour deprivation 24-hour deprivation

Deprivation Condition

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The conclusion summarizes the outcomes, stresses the experiment’s value, and anticipates fur- ther advances on the topic.

perform one difficult task do better on a subsequent task than the participants who never took the initial task (Eisenberger & Leonard, 1980; Hickman, Stromme, & Lippman, 1998). Because participants had successfully completed 24 hours of fasting already, their tendency to persevere had already been increased, if only temporarily. Another possible explanation is that the motivational state of a participant may be a significant determinant of behavior under testing (Saugstad, 1967). This idea may also explain the short perseverance times in the 12-hour group: because these participants took the tests at 10 p.m., a prime time of the night for conducting business and socializing on a college campus, they may have been less motivated to take the time to work on the puzzle.

Research on food deprivation and cognition could continue in several directions. First, other aspects of cognition may be affected by short-term food deprivation, such as reading comprehension or motivation. With respect to this latter topic, some students in this study reported decreased motivation to complete the tasks because of a desire to eat immediately after the testing. In addition, the time of day when the respective groups took the tests may have influenced the results: those in the 24-hour group took the tests in the morning and may have been fresher and more relaxed than those in the 12-hour group, who took the tests at night. Perhaps, then, the motivation level of food-deprived participants could be effectively tested. Second, longer-term food deprivation periods, such as those experienced by people fasting for religious reasons, could be explored. It is possible that cognitive function fluctuates over the duration of deprivation. Studies could ask how long a person can remain focused despite a lack of nutrition. Third, and perhaps most fascinating, studies could explore how food deprivation affects learned industriousness. As stated above, one possible explanation for the better perseverance times in the 24-hour group could be that they spontaneously improved their perseverance faculties by simply forcing themselves not to eat for 24 hours. Therefore, research could study how food deprivation affects the acquisition of perseverance.

In conclusion, the results of this study provide some fascinating insights into the cognitive and physiological effects of skipping meals. Contrary to what we predicted, a person may indeed be very capable of concentrating after not eating for many hours. On the other hand, if one is taking a long test or working long hours at a tedious task that requires perseverance, one may be hindered by not eating for a short time, as shown by the 12-hour group’s performance on the perseverance task. Many people—students, working mothers, and those interested in fasting, to mention a few—have to deal with short-term food deprivation, intentional or unintentional. This research and other research to follow will contribute to knowledge of the disadvantages—and possible advantages—of skipping meals. The mixed results of this study suggest that we have much more to learn about short- term food deprivation.

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References Costa, A. L. (1984). Thinking: How do we know students are getting better at it?

Roeper Review, 6 (4), 197–199. Crumpton, E., Wine, D. B., & Drenick, E. J. (1966). Starvation: Stress or satisfaction?

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Green, M. W., Elliman, N. A., & Rogers, P. J. (1996). Hunger, caloric preloading, and the selective processing of food and body shape words. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35, 143–151.

Green, M. W., Elliman, N. A., & Rogers, P. J. (1997). The study effects of food deprivation and incentive motivation on blood glucose levels and cognitive function. Psychopharmacology, 134, 88–94.

Hickman, K. L., Stromme, C., & Lippman, L. G. (1998). Learned industriousness: Replication in principle. Journal of General Psychology, 125 (3), 213–217.

Keys, A., Brozek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelsen, O., & Taylor, H. L. (1950). The biology of human starvation (Vol. 2). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Kollar, E. J., Slater, G. R., Palmer, J. O., Docter, R. F., & Mandell, A. J. (1964). Measurement of stress in fasting man. Archives of General Psychology, 11, 113– 125.

Pinel, J. P. (2000). Biopsychology (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Pollitt, E., Lewis, N. L., Garza, C., & Shulman, R. J. (1982–1983). Fasting and cognitive

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Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following critical-thinking and writing activities. 1. The MLA and APA systems involve many rules

about format and documentation. To make sense of these rules, compare and contrast the essential logic of each system.

2. Create MLA works-cited entries for the following publications: ■ An article in the May 27, 2002, issue (vol. 145,

no. 11) of Fortune magazine by Joseph Nocera: “Return of the Raider” (pages 97–114)

■ Ernest Hemingway’s novel A Farewell to Arms, published in 1986 by Collier Books, located in New York City

■ The Web page “Aruba,” part of The 2008 World Factbook, sponsored by the Central Intelli- gence Agency. No author or publication date is listed. The site was last accessed March 8, 2011, at http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world-factbook/ index.html.

Checklist: Learning Outcomes Use the checklist below to assess how well you now understand and can use MLA and APA styles.

I understand the basics of MLA and APA styles. I understand how to do in-text citation with each style. In the works-cited or references list, I can cor- rectly list books and other nonperiodical docu- ments. In the works-cited or references list, I can cor- rectly list a range of periodical articles. In the works-cited or references list, I can correctly list online sources. In the works-cited or references list, I can correctly list primary, personal, and multimedia sources. I can format my paper according to the guidelines of MLA or APA.

reading for Better Writing

Working by yourself or with a group, answer these questions: 1. Before you read Thomas and Adam’s paper,

what were your expectations about food deprivation’s effects on concentration and perseverance? Did the paper confirm or con- found your expectations?

2. Did you find the report interesting? Why or why not?

3. What types of evidence did Thomas and Adam use in their paper? Where did they obtain their evidence?

4. How did Thomas and Adam distinguish their own ideas from their sources’ ideas? Was it necessary for them to do, and if so, why?

5. Could the results of Thomas and Adam’s research be applied to other situations? In other words, how might particular groups interpret these findings?

3. Create references list entries in correct APA style for the following sources: ■ An article in the October 2001 issue (vol. 29, no.

2) of Learning & Leading with Technology maga- zine by Bob Albrecht and Paul Davis titled “The Metric Backpack” (pages 29–31, 55)

■ The book The Playful World: How Technology Is Transforming Our Imagination, by Mark Pesce, published in 2000 by Ballantine Books, located in New York City

■ A Web page by Roger Fouts called “Frequently Asked Questions,” part of the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute site, sponsored by Central Washington University; no publica- tion date; site accessed May 8, 2011, at http:// www.cwu.edu/~cwuchci/quanda.html.

4. Compare and contrast the sample MLA paper at the end of chapter 28 (pages 362–369) with the sample APA paper in this chapter (pages 390– 396). Aside from issues of format and documen- tation, how do the research essay (MLA model) and the research report (APA model) compare in terms of focus, organization, voice, and treatment of sources?

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 418

32 Sentence

Errors This chapter will help you familiarize your- self with common sentence errors, so that you will know what to watch for when editing your writing. Remember, sentence errors can derail the meaning of your writing, so be careful to avoid them.

Learning Outcomes

1 Subject-Verb Agreement 2 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 3 Shifts in Sentence Construction 4 Fragments, Comma Splices,

and Run-Ons

5 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

6 Ambiguous Wording 7 Nonstandard Language

Subject-Verb Agreement The subject and verb of any clause must agree in both person and number. Person indicates whether the sub- ject of the verb is first, second, or third person. Number indicates whether the subject and verb are singular or plural.

Singular Plural

First Person I think we think

Second Person you think you think

Third Person he/she/it thinks they think

Agreement in Number — A verb must agree in number (singular or plural) with its subject.

The student was rewarded for her hard work. (Both the subject student and the verb was are sin- gular; they agree in number.)

Note: Do not be confused by phrases that come be- tween the subject and the verb. Such phrases may be- gin with words like in addition to, as well as, or to- gether with.

The instructor, as well as the students, is expected to attend the orientation.

(Instructor, not students, is the subject.)

Compound Subjects — Compound subjects con- nected with and usually require a plural verb.

Dedication and creativity are trademarks of successful students.

Note: If a compound subject joined by and is thought of as a unit, use a singular verb.

Macaroni and cheese is always available in the cafeteria.

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

C h a P t e r 3 2 : s e n t e n C e e r r o r s 419

Delayed Subjects — Delayed subjects occur when the verb comes before the subject in a sentence. In these inverted sentences, the true (delayed) subject must still agree with the verb.

There are many nontraditional students on our campus. Here is the syllabus you need.

(Students and syllabus are the subjects of these sentences, not the adverbs there and here.)

Note: Using an inverted sentence, on occasion, will lend variety to your writing style. Simply remember to make the delayed subjects agree with the verbs.

However, included among the list’s topmost items was “revise research paper.”

(Because the true subject here is singular—one item—the singular verb was is correct.)

Titles as Subjects — When the subject of a sen- tence is the title of a work of art, literature, or music, the verb should be singular. This is also true of a word (or phrase) being used as a word (or phrase).

Lyrical Ballads was published in 1798 by two of England’s greatest poets, Wordsworth and Coleridge.

(Even though the title of the book, Lyrical Ballads, is plural in form, it is still a single title being used as the subject, correctly taking the singular verb was.)

“Over-the-counter drugs” is a phrase that means nonprescription medications.

(Even though the phrase is plural in form, it is still a single phrase being used as the subject, correctly taking the singular verb is.)

Singular Subjects with Or or Nor — Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.

Neither a textbook nor a notebook is required for this class.

Note: When the subject nearer a present-tense verb is the singular pronoun I or you, the correct singular verb does not end in s.

Neither Marcus nor I feel (not feels) right about this.

Either Rosa or you have (not has) to take notes for me.

Either you or Rosa has to take notes for me.

Singular/Plural Subjects — When one of the sub- jects joined by or or nor is singular and one is plural, the verb must agree with the subject nearer the verb.

Neither the professor nor her students were in the lab.

(The plural subject students is nearer the verb; therefore, the plural verb were agrees with stu- dents.)

Neither the students nor the professor was in the lab.

(The singular subject professor is nearer the verb; therefore, the singular verb was is used to agree with professor.)

Collective Nouns — Generally, collective nouns ( faculty, pair, crew, assembly, congress, species, crowd, army, team, committee, and so on) take a singular verb. However, if you want to emphasize differences among individuals in the group or are referring to the group as individuals, you can use a plural verb.

My lab team takes its work very seriously. (Team refers to the group as a unit; it requires a singular verb, takes.)

The team assume separate responsibilities for each study they undertake.

(In this example, team refers to individuals within the group; it requires a plural verb, assume.)

Note: Collective nouns such as (the) police, poor, el- derly, and young use plural verbs.

The police direct traffic here between 7:00 and 9:00 a.m.

Plural Nouns with Singular Meaning — Some nouns that are plural in form but singular in mean- ing take a singular verb: mumps, measles, news, math- ematics, economics, robotics, and so on.

Economics is sometimes called “the dismal science.”

The economic news is not very good.

Note: The most common exceptions are scissors, trousers, tidings, and pliers.

The scissors are missing again.

Are these trousers prewashed?

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

420 Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k

With Linking Verbs — When a sentence contains a linking verb (usually a form of be)—and a noun or pronoun comes before and after that verb—the verb must agree with the subject, not the predicate nomi- native (the noun or pronoun coming after the verb).

The cause of his problem was poor study habits. (Cause requires a singular verb, even though the predicate nominative, habits, is plural.)

His poor study habits were the cause of his problem. (Habits requires a plural verb, even though the predicate nominative, cause, is singular.)

Nouns Showing Measurement, Time, and Mon- ey — Mathematical phrases and phrases that name a period of time, a unit of measurement, or an amount of money take a singular verb.

Three and three is six.

Eight pages is a long paper on this topic.

In my opinion, two dollars is a high price for a cup of coffee.

Relative Pronouns — When a relative pronoun (who, which, that) is used as the subject of a dependent clause, the number of the verb is determined by that pronoun’s antecedent. (The antecedent is the word to which the pronoun refers.)

This is one of the books that are required for English class.

(The relative pronoun that requires the plural verb are because its antecedent is books, not the word one. To test this type of sentence for agree- ment, read the of phrase first: Of the books that are . . . )

Note: Generally, the antecedent is the nearest noun or pronoun to the relative pronoun and is often the object of a preposition. Sometimes, however, the ante- cedent is not the nearest noun or pronoun, especially in sentences with the phrase “the only one of.”

Dr. Graciosa wondered why Claire was the only one of her students who was not attending lectures regularly.

(In this case, the addition of the modifiers the only changes the meaning of the sentence. The antecedent of who is one, not students. Only one student was not attending.)

Indefinite Pronoun with Singular Verb — Many indefinite pronouns (someone, somebody, something; anyone, anybody, anything; no one, nobody, nothing; everyone, everybody, everything; each, either, neither, one, this) serving as subjects require a singular verb.

Everybody is welcome to attend the chancellor’s reception.

No one was sent an invitation.

Note: Although it may seem to indicate more than one, each is a singular pronoun and requires a singu- lar verb. Do not be confused by words or phrases that come between the indefinite pronoun and the verb.

Each of the new students is (not are) encouraged to attend the reception.

Indefinite Pronoun with Plural Verb — Some in- definite pronouns (both, few, many, most, and several) are plural; they require a plural verb.

Few are offered the opportunity to study abroad.

Most take advantage of opportunities closer to home.

Indefinite Pronoun or Quantity Word with Sin- gular/Plural Verb — Some indefinite pronouns or quantity words (all, any, most, part, half, none, and some) may be either singular or plural, depending on the nouns they refer to. Look inside the prepositional phrase to see what the antecedent is.

Some of the students were missing. (Students, the noun that some refers to, is plural; therefore, the pronoun some is considered plural, and the plural verb were is used to agree with it.)

Most of the lecture was over by the time we arrived. (Because lecture is singular, most is also singular, requiring the singular verb was.)

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C h a P t e r 3 2 : s e n t e n C e e r r o r s 421

Pronoun–Antecedent Agreement A pronoun must agree in number, person, and gender (sex) with its antecedent. The antecedent is the word to which the pronoun refers.

Yoshi brought his laptop and e-book to school. (The pronoun his refers to the antecedent Yoshi. Both the pronoun and its antecedent are singular, third person, and masculine; therefore, the pro- noun is said to agree with its antecedent.)

Singular Pronoun — Use a singular pronoun to refer to such antecedents as each, either, neither, one, anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, somebody, an- other, nobody, and a person.

Each of the maintenance vehicles has their doors locked at night. (Incorrect)

Each of the maintenance vehicles has its doors locked at night. (Correct: Both Each and its are singular.)

Somebody left his or her (not their) vehicle unlocked. (Correct)

Plural Pronoun — When a plural pronoun (they, their) is mistakenly used with a singular indefinite pronoun (such as everyone or everybody), you may correct the sentence by replacing their or they with optional pronouns (her or his or he or she), or make the antecedent plural.

Everyone must learn to wait their turn. (Incorrect)

Everyone must learn to wait her or his turn. (Correct: Optional pronouns her or his are used.)

People must learn to wait their turns. (Correct: The singular antecedent, Everyone, is changed to the plural antecedent, People.)

Two or More Antecedents — When two or more antecedents are joined by and, they are considered plural.

Tomas and Jamal are finishing their assignments.

When two or more singular antecedents are joined by or or nor, they are considered singular.

Connie or Shavonn left her headset in the library.

Note: If one of the antecedents is masculine and one feminine, the pronouns should likewise be masculine and feminine.

Is Ahmad or Phyllis bringing his or her laptop?

Note: If one of the antecedents joined by or or nor is singular and one is plural, the pronoun is made to agree with the nearer antecedent.

Neither Ravi nor his friends want to spend their time studying.

Neither his friends nor Ravi wants to spend his time studying.

Shifts in Sentence Construction A shift is an improper change in structure midway through a sentence. The following examples will help you identify and fix several different kinds of shifts.

Shift in Person — Shift in person is mixing first, second, or third person within a sentence.

Shift: One may get spring fever unless you live in California or Florida. (The sentence shifts from third person, one, to second person, you.)

Corrected: You may get spring fever unless you live in California or Florida. (Stays in second person)

Corrected: People may get spring fever unless they live in California or Florida. (People, a third person plural noun, requires a third person plural pronoun, they.)

Shift in Tense — Shift in tense is using more than one tense in a sentence when only one is needed.

Shift: Sheila looked at nine apartments in one weekend before she had chosen one. (Tense shifts from past to past perfect for no reason.)

Corrected: Sheila looked at nine apartments in one weekend before she chose one. (Tense stays in past.)

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 422

Shift in Voice — Shift in voice is mixing active with passive voice. Usually, a sentence beginning in active voice should remain so to the end.

Shift: As you look (active voice) for just the right place, many interesting apartments will probably be seen. (passive voice)

Corrected: As you look (active voice) for just the right place, you will probably see (active voice) many interesting apartments.

Unparallel Construction — Unparallel construc- tion occurs when the kind of words or phrases being used shifts or changes in the middle of a sentence.

Shift: In my hometown, people pass the time shooting pool, pitching horseshoes, and at softball games. (Sentence shifts from a series of gerund phrases, shooting pool and pitching horse- shoes, to the prepositional phrase at soft- ball games.)

Parallel: In my hometown, people pass the time shooting pool, pitching horseshoes, and playing softball. (Now all three activities are gerund phrases—they are consistent, or parallel.)

Fragments, Comma Splices, and Run-Ons Except in a few special situations, you should use com- plete sentences when you write. By definition, a com- plete sentence expresses a complete thought. However, a sentence may actually contain several ideas, not just one. The trick is getting those ideas to work together to form a clear, interesting sentence that expresses your exact meaning. Among the most common sen- tence errors that writers make are fragments, comma splices, and run-ons.

Fragments — A fragment is a phrase or dependent clause used as a sentence. It is not a sentence, however, because a phrase lacks a subject, a verb, or some other essential part, and a dependent clause must be con- nected to an independent clause to complete its mean- ing.

Fragment: Pete gunned the engine. Forgetting that the boat was hooked to the truck. (This is a sentence followed by a fragment. This error can be corrected by combining the fragment with the sentence.)

Corrected: Pete gunned the engine, forgetting that the boat was hooked to the truck.

Fragment: Even though my best friend had a little boy last year. (This clause does not convey a complete thought. We need to know what is hap- pening despite the birth of the little boy.)

Corrected: Even though my best friend had a little boy last year, I do not comprehend the full meaning of “motherhood.”

Comma Splices — A comma splice is a mistake made when two independent clauses are connected (“spliced”) with only a comma. The comma is not enough: A period, semicolon, or conjunction is need- ed.

Splice: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job, their actions tell a different story.

Corrected: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job, but their actions tell a different story. (The coordinating conjunction but, add- ed after the comma, corrects the splice.)

Corrected: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job; their actions tell a different story. (A semicolon—rather than just a com- ma—makes the sentence correct.)

Corrected: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job. Their actions tell a different story. (A period creates two sentences and cor- rects the splice.)

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

423C h a P t e r 3 2 : s e n t e n C e e r r o r s

Run-Ons — A run-on sentence is actually two sen- tences (two independent clauses) joined without ad- equate punctuation or a connecting word.

Run-on: The Alamo holds a special place in American history it was the site of an important battle between the United States and Mexico.

Corrected: The Alamo holds a special place in American history because it was the site of an important battle between the United States and Mexico. (A subordinating conjunction is added to fix the run-on by making the second clause dependent.)

Run-on: Antonio de Santa Anna, the president of Mexico who once held a funeral for his amputated leg, is the same Santa Anna who stormed the Alamo he led his troops to victory over the Texan rebels defending that fort. Two famous American frontiersmen died they were James Bowie and Davy Crockett. Santa Anna enjoyed fame, power, and respect among his followers. He died in 1876 he was poor, blind, and ignored.

Corrected: Antonio de Santa Anna, the president of Mexico who once held a funeral for his amputated leg, is the same Santa Anna who stormed the Alamo. He led his troops to victory over the Texan rebels defending that fort. Two famous American frontiersmen were killed in the battle; they were James Bowie and Davy Crockett. Santa Anna enjoyed fame, power, and respect among his followers. When he died in 1876, he was poor, blind, and ignored.

The writer corrected the run-on sentences in the para- graph above by adding punctuation and making one sentence a dependent clause. The writer makes further improvements in the paragraph below by revising one sentence and by combining two sets of short sentences into one stronger sentence.

Improved

Antonio de Santa Anna, the president of Mexico who once held a funeral for his amputated leg, is the same Santa Anna who stormed the Alamo. He led his troops to victory over Texan rebels defending that fort. Two famous American frontiersmen, James Bowie and Davy Crockett, were killed in the battle. Santa Anna enjoyed fame, power, and respect among his followers; but when he died in 1876, he was poor, blind, and ignored.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Writing is thinking. Before you can write clearly, you must think clearly. Nothing is more frustrating for the reader than having to reread writing just to under- stand its basic meaning. Look carefully at the common errors that follow. Then use this section as a checklist when you revise. Always avoid leaving misplaced or dangling modifiers in your finished work.

Misplaced Modifiers — Misplaced modifiers are descriptive words or phrases so separated from what they are describing that the reader is confused.

Misplaced: The neighbor’s dog has nearly been barking nonstop for two hours. (Nearly been barking?)

Corrected: The neighbor’s dog has been barking nonstop for nearly two hours. (Watch your placement of only, just, nearly, barely, and so on.)

Misplaced: The commercial advertised an assortment of combs for active people with unbreakable teeth. (People with unbreakable teeth?)

Corrected: The commercial advertised an assortment of combs with unbreakable teeth for active people. (Combs with unbreakable teeth)

Misplaced: The pool staff gave large beach towels to the students marked with chlorine- resistant ID numbers. (Students marked with chlorine-resistant ID numbers?)

Corrected: The pool staff gave large beach towels marked with chlorine-resistant ID numbers to the students. (Towels marked with chlorine-resistant ID numbers)

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 424

Dangling Modifiers — Dangling modifiers are descriptive phrases that tell about a subject that isn’t stated in the sentence. These often occur as participial phrases containing ing or ed words.

Dangling: After standing in line all afternoon, the manager informed us that all the tickets had been sold. (It sounds as if the manager has been standing in line all afternoon.)

Corrected: After we had stood in line all afternoon, the manager informed us that all the tickets had been sold.

Dangling: After living in the house for one month, the electrician recommended we update all the wiring. (It sounds as if the electrician has been living in the house.)

Corrected: After living in the house for one month, we hired an electrician, who recommended we update all the wiring.

Ambiguous Wording Sloppy sentences confuse readers. No one should have to wonder, “What does this writer mean?” When you revise and edit, check for indefinite pronoun refer- ences, incomplete comparisons, and unclear wording.

Indefinite Pronoun References — An indefinite reference is a problem caused by careless use of pro- nouns. There must always be a word or phrase nearby (its antecedent) that a pronoun clearly replaces.

Indefinite: When Tonya attempted to put her dictionary on the shelf, it fell to the floor. (The pronoun it could refer to either the dictionary or the shelf since both are sin- gular nouns.)

Corrected: When Tonya attempted to put her dictionary on the shelf, the shelf fell to the floor.

Indefinite: Juanita reminded Kerri that she needed to photocopy her résumé before going to her interview. (Who needed to photocopy her résumé— Juanita or Kerri?)

Corrected: Juanita reminded Kerri to photocopy her résumé before going to her interview.

Incomplete Comparisons — Incomplete compar- isons—leaving out words that show exactly what is being compared to what—can confuse readers.

Incomplete: After completing our lab experiment, we concluded that helium is lighter. (Lighter than what?)

Corrected: After completing our lab experiment, we concluded that helium is lighter than oxygen.

Unclear Wording — One type of ambiguous writ- ing is wording that has two or more possible meanings due to an unclear reference to something elsewhere in the sentence.

Unclear: I couldn’t believe that my sister bought a cat with all those allergy problems. (Who has the allergy problems—the cat or the sister?)

Corrected: I couldn’t believe that my sister, who is very allergic, bought a cat.

Unclear: Dao intended to wash the car when he finished his homework, but he never did. (It is unclear which he never did—wash the car or finish his homework.)

Corrected: Dao intended to wash the car when he finished his homework, but he never did manage to wash the car.

Nonstandard Language Nonstandard language is language that does not con- form to the standards set by schools, media, and pub- lic institutions. It is often acceptable in everyday con- versation and in fictional writing but seldom is used in formal speech or other forms of writing.

Colloquial Language — Colloquial language is wording used in informal conversation that is unac- ceptable in formal writing.

Colloquial: Hey, wait up! Cal wants to go with.

Standard: Hey, wait! Cal wants to go with us.

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F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

C h a P t e r 3 2 : s e n t e n C e e r r o r s 425

Double Preposition — The use of certain double prepositions—off of, off to, from off—is unacceptable.

Double Preposition: Pick up the dirty clothes from off the

floor.

Standard: Pick up the dirty clothes from the floor.

Substitution — Avoid substituting and for to.

Substitution: Try and get to class on time.

Standard: Try to get to class on time.

Avoid substituting of for have when combining with could, would, should, or might.

Substitution: I should of studied for that exam.

Standard: I should have studied for that exam.

Double Negative — A double negative is a sentence that contains two negative words used to express a single negative idea. Double negatives are unacceptable in academic writing.

Double Negative: After paying for essentials, I haven’t got

no money left.

Standard: I haven’t got any money left. / I have no money left.

Slang — Avoid the use of slang or any “in” words in formal writing.

Slang: The way the stadium roof opened was way cool.

Standard: The way the stadium roof opened was remarkable.

Quick Guide: Avoiding Sentence Problems Does every subject agree with its verb? (See pag- es 418–420.)

■ In person and number? ■ When a word or phrase comes between the

subject and the verb? ■ When the subject is delayed? ■ When the subject is a title? ■ When a compound subject is connected

with or? ■ When the subject is a collective noun ( fac-

ulty, team, or crowd)? ■ When the subject is a relative pronoun (who,

which, that)? ■ When the subject is an indefinite pronoun

(everyone, anybody, or many)?

Does every pronoun agree with its antecedent? (See page 421.)

■ When the pronoun is a singular indefinite pronoun such as each, either, or another?

■ When two antecedents are joined with and? ■ When two antecedents are joined with or?

Did you unintentionally create inappropriate shifts? (See pages 421–422.)

■ In person? ■ In tense? ■ From active voice to passive voice? ■ In another unparallel construction?

Are all your sentences complete? (See pages 422– 423.)

■ Have you used sentence fragments? ■ Are some sentences “spliced” or run together?

Did you use any misplaced modifiers or ambig- uous wording? (See pages 423–424.)

■ Have you used misplaced or dangling modi- fiers?

■ Have you used incomplete comparisons or indefinite references?

Did you use any nonstandard language? (See pages 424–425.)

■ Have you used slang or colloquial language? ■ Have you used double negatives or double

prepositions?

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Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch26a

Chapter 26: Doing Your Research��

Learn keyword searching.
Conduct primary research.
Do library research.
Use books.
Find periodical articles.
Understand the Internet.

Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch26b

Find reliable free-Web information.
Evaluate online sources.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities

Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch27

Chapter 27: Working with Your Sources��

Evaluate your sources.
Create a working bibliography.
Take notes effectively.
Summarize, paraphrase, and quote.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities

Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch29

Chapter 29: MLA and APA Styles��

Learn the basics of MLA and APA style.
Understand in-text citations.
List books and other nonperiodical documents.
List print periodical articles.
List online sources.
List other sources.
Follow format guidelines for MLA and APA.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities

Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch32

Chapter 32: Sentence Errors��

Subject-Verb Agreement
Pronoun–Antecedent Agreement
Shifts in Sentence Construction
Fragments, Comma Splices, and Run-Ons
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Ambiguous Wording
Nonstandard Language