A minimum of 1,000 words (total essay assignments: 1, 2, and Journal entry) and three scholarly sources. Please note Water Woes outline and grammar sections do not count towards the 1000 word minimum.
camkai3
https___dftj9wb4gc6c5.cloudfront.net_Bethel_Courses_ENG_1020_Unit_1_read1.pdf
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s2
“ Literacy is not a luxury, it is a right and a responsibility. If our world is to meet the challenges
of the twenty-first century, we must harness the energy and creativity of all our citizens.”
—Bill Clinton
PART 1 WRITE
wavebreakmedia ltd, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g - W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 3
1 Understanding the Reading- Writing Connection When you write, you are sending a message into the world. But here’s the thing: before you could write, you needed to read. And your writing needs a reader, if it is to be something more than static words on a page or a screen. Whether it’s a poem or a novel, a tweet or an essay, a blog or a lab report, reading and writing work symbiotically—in a close relationship where one depends on the other.
In your college work (and even beyond), you’ll do plenty of reading and writing, and COMP: Write aims to help you im- prove both of these abilities in its attention to the writing process, its presentation of student and professional essays, its instruction in different forms of writing, its attention to research, and its focus on grammar. However, this first chapter looks directly at the reading- writing connection so that you can begin to strengthen those ties in your own work.
Now more than ever, reading and writing involve not only words but also visual images. For that reason, this chapter also asks you to pull visuals into view as part of the reading-writing connection.
Learning Outcomes 1 Use the SQ3R reading strategy. 2 Read actively. 3 Respond to a text. 4 Summarize a text. 5 Effectively analyze images. 6 Think critically through writing.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Fa lc
o n
ia , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s4
Use the SQ3R reading strategy. Obviously, reading a novel, a textbook, and a Web page are all different activities. Nevertheless, all col- lege reading assignments can be approached system- atically, especially when your goal is to absorb and engage the text. One strategy for critical reading, especially of information-rich texts, is called SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. Here is how SQ3R works.
Survey The first step in SQ3R is to preview the material. Check for clues to each part of the rhetorical situation:
Rhetorical Situation
1 ■ Read any questions that accompany the
reading. Look at the end of the reading or in a study guide.
■ Turn headings into questions. If a subhead says, “The Study,” ask, “How was the study conducted?”
■ Imagine test questions for major points. If the reading draws conclusions about self-con- trol, ask, “What conclusions does the author draw about self-control?”
■ Ask the journalist’s questions: Ask who, what, where, when, why, and how? Whose atti- tudes are changing? What are their attitudes? Where is the change strongest? When is it occurring? Why is it happening? How?
Read about the author. Then read the title and the opening and closing paragraphs to get a sense of the main points. Glance at all other pages, noting head- ings, topic sentences in paragraphs, boldface type, il- lustrations, charts, maps, and other cues to the con- tent and organization.
Benefits: Surveying helps you (1) focus on the writ- er’s message, (2) identify its organization, and (3) anticipate how the text will develop.
Benefits: Asking questions keeps you actively thinking about what you are reading and helps you absorb information.
Read As you encounter facts and ideas, ask these questions: What does this mean? How do the ideas relate to each other and to what I know? What’s coming next?
Keep track of your answers by taking notes, anno- tating the text, mapping, or outlining. (See pages 5–7 for more on these active-reading techniques.) Read difficult parts slowly; reread them if necessary. Look up unfamiliar words or ideas, and use your senses to imagine the events, people, places, or things you are
Sender (Creator)
Receiver (Audience)
Message (Subject + Purpose)
Medium (Form)
Context (Environment)
Question As you survey, begin to ask questions that you hope to answer as you read.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g - W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 5
■ Pace yourself. Read in stretches of thirty to forty-five minutes, followed by short breaks.
■ Anticipate. When you break, think about what is coming next and why.
■ Read difficult parts aloud. Or take turns reading aloud with a partner.
■ Take thoughtful notes. Find a note-tak- ing system that works for you. (See pages 347–348). This is especially true for research projects.
■ Annotate the text. Mark up the text (if you own it) or a photocopy. Underline or highlight key points. Write a “?” beside puzzling parts. Write key words in the margin and add per- sonal observations.
■ Visualize the concepts in concrete ways. Example: If a text discusses a study about self-control, imagine a television panel dis- cussing the topic.
■ Draw diagrams or develop clusters. Example: See the cluster on page 7.
■ Put the material in your own words. Example: See the summary on page 9.
■ Teach it to someone. Example: For a study about self-control, explain the main points to a friend or rela- tive—in person, on the phone, or by e-mail.
■ Use acronyms or rhymes. Example: “i before e except after c.”
reading about. Imagine talking with the writer. Ex- press agreement, lodge complaints, ask for proof—and imagine the writer’s response or look for it in the text.
Benefits: Engaging actively with the text in this way will draw you deeper into the world of the writing. You’ll trigger memories and make surprising con- nections.
Recite After finishing a page, section, or chapter, recite the key points aloud. Answering Who? What? When? Where? Why? and How? questions is a quick way of testing yourself on how well you understood what you read. You can also recite the key points by listing them or writing a summary (see pages 8–9).
Benefits: Reciting tests your comprehension, drives the material deeper into your long-term memory, and helps you connect the content with what you already know.
Review As soon as you finish reading the material, double- check the questions you posed in the “question” stage of SQ3R. Can you answer them? Glance over any notes you made as well. But don’t stop there if the reading is especially important. You will remember the material much better by spacing out your reviews; spend a few minutes reviewing each text over the next few days. Consider the following helpful memory techniques:
Benefits: Research shows that reviewing within 24 hours helps considerably to move information from your short-term memory to your long-term memo- ry. You will also improve your memory if you create a network of associations with the information you want to remember, if you link the memory to two or more senses, or if you reorganize the material while still retaining the substance with accuracy.
Read actively. Truly active reading is a kind of mental dialogue with the writer. Use these strategies to read actively:
2
Read, annotate, and respond to a text. The following article first appeared in June 2, 2010, in a monthly column in the Fast Company newsletter. The author, Dan Heath, is also coauthor (with his brother) of the best-selling business books Made to Stick and Switch. He is currently a consultant to the Policy Pro- grams at the Aspen Institute. Read the following ar- ticle, using SQ3R and active-reading strategies.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Survey • Question • Read • Recite • Review
N at
ti ka
, 2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
N
ik o
la B
ili c,
2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
6 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
Why Change Is So Hard: Self- Control Is Exhaustible
You hear something a lot about change: People won’t change because they’re too lazy. Well, I’m here to stick up for the lazy people. In fact, I want to argue that what looks like laziness is actually exhaustion. The proof comes from a psychology study that is ab- solutely fascinating.
The Study
So picture this: Students come into a lab. It smells amazing—someone has just baked chocolate-chip cookies. On a table in front of them, there are two bowls. One has the fresh-baked cookies. The other has a bunch of radishes. Some of the students are asked to eat some cookies but no radishes. Others are told to eat radishes but no cookies, and while they sit there, nib- bling on rabbit food, the researchers leave the room— which is intended to tempt them and is frankly kind of sadistic. But in the study none of the radish-eaters slipped—they showed admirable self-control. And meanwhile, it probably goes without saying that the people gorging on cookies didn’t experience much temptation.
Then, the two groups are asked to do a second, seemingly unrelated task—basically a kind of logic puzzle where they have to trace out a complicated geometric pattern without raising their pencil. Unbe- knownst to them, the puzzle can’t be solved. The sci- entists are curious how long they’ll persist at a diffi- cult task. So the cookie-eaters try again and again, for an average of 19 minutes, before they give up. But the radish-eaters—they only last an average of 8 minutes. What gives?
The Results
The answer may surprise you: They ran out of self-control. Psychologists have discovered that self- control is an exhaustible resource. And I don’t mean self-control only in the sense of turning down cook- ies or alcohol; I mean a broader sense of self-supervi- sion—any time you’re paying close attention to your actions, like when you’re having a tough conversation or trying to stay focused on a paper you’re writing. This helps to explain why, after a long hard day at the office, we’re more likely to snap at our spouses or have one drink too many—we’ve depleted our self-control.
And here’s why this matters for change: In almost all change situations, you’re substituting new, unfa- miliar behaviors for old, comfortable ones, and that burns self-control. Let’s say I present a new morning routine to you that specifies how you’ll shower and brush your teeth. You’ll understand it and you might even agree with my process. But to pull it off, you’ll have to supervise yourself very carefully. Every fiber of your being will want to go back to the old way of doing things. Inevitably, you’ll slip. And if I were un- charitable, I’d see you going back to the old way and I’d say, You’re so lazy. Why can’t you just change?
This brings us back to the point I promised I’d make: That what looks like laziness is often exhaus- tion. Change wears people out—even well-intentioned people will simply run out of fuel.
1
2
3
4
5
6
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g - W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 7
Note: Reading actively also involves evaluating texts. For help, see pages 344–345, where you’ll find instruc- tion on evaluating resources for research projects.
Map the text. If you are visually oriented, you may understand a text best by mapping out its important parts. One way to do so is by “clustering.” Start by naming the main topic in an oval at the center of the page. Then branch out using lines and “balloons,” where each bal- loon contains a word or phrase for one major subtopic. Branch out in further layers of balloons to show even more subpoints. If you wish, add graphics, arrows, drawings—anything that helps you visualize the rela- tionships among ideas.
reading for Better Writing
Working by yourself or with a group, answer these questions: 1. In a single sentence, state the thesis of the
essay. 2. In a few sentences, tell how the findings of
the study help explain why change is diffi- cult.
3. Compare your notes and annotations with a partner. Which parts of your notes and annotations are the same? Which parts are different? How does discussing the content of the essay reinforce or otherwise alter your understanding of the essay?
4. Think about your own life. What sorts of activities require you to exert a great deal of self-control? What sort of activities do you find too tempting to resist when you have “run out” of self-control? How could this information help you avoid temptation?
lazy?
lazy?
people who won’t change
exhausted?
self-control
eat cookies— no need for self-control
stuck with tracing for 19 mins
more self-control?
eat radishes (no cookies) —need for much self-control
stuck with tracing 8 mins
mad about cookies?
“ran out” of self- control?
Outline the text. Outlining is the traditional way of showing all the ma- jor parts, points, and subpoints in a text. An outline uses parallel structure to show main points and subor- dinate points. See pages 46–48 for more on outlines.
Sample Outline for “Why Change Is So Hard: Self- Control Is Exhaustible”
1. Introduction: Change is hard not because of laziness but because of exhaustion.
2. A study tests self-control. a. Some students must eat only cookies—
using little self-control. b. Some students must eat only radishes—
using much self-control. c. Both sets of students have to trace a
pattern without lifting the pencil—an unsolvable puzzle. ■ Cookie-only students last an average of
19 minutes before quitting. ■ Radish-only students last an average of
8 minutes before quitting. 3. Results show that self-control is exhaustible. a. Avoiding temptation and working in a
hard, focused way require self-control. b. Change requires self-control. c. Failure to change often results from ex-
haustion of self-control.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s8
Respond to a text. In a sense, when you read a text, you enter into a dia- logue with it. Your response expresses your turn in the dialogue. Such a response can take varied forms, from a journal entry to a blog to a discussion-group posting.
Follow these guidelines for response writing. On the surface, responding to a text seems perfectly natural—just let it happen. But it can be a bit more complicated. A written response typically is not the same as a private diary entry but is instead shared with other readers, whether your instructor or a class. You develop your response keeping in mind your in- structor’s requirements and the response’s role in the course. Therefore, follow these guidelines:
3
1. Be honest. Although you want to remain sensitive to the context in which you will share your response, be bold enough to be honest about your reaction to the text—what it makes you think, feel, and question. To that end, a response usually allows you to express yourself directly using the pronoun “I.”
2. Be fluid. Let the f low of your thoughts guide you in what you write. Don’t stop to worry about grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and spelling. These can be quickly cleaned up before you share or submit your response.
3. Be reflective. Generally, the goal of a response is to offer thoughtful ref lection as opposed to knee-jerk reaction. Show, then, that you are engaging the text’s ideas, relat- ing them to your own experience, looking both inward and outward. Avoid a shallow reaction that comes from skimming the text or misreading it.
4. Be selective. By nature, a response must limit its focus; it cannot exhaust all your reactions to the text. So zero in on one or two elements of your response, and run with those to see where they take you in your dialogue with the text.
1. Skim first; then read closely. First, get a sense of the whole, including the main idea and strategies for support. Then read care- fully, taking notes as you do.
2. Capture the text’s argument. Review your notes and annotations, looking for main points and clear connections. State these
Sample Response Here is part of a student’s response to Dan Heath’s “Why Change Is So Hard” on page 6. Note the infor- mality and explanatory tone.
Summarize a text. Writing a summary disciplines you by making you pull only essentials from a reading—the main points, the thread of the argument. By doing so, you create a brief record of the text’s contents and exercise your ability to comprehend, analyze, and synthesize.
Use these guidelines for summary writing. Writing a summary requires sifting out the least im- portant points, sorting the essential ones to show their relationships, and stating those points in your own words. Follow these guidelines:
4
Heath’s report of the psychological experiment is very vivid, referring to the smell of chocolate-chip cookies and hungry students “gorging” on them. He uses the term “sadistic” to refer to making the radish-eaters sit and watch this go on. I wonder if this mild torment plays into the student’s readiness to give up on the later test. If I’d been rewarded with cookies, I’d feel indebted to the testers and would stick with it longer. If I’d been punished with radishes, I might give up sooner just to spite the testers.
Now that I think of it, the digestion of all that sugar and fat in the cookies, as opposed to the digestion of roughage from the radishes, might also affect concentration and performance. Maybe the sugar “high” gives students the focus to keep going?
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g - W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 9
Sample Summary Below is a student’s summary of Dan Heath’s “Why Change Is So Hard,” on page 6. Note how the summa- ry writer includes only main points and phrases them in her own words. She departs from the precise order of details, but records them accurately.
In the article “Why Change Is So Hard,” Dan Heath argues that people who have trouble changing are not lazy, but have simply exhausted their self-control. Heath refers to a study in which one group of students was asked to eat cookies and not radishes while another group in the same room was asked to eat radishes and not cookies. Afterward, both groups of students were asked to trace an endless geometric design without lifting their pencils. The cookie-only group traced on average 19 minutes before giving up, but the radish-only group traced on average only 8 minutes. They had already used up their self- control. Heath says that any behavioral change requires self-control, an exhaustible resource. Reverting to old behavior is what happens due not to laziness but to exhaustion.
Insight: Writing formal summaries—whether as part of literature reviews or as abstracts—is an important skill, especially in the social and natural sciences. For a sample abstract, see page 390.
■ Survey the image. See it as a whole, but also study the focal point, the background-fore- ground relationship, left and right content, and colors.
■ Inspect the image. Examine all the details and the relationships between parts.
■ Question the image. Who created the image, and why? What is the image’s subject and message? Who is the intended viewer? In what medium and context does the image appear (e.g., magazine, academic report, Web page)?
■ Understand the purpose. What is this image meant to do? Arouse curiosity? Entertain? Inform? Illustrate a concept? Persuade?
Actively interpret images. Interpreting an image follows naturally from viewing or “reading” the image. Interpreting means figuring out what the image or design is meant to do, say, or show. Interpreting requires you to think more deeply about each element of the rhetorical situation, and complications with each element.
brief ly and clearly, in your own words. In- clude only what is essential, excluding most examples and details. Don’t say simply that the text talks about its subject; tell what it says about that subject.
3. Test your summary. Aim to objectively provide the heart of the text; avoid inter- jecting your own opinions and presence as a writer. Don’t confuse an objective summary of a text with a response to it (shown on the previous page). Check your summary against the original text for accuracy and consistency.
Effectively analyze images. Images communicate, just as words do. Most images in everyday life are made to communicate quickly— magazine covers, ads, signs, movie trailers, social- media photos, and so on. Other images require con- templation, such as the Mona Lisa. When you view an image, analyze it effectively through careful viewing and interpreting.
Actively view images. When you look at an image, take it all in by doing the following:
5
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
© B
az u
ki M
u h
am m
ad /R
EU TE
R S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s10
Insight: Like words, visuals can be cliches—trite, mis- leading, or worn-out expressions of concepts or ideas. For example, TV ads for weight-loss drugs commonly picture scantily clad, fit young people, deceptively link- ing use of the drug to beauty, youth, and sex.
Interpret an image.
■ Sender: Who created the image—a photog- rapher, a painter, a Web designer? Why did the person create it? What other people might have been involved—editors, patrons? Complications: The sender might be unknown or a group.
■ Message: What is the subject of the image? How is the subject portrayed? What is the main purpose of the image—to entertain, to inform, to persuade, to entice, to shock? Complications: The message might be mixed, implied, ironic, unwelcome, or distorted. The subject might be vague, unfamiliar, complex, or disturbing.
■ Medium: What is the image—a painting, a cartoon panel, a photo? How might the image have been modified over time? What visual language has the sender used? Complications: The medium might be unusu- al, unfamiliar, or multiple. The visual languag- es might be literal, stylized, numeric, symbolic, and so on.
■ Receiver: Whom was the image made for? Are you part of the intended audience? What is your relationship with the sender? Do you agree with the message? How comfortable are you with the medium? What is your overall response to the image? Complications: You might be uninterested in, unfamiliar with, or biased toward the mes- sage.
Discussion This color photograph shows a multireligious
commemoration of the 229,000 victims of the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 26, 2004.
The symbolism is clearly rooted in the points of light created by the candle balloons, where light it- self is a cross-cultural symbol of hope, endurance, the human spirit, and God’s presence. The skyward angle of the photograph, with the clusters of candle balloons f loating up and the people in the lower right of the frame, creates this sense of vertical longing and release, emphasizing perhaps humanity’s longing to solve life’s mysteries, including death and disaster.
Sender
Receiver
Message Medium
Context
■ Context: What was the context in which the image was first presented? What context sur- rounds the image now? Does the image fit its context or fight it? Complications: The context might be discon- nected, ironic, changing, or multilayered.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Sa sh
ki n
, 2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g - W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 11
Sender: Photographer Bazuki Muhammad; authors of COMP: Write
Message: Thais release candle balloons during a mass prayer for victims of the Indian Ocean tsunami. The message is to remember those who died, but move forward with hope.
Medium: Digital color photograph
Receiver: The intended viewer was anyone reading a newspaper, magazine, or Web article. The current viewer is likely a student or an instructor in a composition course.
Context: This photograph was part of a series provided by Reuters for global newspapers. It now is part of a composition text.
Think critically through writing. Reading, viewing, and writing can all be means of critical thinking. In college, you often need to show your ability to think critically about topics and issues by analyzing complex processes, synthesizing con- cepts, weighing the value of opposing perspectives, and applying principles. To think critically through your writing, practice the strategies that follow.
6
■ “Rhetorical” questions aren’t meant to be an- swered. They’re asked for effect.
Example: Who would want to be caught in an earthquake?
■ Closed questions seek a limited response and can be answered with “yes,” “no,” or a simple fact.
Example: Would I feel an earthquake mea- suring 3.0 on the Richter scale?
■ Open questions invite brainstorming and discussion.
Example: How might a major earthquake affect this urban area?
■ Theoretical questions call for organization and explanation of an entire field of knowledge.
Example: What might cause a sudden frac- turing of Earth’s crust along fault lines?
To improve the critical thinking in your writing, ask better questions. The strategies on the next page will help you think freely, respond to reading, study for a test, or collect your thoughts for an essay.
Although the large, just-released candle balloons are most prominent, the viewer’s eyes are also drawn up- ward, where clusters of far-off candles become con- stellations of starlike lights. The mourners in the right of the frame, forming a loose circle, are all gazing skyward, like the viewer. Ordinary people in ordinary clothes, they appear to be clapping and, for some, the clapping shows their hands virtually in a posture of prayer. In this way, the image both mourns the dead and celebrates life.
Ask probing questions. Every field uses questions to trigger critical thinking. For example, scientific questions generate hypotheses, sociological questions lead to studies, mathematical questions call for proofs, and literary criticism ques- tions call for interpretations. A good question opens up a problem and guides you all the way to its solu- tion. But not all questions are created equal. Consider the differences:
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s12
starts with specific details or observations (as shown at the base) and then moves “up” to broader ideas and eventually to a concluding generalization. In contrast, deduction starts with general principles at the top and works down, applying the principles to explain par- ticular instances.
Generalization/ Conclusion
Main Ideas
Specific Details
In d
u ct
io n
D ed
u ct
io n
Example: Read through the paragraphs below from a student essay, “If We Are What We Wear, What Are We?” by Allison Young. The first paragraph works de- ductively, the second paragraph inductively. Note how each approach affects the message.
The American excuse for owning multiples is that clothing styles change so rapidly. At the end of the ’80s, trends in high fashion changed every two and a half months (During 95). Even for those of us who don’t keep up with high fashion, styles change often enough that our clothing itself lasts much longer than the current trend. Perhaps this is one of the reasons the average American spent $997 on clothing in 1996 (U.S. Department of Commerce).
While Americans are spending a thousand dollars on clothing a year, people in Ethiopia make an aver- age of only $96 a year, those in Bangladesh $280, and the average Filipino worker makes $1,052 (United Na- tions Statistics Division). I, on the other hand, made over $5,000 last year, and that job was only part-time. When an American college student can earn more money at her part-time job than three billion people each make for a living, it’s time to question our culture and ask, as Alan During did, “How much is enough?”
Ask open questions. Closed questions some- times choke off thinking. Use open questions to trigger a f low of ideas.
Ask “educated” questions. Compare these questions: (A) What’s wrong with television? (B) Does the 16.3 percent rise in televised acts of vio- lence during the past three years signal a rising tolerance for violence in the viewing audience? You have a better chance of expanding the “edu- cated” question—question B—into an essay be- cause the question is clearer and suggests debat- able issues.
Keep a question journal. Divide a blank note- book page or split a computer screen. On one side, write down any questions that come to mind re- garding the topic that you want to explore. On the other side, write down answers and any thoughts that f low from them.
Write Q & A drafts. To write a thoughtful first draft, write quickly, then look it over. Turn the main idea into a question and write again, an- swering your question. For example, if your main idea is that TV viewers watch far more violence than they did ten years ago, ask Which viewers? Why? and What’s the result? Go on that way until you find a key idea to serve as the main point of your next draft.
For more help with critical-thinking skills such as making and supporting claims, recogniz-
ing logical fallacies, and dealing with opposition, see “Strategies for Argumentation and Persuasion,” pages 176–187.
Practice inductive and deductive logic. Questions invite thinking; reasoning responds to that challenge in an organized way. Will the organization of your thoughts be inductive or deductive? Inductive logic reasons from specific information toward gen- eral conclusions. Deductive logic reasons from general principles toward specific applications. Notice in the diagram in the next column that inductive reasoning
(A) Deduction: generalization to specific details (B) Induction: specific details to generalization
(A)
(B)
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
A n
d re
i S h
u m
sk iy
, 2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
Ig
o r
K lim
o v,
2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g - W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 13
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following critical-thinking and writing activities. 1. Northrop Frye has argued that “[n]obody is ca-
pable of free speech unless he [or she] knows how to use language, and such knowledge is not a gift: It has to be learned and worked at.” How does Frye’s claim relate to the discussions of reading, viewing, and writing in this chapter?
2. In a newspaper or magazine (print or online), find a brief article that discusses a recent scien- tific study (similar to Dan Heath’s article on page 6). Read your selected article by practicing the SQ3R method. Then do the following: map the text, write a response to it, and summarize it. If the article has visual content, view and interpret any images. Finally, generate a list of probing questions and speculative answers related to the article’s topic.
3. In a print or digital publication, find an image that is striking. Using the instruction on effec- tively analyzing images, draft an interpretation of the image.
4. Read three or four articles on a current issue that interests you. Using what you’ve learned, draft two paragraphs on the issue—one patterned deductively and the other inductively.
Checklist: Learning Outcomes Use the checklist below to assess how well you are practicing the reading-writing connection.
I effectively use the SQ3R method for reading texts. I read texts actively through annotation, map- ping, outlining, and evaluating. I can write a meaningful response to a text. I can effectively summarize a text so as to get at the core argument. I effectively analyze images through active viewing and interpreting strategies. I practice effective critical thinking through writing that asks probing questions and that works logically through induction and/or de- duction.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
R u
d ch
en ko
L ili
ia , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 26
Edit the writing for correctness. Angela reviewed her edited copy for punctuation, agreement issues, and spelling. The first page of An- gela’s proofread essay is shown below.
7
Water Woes in Walkerton
Warning: City tap water is polluted with animal waste. Using the water
for drinking, cooking, or bathing could cause sickness or death.
According to the Seirra Club, run-off pollutants from farm cites
are steadily seeping into our streams, lakes, reservoirs, and wells.
Because much of our drinking water comes from these resources,
warnings like the one above are already posted in a number of
U.S. and Canadian communities, and many more postings might
be needed in the future (Sierra Club, 2005). As the Seirra Club
argues, the pollution and related warnings are serious, and failure
to take them seriously could be deadly. For example, a few years
ago the citizens of Walkerton Ontario learned that the water that
they believed to be clean was tragically poisoned.
The events in Walkerton began on May 12, 2000, when heavy
rains washed cattle manure into the town well. The manure
contained bacteria commonly called E coli. While E coli is harmless
to cattle, it can make people sick. Seven days after the heavy
rains, people began calling public health officials to complain of
nausea and diarrhea. It wasn’t until May 21 that the townspeople
were advised to boil their drinking water. The warning came too
late. Two people had already died, and more than 2,000 were ill
(Wickens, 2000).
Several factors contributed to the tragedy in Walkerton,
including human error. First, according to The Edmonton Journal,
a flaw in the water treatment system allowed the infested water to
enter Walkerton’s well (Blackwell, 2001). Even after the manure
washed into the well, the chlorine should have . . .
The writer corrects errors that the spell checker did not pick up.
She adds a comma between the city and province.
She adds a word for clarity.
She adds periods and italicizes “E. coli” to show that it is a scien- tific term.
into Walkterton’s well
s
. .
, ,
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 2 : o n e W r i t e r ’ s P r o C e s s 27
Check for documentation and page-design problems. After proofreading and formatting her essay, Angela added a heading and page numbers. She also added more documentation and a references page at the end. As assigned, she omitted the title page and abstract.
Angela Franco
Professor Kim Van Es
English 101
October 18, 2011
Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business
Warning: City tap water is polluted with animal waste.
Using the water for drinking, cooking, or bathing could
cause sickness or death.
According to the Sierra Club, run-off pollutants from farm sites
are steadily seeping into our streams, lakes, reservoirs,
and wells. Because much of our drinking water comes from these
resources, warnings like the one above are already posted in
a number of U.S. and Canadian communities, and many more
postings might be needed in the future (Sierra Club, 2005). As the
Sierra Club argues, the pollution and related warnings are serious,
and failure to take them seriously could be deadly. For example, a
few years ago the citizens of Walkerton, Ontario, learned that the
water that they believed to be clean was tragically poisoned.
The events in Walkerton began on May 12, 2000, when heavy
rains washed cattle manure into the town well. The manure
contained the bacteria commonly called E. coli. While E. coli is
harmless to cattle, it can make people sick. Seven days after
the heavy rains, people began calling public health officials to
complain of nausea and diarrhea. It wasn’t until May 21 that
the townspeople were advised to boil their drinking water. The
warning came too late. Two people had already died, and more
than 2,000 were ill (Wickens, 2000).
The writer revises the title.
The title is changed. The warning is empha- sized with red print.
An appropriate font and type size are used.
8
Running Head: Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business 1
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
R u
d ch
en ko
L ili
ia , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 28
Several factors contributed to the tragedy in Walkerton,
including human error. First, according to the Edmonton Journal, a
flaw in the water treatment system allowed the infested water to
enter Walkerton’s well (Blackwell, 2001). Even after the manure
washed into Walkerton’s well, the chlorine should have killed the
deadly bacteria. In Walkerton, the Public Utilities Commission
was responsible for overseeing the testing and treating of the
town’s water, but it failed to monitor the procedure properly
(“Walkerton’s water-safety,” 2000). Apparently, shortcuts were
taken when tracking the water’s chlorine level, and as a result,
some of the water samples were mislabeled. There was also a
significant delay between the time that the contamination was
identified and the time it was reported.
Once Walkerton’s problem was identified, the government acted
quickly to help the community. In its December 7, 2000, edition,
the Edmonton Journal reported that a $100,000 emergency
fund was set up to help families with expenses. Local businesses
donated bottled water for drinking and containers of bleach for
basic sanitizing and cleaning. In addition, the Provincial
Clean Water Agency restored the main water and sewage systems
by flushing out all of the town’s pipes and wells. Seven months
after the water became contaminated, the ban on drinking
Walkerton’s water was finally lifted.
As the Sierra Club warns and the citizens of Walkerton
learned, water purity is a life-and-death issue. Fortunately, both
the United States and Canada have been addressing the problem.
For example, since 2001, more states and provinces have been
tightening their clean-water standards, more communities have
been monitoring their water quality, and more individuals have
been using water-filtration systems, bottled water, or boiled tap
water. However, a tragedy like that in Walkerton could happen
again. To avoid such horror, all of us must get involved by
demanding clean tap water in our communities and by promoting
the policies and procedures needed to achieve that goal.
Title and page number are used on each page.
Each claim or support- ing point is backed up with reasoning and evidence.
The writer continues to give credit throughout the essay.
The writer restates her thesis in the last sentence.
Running Head: Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business 2
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 2 : o n e W r i t e r ’ s P r o C e s s 29
References
Blackwell, T. (2001, January 9). Walkerton doctor defends
response. The Edmonton Journal. Retrieved September 22,
2010, from <http://edmontonjournal.com>.
Sierra Club. (2005) Water sentinels: Keeping it clean around the
U.S.A. Retrieved September 24, 2008, from <http://sierraclub.
org/watersentinels/>.
Walkerton’s water-safety tests falsified regularly, utility official
admits. (2000, December 7). The Edmonton Journal. Retrieved
April 2, 2005, from <http://edmontonjournal.com>.
Wickens, B. (2000, June 5). Tragedy in Walkerton. Maclean’s,
113(23), 34–36.
Sources used are listed correctly, in alphabeti- cal order.
Each entry follows APA rules for content, for- mat, and punctuation.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities Complete these activities by yourself or with class- mates. 1. Scott Russell Sanders suggests that “essays are
experiments in making sense of things.” Does Sanders’ statement ring true? What makes such experiments f lop or succeed? What kinds of “sense” do essays create?
2. Review Angela’s writing process. How does it compare with your own writing process on a recent assignment?
3. Review the peer-editing instructions in “Revis- ing Collaboratively” (pages 77–78). Then reread the reviewer’s comments in the margins of Angela’s second revision (pages 23–24). Do the comments ref lect the instructions? Explain.
Cross-Curricular Connections Angela used APA style, which is standard for the so- cial sciences: psychology, sociology, political science, and education. MLA style is standard for English and humanities. Make sure to find out what documenta- tion style your instructor requires.
Checklist: Learning Outcomes I can analyze an assignment, select a topic, and as- sess my rhetorical situation.
I can research my topic, plan my writing, and gath- er/organize information.
I can write a first draft with an engaging opening, an informative middle, and a unifying closing.
I can revise my writing for strong ideas, logical or- ganization, and an informed voice.
I can use a peer response to complete a second re- vision.
I can edit for style (e.g., precise words and smooth sentences).
I can proofread for correct spelling, mechanics, us- age, and grammar.
Running Head: Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business 3
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./CorbisPa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 30
“ I think I did pretty well, considering I started out with nothing but a bunch of blank paper.”
—Steve Martin
PART 1 WRITE
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 31
3 Starting The blank page or screen can be daunting for any writer. That’s because writing doesn’t go from nothing to a masterpiece in one step. Writing is a process, much like painting.
This chapter focuses on beginning that process. It pro- vides numerous concrete strategies for understanding writing assignments, deciding on a topic, and exploring it. The very act of writing generates ideas and creates new connections that will make it easy to fill the blank page.
Learning Outcomes 1 Discover your process. 2 Understand the rhetorical
situation.
3 Understand the assignment. 4 Select, limit, and explore your
topic.
5 Collect information and track your sources.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 32
Discover your process. It’s easy to feel overwhelmed by a writing project—es- pecially if the form of writing is new to you, the topic is complex, or the paper must be long. However, using the writing process will relieve some of that pressure by breaking down the task into manageable steps. An overview of those steps is shown below, and key prin- ciples are addressed in the right column and on the next page.
Consider the writing process. The following f lowchart maps out the basic steps in the writing process. As you work on your writing proj- ect, periodically review this diagram to keep yourself on task.
1
Getting Started ■ Understanding the assignment ■ Selecting a subject ■ Collecting information
Planning ■ Forming a thesis ■ Using methods of development ■ Developing a plan or an outline
Drafting ■ Opening your draft ■ Developing the middle ■ Ending your draft
Revising ■ Improving ideas, organization,
and voice ■ Revising collaboratively
Editing and Proofreading ■ Editing for style ■ Proofreading for correctness
Submitting ■ Preparing a paper for submis-
sion ■ Checking for page design and
documentation
Adapt the process to your project. The writing process shown in the previous column is f lexible, not rigid. As a writer, you need to adapt the process to your situation and assignment. To do so, consider these essential principles.
Writing tends not to follow a straight path. While writing begins with an assignment or a need and ends with a reader, the journey in between is often indirect. The steps in the writing process are recursive, mean- ing you will sometimes move back and forth between them. For example, during the revision phase, you may discover that you need to draft a new paragraph or do more research.
Each assignment presents distinct challenges. A personal essay may develop best through clustering or freewriting; a literary analysis through close read- ing of a story; a lab report through the experimen- tal method; and a position paper through reading of books and journal articles, as well as through careful and balanced reasoning.
Writing can involve collaboration. From using your roommate as a sounding board for your topic choice to working with a group to produce a major report, college writing is not solitary writing. In fact, many colleges have a writing center to help you refine your writing assignments. (See page 79 for more.)
Each writer works differently. Some writers do ex- tensive prewriting before drafting, while others do not. You might develop a detailed outline, whereas someone else might draft a brief list of topics. Experi- ment with the strategies introduced in chapters 2–7, adopting those that help you.
Good writing can’t be rushed. Although some students regard pulling an all-nighter as a badge of honor, good writing takes time. A steady, disciplined approach will generally produce the best results. For example, by brainstorming or reading early in a proj- ect, you stimulate your subconscious mind to mull over issues, identify problems, and project solutions— even while your conscious mind is working on other things. Similarly, completing a first draft early enough gives you time to revise objectively.
Getting Started
Planning
Drafting
Revising
Editing
Submitting
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 33
Different steps call for attention to different writ- ing issues. As you use the writing process, at each stage keep your focus where it belongs: 1. While getting started, planning, and drafting,
focus on global issues: ideas, structure, voice, format, and design.
2. During revising, fix big content problems by cut- ting, adding, and thoroughly reworking material. (Our experience is that students benefit the most from revising—but spend the least time doing it!)
3. While editing and proofreading, pay attention to small, local issues—word choice, sentence smoothness, and grammatical correctness. Wor- rying about these issues early in the writing pro- cess interrupts the f low of drafting and wastes time on material that later is deleted.
Understand the rhetorical situation. Rhetoric is the art of using language effectively. As Aristotle, Quintilian, and others have explained, your language is effective when all aspects of your message fit the rhetorical situation:
Rhetorical Situation
2
Sender (Creator)
Receiver (Audience)
Message (Subject + Purpose)
Medium (Form)
Context (Environment)
Think of your role as the writer. Are you writing as a concerned citizen, as a student in a class, as a friend relating a story, as a reporter pro- viding news, as a blogger giving an opinion? Your role in writing and otherwise communicating affects the level of language you use, the voice you use, the types of details you include, and so on.
Understand your subject. To truly understand your subject, you need to gather and assimilate all relevant details about it, including its history, makeup, function, and impact on people and culture. Knowing those details will help you nar- row your focus to a specific thesis and support it well.
Writing with Sources: As you search for information, think about which types of sources are recommended or expected for the assignment. Which should be avoided?
Understand your purpose. Key words in an assignment—such as analyze, ex- plain, defend, or describe—tell you what the purpose of the writing is supposed to be. Understanding why you are writing helps you choose an organizational strategy, such as classification, definition, or process. (See pages 34–35.)
Writing with Sources: Think of the sources that will most help you with your purpose, whether to entertain, compare, inspire, enlighten, and so on.
Understand your audience. For any writing task, you must understand your au- dience in order to develop writing that meets their needs. To assess your audience, answer questions like these:
■ Who are my readers: instructor? classmates? Web users?
■ What do they know about my topic, and what do they need to know?
■ How well do they understand the terminology involved?
■ What are their attitudes toward the topic and toward me?
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
O le
xi y
B ay
ev , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 34
■ How well do they read written English—or visuals such as graphs and charts?
■ How will they use my writing (as entertain- ment or to complete a task)?
Note: Answers to such questions will help you de- velop meaningful sentences (pages 82–87), choose appropriate words (pages 87–90), and select relevant visuals.
Writing with Sources: Ask yourself what sources your reader will best understand and most respect. What sources will add to your credibility and authority?
Understand the medium (form). Many communication options are available for every message. Academic forms include essays, analyses, re- ports, proposals, research papers, reviews, and so on. It is important to understand the form of the assign- ment. What works well in a narrative about a past ex- perience would not work as well in a lab report. Also, each of these forms can contain multiple media: writ- ten elements, graphics, photos, drawings, videos, au- dios, links, and so on. Understanding the overall me- dium and the media within it will help you succeed.
Writing with Sources: Make sure you understand the way that sources are to be cited in the form of communication you are using. (See 270–297 for MLA and APA styles.)
Think about the context. Think about how this assignment relates to others in the course. Consider these issues:
■ Weight: Is this an everyday assignment, a weekly or biweekly one, or the big one?
■ Assessment: Find out how the assignment will be graded. What rubric will be used?
■ Intent: Make certain that you understand the goals of the assignment and understand what your instructor wants you to get out of it.
Note: If the writing you are doing is not in response to an assignment, think about the environment in which the message will be read. What is the history of this issue? What is the current climate like? What might the future be?
Writing with Sources: If you are writing material that will be reviewed and debated by others in your field, think about what sources you would most want your writing to appear in. Make certain you understand the submission guidelines for the source.
Understand the assignment. Each college instructor has a way of personalizing a writing assignment, but most assignments will spell out (1) the objective, (2) the task, (3) the formal re- quirements, and (4) suggested approaches and topics. Your first step, therefore, is to read the assignment carefully, noting the options and restrictions that are part of it. The suggestions below will help you do that. (Also see pages 14–29 for one writer’s approach.)
Read the assignment. Certain words in the assignment explain what main action you must perform. Here are some words that signal what you are to do:
Key Words
3
Analyze: Break down a topic into subparts, showing how those parts relate.
Argue: Defend a claim with logical arguments.
Classify: Divide a large group into well-defined subgroups.
Compare/contrast: Point out similarities and/or differences.
Define: Give a clear, thoughtful definition or meaning of something.
Describe: Show in detail what something is like.
Evaluate: Weigh the truth, quality, or usefulness of something.
Explain: Give reasons, list steps, or discuss the causes of something.
Interpret: Tell in your own words what something means.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 35
Options: 1. You may choose any natural disaster or historical event.
2. You may focus on the past, present, or future.
3. You may examine any kind of alteration.
Restrictions: 1. You must reflect on a change in your understanding.
2. The disaster must be natural. 3. The historical event must be
major.
Options and Restrictions — The assignment often gives you some choice of your topic or approach but may restrict your options to suit the instructor’s pur- pose. Note the options and restrictions in the follow- ing short sample assignment:
Reflect on the way a natural disaster or major historical event has altered your understanding of the past, the present, or the future.
Reflect: Share your well-considered thoughts about a subject.
Summarize: Restate someone else’s ideas very briefly in your own words.
Synthesize: Connect facts or ideas to create something new.
■ Expand your style? ■ Increase your creativity?
3. How will this assignment contribute to your overall performance in the course? What course goals (often listed in the syllabus) does it address?
Relate the assignment to other assignments. 1. Does it build on previous assignments? 2. Does it prepare you for the next assignment?
Relate the assignment to your own interests. 1. Does it connect with a topic that already interests
you? 2. Does it connect with work in your other courses? 3. Does it connect with the work you may do in
your chosen field? 4. Does it connect with life outside school?
Reflect on the assignment. 1. First impulses: How did you feel when you first
read the assignment? 2. Approaches: What’s the usual approach for an
assignment like this? What’s a better way of tack- ling it?
3. Quality of performance: What would it take to produce an excellent piece of writing?
4. Benefits: What are the benefits to your educa- tion? to you personally? to the class? to society?
5. Features: Ref lect further on four key features of any writing assignment.
Purpose: What is the overall purpose of the assignment—to inform, to explain, to analyze, to entertain? What is the desired outcome?
Audience: Should you address your instructor? your classmates? a general reader? How much does the reader already know about the topic? What type of language should you use?
Form: What are the requirements concerning length, format, and due date?
Assessment: How will the assignment be evalu- ated? How can you be sure that you are complet- ing the assignment correctly?
Relate the assignment to the goals of the course. 1. How much value does the instructor give the
assignment? (The value is often expressed as a percentage of the course grade.)
2. What benefit does your instructor want you to receive? ■ Strengthen your comprehension? ■ Improve your research skills? ■ Deepen your ability to explain, prove, or per-
suade?
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 36
Select, limit, and explore your topic. For some assignments, finding a suitable subject (or topic) may require little thinking on your part. If an instructor asks you to summarize an article in a profes- sional journal, you know what you will write about— the article in question. But suppose the instructor asks you to analyze a feature of popular culture in terms of its impact on society. You won’t be sure of a spe- cific writing topic until you explore the possibilities. Keep the following points in mind when you conduct a topic search. Your topic must . . .
■ meet the requirements of the assignment. ■ be limited in scope. ■ seem reasonable (that is, be within your means
to research). ■ genuinely interest you.
Limit the subject area. Many of your writing assignments may relate to gen- eral subject areas you are currently studying. Your task, then, is to select a specific topic related to the general area of study—a topic limited enough that you can treat it with some depth in the length allowed for the assignment. The following examples show the dif- ference between general subjects and limited topics:
4
I read a really disturbing news story this morning. I’ve been thinking about it all day. In California a little girl was killed when she was struck by a car driven by a man distracted by a billboard ad for lingerie featuring a scantily clothed woman. Not only is it a horrifying thing to happen, but it also seems to me all too symbolic of the way that sexually charged images in the media are putting children, and especially girls, in danger. That reminds me of another news story I read this week about preteen girls wanting to wear the kinds of revealing outfits that they see in music videos, TV shows, and magazines aimed at teenagers. Too many of today’s media images give young people the impression that sexuality should begin at an early age. This is definitely a dangerous message.
2. Search the Internet. Type in a keyword or phrase (the general subject stated in the assignment) and see what you can find. You could also follow a subject tree to narrow a subject. (See pages 332–334.)
3. Consult indexes, guides, and other library refer- ences. The Readers’ Guide to Periodical Litera- ture, for example, lists current articles published on specific topics and where to find them. (See page 327.)
4. Discuss the assignment with your instructor or an information specialist.
5. Use one or more of the prewriting strategies described on the following pages to generate pos- sible writing ideas.
Explore for possible topics. You can generate possible writing ideas by using the following strategies. These same strategies can be used when you’ve chosen a topic and want to develop it further.
Journal Writing — Write in a journal on a regular basis. Ref lect on your personal feelings, develop your thoughts, and record the happenings of each day. Pe- riodically go back and underline ideas that you would like to explore in writing assignments. In the follow- ing journal-writing sample, the writer came up with an idea for a writing assignment about the societal im- pacts of popular culture.
General Subject Area: Popular culture
General Subject Area: Energy sources
Limited Topic: The Simpsons
TV show
Limited Topic: Using wind power
Conduct your search. Finding a writing idea that meets the requirements of the assignment should not be difficult, if you know how and where to look. Follow these steps: 1. Check your class notes and handouts for ideas
related to the assignment.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
zi rc
o n
ic u
ss o
, 2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
sh o
o ar
ts , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 37
Freewriting — Write nonstop for ten minutes or longer to discover possible writing ideas. Use a key concept related to the assignment as a starting point. You’ll soon discover potential writing ideas that might otherwise have never entered your mind. Note in the following example that the writer doesn’t stop writing even when he can’t think of anything to say. Note also that he doesn’t stop to correct typos and other mis- takes.
Popular culture. What does that include? Television obviously but that’s a pretty boring subject. What else? Movies, pop music, video games. Is there a connection between playing violent video games and acting out violent behavior? Most video players I know would say no but sometimes news reports suggest a connection. Is this something I’d want to write about? Not really. What then? Maybe I could think about this a different way and focus on the positive effects of playing video games. They release tension for one thing and they can really be challenging. Other benefits? They help to kill time, that’s for sure, but maybe that’s not such a good thing. I would definitely read more if it weren’t for video games, tv, etc. Maybe I could write about how all the electronic entertainment that surrounds us today is creating a generation of nonreaders. Or maybe I could focus on whether people aren’t getting much physical exercise because of the time they spend with electronic media. Maybe both. At least I have some possibilities to work with.
Quick Guide: Freewriting Freewriting is the writing you do without having a specific outcome in mind. You simply write down whatever pops into your head as you explore your topic. Freewriting can serve as a starting point for your writing, or it can be combined with any of the other prewriting strategies to help you select, ex- plore, focus, or organize your writing. If you get stuck at any point during the composing process, you can return to freewriting as a way of generat- ing new ideas.
Reminders ■ Freewriting helps you get your thoughts
down on paper. (Thoughts are constantly passing through your mind.)
■ Freewriting helps you develop and orga- nize these thoughts.
■ Freewriting helps you make sense out of things that you may be studying or re- searching.
■ Freewriting may seem awkward at times, but just stick with it.
The Process ■ Write nonstop and record whatever
comes into your mind. Follow your thoughts instead of trying to direct them.
■ If you have a particular topic or assign- ment to complete, use it as a starting point. Otherwise, begin with anything that comes to mind.
■ Don’t stop to judge, edit, or correct your writing; that will come later.
■ Keep writing even when you think you have exhausted all of your ideas. Switch to another angle or voice, but keep writing.
■ Watch for a promising writing idea to emerge. Learn to recognize the begin- nings of a good idea, and then expand that idea by recording as many specific details as possible.
The Result ■ Review your writing and underline the
ideas you like. These ideas will often serve as the basis for future writings.
■ Determine exactly what you need to write about. Once you’ve figured out what you are required to do, you may then de- cide to do a second freewriting exercise.
■ Listen to and read the freewriting of oth- ers; learn from your peers.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
zi rc
o n
ic u
ss o
, 2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
keellla, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com 38 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
Listing — Freely list ideas as they come to mind, be- ginning with a key concept related to the assignment. (Brainstorming—listing ideas in conjunction with members of a group—is often an effective way to ex- tend your lists.) The following is an example of a stu- dent’s list of ideas for possible topics on the subject of news reporting:
Aspect of popular culture: News reporting Sensationalism Sound bites rather than in-depth analysis Focus on the negative Shock radio Shouting matches pretending to be debates Press leaks that damage national security, etc. Lack of observation of people’s privacy Bias Contradictory health news confusing to readers Little focus on “unappealing” issues like poverty Celebration of “celebrity”
Clustering — To begin the clustering process, write a key word or phrase related to the assignment in the center of your paper. Circle it, and then cluster ideas around it. Circle each idea as you record it, and draw a line connecting it to the closest related idea. Keep going until you run out of ideas and connections. The following is a student’s cluster on the subject of sports:
Sports
gambling players’ salaries
lack of support professional sports
women’s sports
role models
violence
recruiting abuses
cult of winning college sports
funding questions
recent advances
effects on children’s sports
After four or five minutes of listing or clustering, scan your work for an idea to explore in a freewriting. A writing idea should begin to emerge during this freewriting session. (See page 37.)
Collect information and track your sources. Writer and instructor Donald Murray said that “writ- ers write with information. If there is no information, there will be no effective writing.” How true! Before you can develop a thoughtful piece of writing, you must gain a thorough understanding of your topic; to do so, you must carry out the necessary reading, ref lecting, and researching. Writing becomes a satis- fying experience once you can speak with authority about your topic. Use the following guidelines when
5 C
op yr
ig ht
2 01
1 C
en ga
ge L
ea rn
in g.
A ll
R ig
ht s
R es
er ve
d. M
ay n
ot b
e co
pi ed
, s ca
nn ed
, o r
du pl
ic at
ed , i
n w
ho le
o r
in p
ar t.
D ue
t o
el ec
tr on
ic r
ig ht
s, s
om e
th ir
d pa
rt y
co nt
en t
m ay
b e
su pp
re ss
ed f
ro m
t he
e B
oo k
an d/
or e
C ha
pt er
(s ).
E di
to ri
al r
ev ie
w h
as d
ee m
ed t
ha t
an y
su pp
re ss
ed c
on te
nt d
oe s
no t
m at
er ia
ll y
af fe
ct t
he o
ve ra
ll l
ea rn
in g
ex pe
ri en
ce . C
en ga
ge L
ea rn
in g
re se
rv es
t he
r ig
ht t
o re
m ov
e ad
di ti
on al
c on
te nt
a t
an y
ti m
e if
s ub
se qu
en t
ri gh
ts r
es tr
ic ti
on s
re qu
ir e
it .
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 39
you start collecting information. (Also see “Research and Writing” in this book.)
■ Determine what you already know about your topic. (Use the strategies below this bulleted list.)
■ Consider listing questions you would like to answer during your research.
■ Identify and explore possible sources of infor- mation. (See page 40.)
■ Carry out your research following a logical plan. (See pages 40–41.)
Find out what you already know. Use one or more of the following strategies to deter- mine what you already know about a writing topic. 1. Focused freewriting: At this point, you can
focus your freewriting by (1) exploring your lim- ited topic from different angles or (2) approach- ing your freewriting as if it were a quick draft of the actual paper. A quick version will tell you how much you know about your topic and what you need to find out.
2. Clustering: Try clustering with your topic serv- ing as the nucleus word. Your clustering should focus on what you already know. (See page 38.)
3. Five W’s of writing: Answer the five W’s—Who? What? When? Where? and Why?—to identify basic information on your subject. Add How? to the list for better coverage.
4. Directed writing: Write whatever comes to mind about your topic, using one of the modes listed below. (Repeat the process as often as you need to, selecting a different mode each time.)
Describe it: What do you see, hear, feel, smell, and taste?
Compare it: What is it similar to? What is it different from?
Associate it: What connections between this topic and others come to mind?
Analyze it: What parts does it have? How do they work together?
Argue it: What do you like about the topic? What do you not like about it? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
Apply it: What can you do with it? How can you use it?
Ask questions. To guide your collecting and researching, you may find it helpful to list questions about your topic that you would like to answer. Alternatively, you can refer to the questions below. These questions address prob- lems, policies, and concepts. Most topics will fall un- der one of these categories. Use those questions that seem helpful as a guide to your research.
Problems Policies Concepts
D es
cr ip
tio n
What is the problem? What type of problem is it? What are its parts? What are the signs of the problem?
What is the policy? How broad is it? What are its parts? What are its most important features?
What is the concept? What are its parts? What is its main feature? Whom or what is it related to?
Fu nc
tio n
Who or what is affected by it? What new problems might it cause in the future?
What is the policy designed to do? What is needed to make it work? What are or will be its effects?
Who has been influenced by this concept? Why is it important? How does it work?
H is
to ry
What is the current status of the problem? What or who caused it? What or who contributed to it?
What brought about this policy? What are the alternatives?
When did it originate? How has it changed over the years? How might it change in the future?
Va lu
e
What is its significance? Why? Why is it more (or less) important than other problems? What does it symbolize or illustrate?
Is the policy workable? What are its advantages and disadvantages? Is it practical? Is it a good policy? Why or why not?
What practical value does it have? Why is it superior (or inferior) to similar concepts? What is its social worth?
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Sh ee
va 1
, 2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 40
Identify possible sources. Finding meaningful sources is one of the most im- portant steps you will take as you prepare to write. Listed below are tips that will help you identify good sources: 1. Give yourself enough time. Finding good sources
of information may be time-consuming. Books and periodicals you need may be checked out, your computer service may be down, and so on.
2. Be aware of the limits of your resources. Print material may be out-of-date. Online information may be more current, but it may not always be reliable. (See pages 337–340 for ways to help you evaluate information.)
3. Use your existing resources to find additional sources of information. Pay attention to books, articles, and individuals mentioned in reliable initial sources of information.
4. Ask for help. The specialists in your school library can help you find information that is reliable and relevant. These people are trained to find information; don’t hesitate to ask for their help. (See page 324.)
5. Bookmark useful Web sites. Include reference works and academic resources related to your major.
Explore different sources of information. — Of course, books and Web sites are not the only possible sources of information. Primary sources such as in- terviews, observations, and surveys may lead you to a more thorough and meaningful understanding of a topic. (See pages 337–340.)
Reserve a special part of a notebook to question, evaluate, and ref lect on your research as it develops. The record of your thoughts and actions created dur- ing this process will mean a great deal to you—as much as or more than the actual information you uncover. Ref lection helps you make sense of new ideas, refocus your thinking, and evaluate your progress.
Track sources. Follow these strategies for tracking sources and taking notes.
Track resources in a working bibliography. — Once you find a useful book, journal article, news story, or Web page, record identifying information for the source. For more help, see page 346.
Use a note-taking system that respects sourc- es. — Essentially, your note-taking system should help you keep an accurate record of useful informa- tion and ideas from sources while also allowing you to engage those sources with your own thinking. For a discussion of possible systems, see pages 347–348.
Distinguish summaries, paraphrases, and quo- tations. — As you read sources, you will find mate- rial that answers your questions and helps you achieve your writing purpose. At that point, decide whether to summarize, paraphrase, or quote the material:
Primary Sources Secondary Sources
Interviews Articles Observations Reference book entries Participation Books Surveys Web sites
Carry out your research. — As you conduct your research, try to use a variety of reliable sources. It’s also a good idea to choose an efficient note-taking method before you start. You will want to take good notes on the information you find and record all the publishing information necessary for citing your sources. (See pages 347–348.)
A summary pulls just the main points out of a passage and puts them in your own words: Summarize source material when it contains relevant ideas and information that you can boil down.
A paraphrase rewrites a passage point by point in your own words: Paraphrase source material when all the information is important but the actual phrasing isn’t especially important or memorable.
A quotation records a passage from the source word for word: Quote when the source states something crucial and says it well. Note: In your notes, always identify quoted material by putting quotation marks around it.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 41
Summary: Munro’s fiction moves readers from recognizable reality into a hidden world.
Paraphrase: Reading Munro’s fiction gives readers the enjoyment of experiencing a double world: day-to-day reality and on top of that a more mysterious, fantastic world, with the result that readers move smoothly between the worlds in a seamless, ordinary way.
Quotation: Munro’s fiction takes us into “the shadowy map of another imaginary or secret world laid over the real one.”
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following critical-thinking and writing activities by yourself or with classmates. 1. Writer Ralph Fletcher shares, “When I write,
I am always struck at how magical and unex- pected the process turns out to be.” Would you describe the writing process you follow as “magi- cal” and “unexpected”? Why or why not?
2. Reread one of your recent essays. Does the writ- ing show that you thoroughly understood your subject, met the needs of your audience, and achieved your purpose?
Arts/music Environment Health/medicine Work/occupation
Cross-Curricular Connections Different academic disciplines require different meth- ods of research note taking. Investigate the styles of research note taking used in your discipline.
Checklist: Learning Outcomes Use this checklist as a guide to help you plan your writing.
I understand the writing process—getting started, planning, drafting, revising, editing and proofread- ing, and submitting—and I adapt it to fit each proj- ect and my own individual style.
I know how to analyze the rhetorical situation: ■ My role—my position and my goals ■ The subject—the general area of inquiry ■ The purpose—to inform, explain, analyze,
persuade ■ The form—essay, narrative, editorial, research
paper ■ The audience—who they are, what they know,
what they need ■ The context—weight, assessment, positioning
of the project.
I know how to analyze an assignment, watching for options and restrictions.
I know how to select a subject and explore it through journal writing, freewriting, listing, clus- tering, and dialogue. I know how to focus the topic to fit the assignment and my interests.
I know how to collect information and track it through note-taking and research strategies.
Original: “To read Munro’s stories is to discover the delights of seeing two worlds at once: an ordinary everyday world and the shadowy map of another imaginary or secret world laid over the real one, so that in reading we slip from one world into the other in an unassuming domestic sort of way.”
3. Below is a list of general subject areas. Select one that interests you and do the following: Using the strategies on pages 36–38, brainstorm possible topics and select one. Then use the strategies on pages 38–41 to explore what you know about that topic and what you need to learn.
Summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting are treated more fully on pages 349–351. Here is a brief ex- ample, with the original passage coming from Coral Ann Howells’ Alice Munro, published in 1998 by Man- chester University Press as part of its Contemporary World Writers series.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
© Radius Images/CorbisPa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 42
“ Have a vision. Be demanding.” —Colin Powell
PART 1 WRITE
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 43
Some of us are meticulous planners. We organize our lives in advance and formulate strategies for completing every task. Others of us live more in the moment, believing that what- ever needs to get done will get done, with or without a plan.
In writing, author and instructor Ken Macrorie calls for a blend of these two approaches: “Good writing,” says Mac- rorie, “is formed partly through plan and partly through ac- cident.” In other words, too much early planning can get in the way of the discovery aspect of writing, while not enough planning can harm the focus and coherence of your writ- ing.
Learning Outcomes
1 Revisit the rhetorical situation. 2 Form your thesis statement. 3 Select a method of development. 4 Develop a plan or an outline.
4 Planning
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Working with Sources: For projects that involve research, consider how the rhetorical situation can guide your use of sources: 1. For your subject, which sources offer reliable
information and analysis that has shaped your thinking and pointed toward a working the- sis?
2. To achieve your purpose (to entertain, inform, analyze, and/or persuade), which resources/ sources should be featured in your writing?
3. Given your audience, which resources will help you create credibility with the audience and clarify the topic for them?
Se rh
iy S
h u
lly e,
2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 44
Specific Focus
General Subject
Alternative energy sources
Limited Topic
Wind power
Wind power as a viable energy source in certain settings.
Revisit the rhetorical situation. Use the following planning checklist to help you de- cide whether to move ahead with your planning or reconsider your topic.
Form your thesis statement. As you gain knowledge about your topic, you should concurrently develop a more focused interest in it. If all goes well, this narrowed focus will bring to mind a thesis. A thesis statement identifies the central idea for your writing. It usually highlights a special condition or feature of the topic, expresses a specific claim about it, or takes a stand.
State your thesis in a sentence that effectively ex- presses what you want to explore or explain in your essay. Sometimes a thesis statement develops early and easily; at other times, the true focus of your writing will emerge only after you’ve done some initial writ- ing.
Find a focus. A general subject area is typically built into your writ- ing assignments. Your task, then, is to find a limited writing topic and examine it from a particular angle or perspective. (You will use this focus to form your thesis statement.)
Rhetorical Checklist Writer
Am I interested in this topic? How much do I know about this topic, and how much do I need to learn?
Subject Does the topic fit with the subject requirements of the assignment? Is the topic the right size—not too general or too specific—for the assignment? What sources can I use to find out more about this topic?
Purpose What are the specific goals of the assignment? Am I writing to entertain, inform, explain, analyze, persuade, reflect?
Form What form should I create: essay, proposal, report, review?
Audience Will my readers be interested in this topic? How can I interest them? What do they know and need to know about it? What opinions do they have?
Context What weight does this assignment have in terms of my grade? How will the assignment be assessed?
1
2
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
+
Working with Sources: Sometimes your writing can take direction specifically from your sources. You may consider making your thesis a response to a specific source. For example, if one source is especially strong or especially contrary to your own thinking, you could shape your thesis as an affirmation of the strong source’s authority or as a rebuttal to the contrary source’s claims.
C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 45
an effective thesis statement
Wind power provides a viable energy source in the plains states.
specific focus Wind power as a viable energy source in certain settings.
limited topic wind power
State your thesis. You can use the following formula to write a thesis statement for your essay. A thesis statement sets the tone and direction for your writing. Keep in mind that at this point you’re writing a working thesis state- ment—a statement in progress, so to speak. You may change it as your thinking on the topic evolves.
Select a method of development. In his classic book On Writing Well, William Zins- ser identifies “striving for order” as one of the keys to effective writing. For some assignments, this is not a problem because an organizing pattern is built right into the assignment. For example, you might be asked to develop a process paper, which you would organize chronologically. When a pattern is not apparent, one might still evolve naturally as you gather information. If this doesn’t happen, examine your thesis statement to see what method of development it suggests.
Let your thesis guide you. An effective thesis will often suggest an organizing pattern. Notice how the thesis statements below direct and shape the writing to follow. (Also see page 46.)
Thesis (Focus) for a Personal Narrative Writers of personal narratives do not always state a thesis directly, but they will generally have in mind an implied theme or main idea that governs the way they develop their writing. The thesis below focuses the reader’s attention on a less-than-perfect day in the life of a perfect flight attendant. (See pages 105–106.)
From the first day Northwest hired me in Minneapolis in 1969, I tried to be a model flight attendant, to develop the qualities my operations manual demanded: poise, good judgment, initiative, adaptability and a spotless appearance. But one time I slipped up: I fell asleep.
Thesis for a Cause-and-Effect Essay A cause-and-effect essay usually begins with one or more causes followed by an explanation of the effects, or with a primary effect followed by an explanation of the causes. In the thesis below, the writer credits team sports with helping to advance women into leadership roles in major corporations. (See pages 162–175.)
While most of America’s corporations are still commanded by male chief executives, women are gaining ground, winning vice-presidential and top management slots and, in a few cases, the highest leadership roles. Many of these young female executives say playing team sports helped them get ahead.
Thesis for an Essay of Comparison Some comparisons treat one subject before the other (subject by subject), others discuss the subjects point by point, and some treat similarities and then differ- ences. The writer of the thesis below introduces her comparison and contrast of two different views of Islamic dress—both of which she holds. (See pages 155–156.)
To wear hijab—Islamic covering—is to invite contradiction. Sometimes I hate it. Sometimes I value it.
3
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
46
Thesis for an Essay of Classification An essay of classification identifies the main parts or categories of a topic and then examines each one. In the thesis below, the writer identifies four ways to dis- cuss literature, and he examines each one in turn. (See pages 134–135.)
There are four main perspectives, or approaches, that readers can use to converse about literature.
Thesis for a Process Essay Process essays are organized chronologically. As indi- cated in the thesis below, the writer of this essay will explain how cancer cells multiply and affect the body. (See pages 141–142.)
When a cell begins to function abnormally, it can initiate a process that results in cancer.
Thesis for a Position Essay A position paper first introduces a topic and then states a position in its thesis. The thesis statement below defines the writer’s position on nuclear energy. (See pages 194–196.)
However, the risks of nuclear power far outweigh its benefits, making fossil fuels the safer and more environmentally responsible option.
Thesis for an Essay of Definition An essay of definition explores the denotation, con- notation, and history of a term. In the following the- sis statement, the writer names the two words he will explore—deft and daft—and provides an overview of the definition essay. (See page 118.)
Let me see if I can explain the original meaning and also how daft and deft came to part company.
Thesis for an Essay Proposing a Solution A problem-solution essay usually begins with a discus- sion of the problem and its causes and then examines possible solutions. In the following thesis statement, the writer points to a problem in the supposedly gen- der-equal society of the United States. After explain- ing the problem, she offers and argues for a specific solution. (See pages 229–232.)
Fatherlessness is the most harmful demographic trend of this generation. Yet, despite its scale and social consequences, fatherlessness is a problem that is frequently ignored or denied.
Develop a plan or an outline. After writing a working thesis and reviewing the methods of development (pages 45–46), you should be ready to organize the information you have collected. Remember, organizing your research and background information before you start writing can make the drafting stage less of a hassle. Here are five strategies for effective organizing, starting with the basic list.
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
Quick List A brief listing of main points (See below.)
Topic Outline A more formal plan, including main points and essential details (See page 47.)
Sentence Outline A formal plan, including main points and essential details, written as complete sentences (See page 48.)
Writing Blueprints Basic organizational strategies preferred for different forms of writing (See pages 48–49.)
Graphic Organizer An arrangement of main points and essential details in an appropriate chart or diagram (See pages 50–51.)
Quick Lists Though listing is the simplest of all the methods of organization, it can help you take stock of your main ideas and get a sense of what further research or plan- ning needs to be done. There is no right or wrong way to go about listing. The key is to come up with a system that works best for you. Here are two examples that you may consider: the basic bulleted list, which briefly
4
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Insight: The text-filled outlines on pages 48–49 all display the organization of “Four Ways to Talk About Literature,” (pages 132–133).
Insight: Planning is adaptable. Some writers prefer to generate an outline before they begin writing, while others prefer to make a more detailed outline after having written a draft. In the latter strategy, an outline can serve as a tool for evaluating the logic and completeness of the paper’s organization.
o lli
rg , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 47
lists the main points you will discuss, and a T Chart, which lists the main points on one side and a support- ing detail on the other side.
Sample Basic List
Sample T Chart
Topic: Different ways to discuss literature
■ Focus on the text itself
■ Focus on the text and the reader
■ Focus on the author of the text
■ Focus on ideas outside of literature
Topic: Different ways to discuss literature
Main Points Supporting Details
Text-centered approach
Emphasizes structure and rules
Audience-centered approach
Relationship between reader and text
Author-centered approach
Emphasizes the writer’s life
Main Points
Topic
Topic
Topic Outline If you have a good deal of information to sort and ar- range, you may want to use a topic outline for your planning. In a topic outline, you state each main point and essential detail as a word or phrase. Before you start constructing your outline, write your working thesis statement at the top of your paper to help keep you focused on the subject. (Do not attempt to outline your opening and closing paragraphs unless you are specifically asked to do so.)
An effective topic outline is parallel in structure, meaning the main points (I, II, III) and essential de- tails (A, B, C) are stated in the same way. Notice how the sample outline below uses a parallel structure, making it easy to follow.
Thesis: There are four main perspectives, or approaches, that readers can use to converse about literature.
I. Text-centered approaches A. Also called formalist
criticism B. Emphasis on structure of
text and rules of genre C. Importance placed on
key literary elements
II. Audience-centered approaches
A. Also called rhetorical or reader-response criticism
B. Emphasis on interaction between reader and text
III. Author-centered approaches A. Emphasis on writer’s life B. Importance placed on
historical perspective C. Connections made
between texts
IV. Ideological approaches A. Psychological analysis of
text B. Myth or archetype
criticism C. Moral criticism
Supporting Details
Thesis
Main Point
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Working with Sources: When your writing project involves sources, the planning phase will include a great deal of sorting through material. Outlining can help you organize your primary and secondary sources to best support your thesis. As you organize your research in your outline, ask these questions: ■ Where and how should I work with primary
sources—interviews, surveys, analyses, obser- vations, experiments, and other data I have col- lected?
■ Where and how should I bring in secondary sources—scholarly books, journal articles, and the like?
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 48
Sentence Outline — A sentence outline is a more formal method of arrangement in which you state each main point and essential detail as a sentence. Writing a sentence outline helps you determine how you will express your ideas in the actual writing. Here is an ex- ample.
Sentence Outline
48
Thesis: There are four main perspectives, or approaches, that readers can use to converse about literature.
I. A text-centered approach focuses on the literary piece itself.
A. This approach is often called formalist criticism.
B. This method of criticism examines text structure and the genre’s rules.
C. A formalist critic determines how key literary elements reinforce meaning.
II. An audience-centered approach focuses on the “transaction” between text and reader.
A. This approach is often called rhetorical or reader-response criticism.
B. Each reader’s interaction with a text is unique.
III. An author-centered approach focuses on the origin of a text.
A. An author-centered critic examines the writer’s life.
B. This method of criticism may include a historical look at a text.
C. Connections may be made between the text and related works.
Supporting Details
Writing Blueprints The writing blueprints on this page and the next lay out basic organizational strategies for different forms of writing. The blueprints may help you arrange the details of your essay or even find holes in your re- search.
Classification Blueprint
Subgroup 1 Point 1 Point 2
Subgroup 3 Point 1 Point 2
Subgroup 2 Point 1 Point 2
Subgroup 4 Point 1 Point 2
Beginning
Ending
Main Points
Approaches to Conversing About Literature (Topic)
Text- Centered
Audience- Centered
Author- Centered
Ideological
Summary
Thesis
Main Point
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Nick White/Photodisc/Getty Images 49C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 49
Comparison – Contrast Blueprint
Cause – Effect Blueprint
Problem-Solution Blueprint
Cause
Beginning
Cause
Cause
Effect(s)
Ending
Point A Subject 1 Subject 2
Point B Subject 1 Subject 2
Beginning
Ending
Subject 1
Subject 2
Beginning
Ending
Problem(s)
Solution(s)
Objection(s)
Rebuttal(s)
Beginning
Effect
Effect
Effect
Ending
Cause(s)
Point by Point
Cause-Focused Effect-Focused
Subject by Subject
Beginning
Similarities
Differences
Ending
Similarities-Differences
studies structure of a text
focuses on key literary elements
explores reader
and text interaction
focuses on writer’s life
puts text in historical perspective covers moral,
psychological, and sociological
analysis
Approaches to Conversing About Literature
text-centered
audience-centered author-centered
ideological
Thesis: There are four main perspectives, or approaches, that readers can use to converse about literature.
Graphic Organizers — If you are a visual learner, you may prefer using a graphic organizer to arrange your ideas for writing. A graphic organizer allows you to arrange main points and essential details in an appropriate chart or diagram. Graphic organizers can help you map out your ideas and illustrate relation-
ships between them. Here is a line diagram that was used to organize some of the same ideas that were outlined previously.
Line Diagram
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
50 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
Opinion
Reason
1
Reason
2
Reason
3
PersuasionProcess Analysis
Subject
Steps (Chronological Order)
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Comparison/Contrast (Venn Diagram)
Subject A Subject B
Similarities
Differences
Comparison
Qualities Subject A Subject BGraphic Organizers: Quick Guide The following graphic organizers relate to the meth- ods of development discussed on pages 45–46. Each one will help you collect and organize information for expository or persuasive writing. Adapt the organiz- ers as necessary to fit your particular needs or per- sonal style.
Cause-Effect
Subject (Object of Study)
Causes (Because of . . . )
•
•
•
•
Effects ( . . . these conditions resulted)
•
•
•
•
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 51
Problem
Causes of the
Problem
Parts of the Problem
Future Implications
Possible Solutions
Specific Topic
CategoryCategory Category
Details Details
Details Details
Details Details
Concept to Be
Defined
HistoryRelated Words
Quotations
Ne ga
tiv e
De fin
iti on
s
(W ha
t I t I
sn ’t)
P er
so n
al
D ef
in it
io n
s D
ic ti
o n
ar y
D ef
in it
io n
s Im
po rta
nt Fa
ct s
an d
Fig ur
es
Synonym s or
Antonym s
Classification
Definition
Problem/Solution
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities. 1. Author Ken Macrorie claims that “good writ-
ing is formed partly through plan and partly through accident.” Do you agree? Why or why not? Relate Macrorie’s idea to your own writing experiences. How carefully do you plan? How much do you leave to accident?
2. A number of organizational patterns are discussed on pages 45–46. Choose one of these patterns and select a model essay from chapters 9–18 that fol- lows the pattern. Read the essay, note the thesis, and explain how the writer develops it.
Cross-Curricular Connections In most disciplines, it is common practice early in the paper to “survey the literature” on the topic. In a lit- erary analysis, you might survey common interpreta- tions of a key concept before you relay your view. 1. Identify the studies that should be included in
the review. 2. Categorize studies by approach or arrange them
chronologically.
Checklist: Learning Outcomes Use this checklist as a guide to help you plan your writing.
I have taken stock of the rhetorical situation. ■ I have reviewed the information I have
collected so far. ■ My planning and research fully address my
subject, purpose, and audience.
I have developed a focused thesis statement. ■ My thesis statement reflects a limited topic. ■ My thesis statement clearly states the specific
idea I plan to develop. ■ The thesis is supported by the information I
have gathered.
I have patterned my writing from my thesis. ■ The thesis suggests a pattern of organization
for my essay.
I have organized my research. ■ I have organized my support in a list, an
outline, or a graphic organizer. ■ I have arranged my source material under my
main supporting points.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s Sinisa Botas, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
“First drafts are concerned with ideas, with getting the direction and concept of
the piece of writing clear.” —Toby Fulwiler
52
PART 1 WRITE
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
In 1978, Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield pooled $8,000 of their own money and borrowed another $4,000 to open a small ice-cream shop in Burlington, Vermont. From that small start, Ben and Jerry’s Ice Cream has grown into a highly profitable multinational business known for its innovations and social conscience. (In 2000, Unilever, an Anglo-Dutch corporation, bought Ben and Jerry’s for $326 million dollars.)
From a distance, it would seem that Cohen and Green- field have approached this “project” with a joie de vivre that should be the envy of everyone. They’ve developed an irresistible line of ice cream, created a wonderful work environment, commit- ted millions to good causes, and on and on. What’s not to like about Ben and Jerry’s?
So what does this story have to tell you about your own research projects? (1) Start with topics that truly interest you; this is the only way you can do meaningful work. (2) Learn as much as you can about each topic. You can’t guess in a research paper; you have to know what you’re talking about. (3) Take a few risks by approaching each topic in a new or unusual way. (4) And give yourself plenty of time. Quality research can’t be rushed.
This chapter will help you initiate such meaningful research proj- ects, beginning with understanding the nature of college-level research.
C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 311
25 Planning Your Research Project
Learning Outcomes
1 Understand academic research. 2 Initiate the process. 3 Develop a research plan. 4 Consider possible resources and
sites.
5 Understand sources.
joie de vivre French for “joy of life,” a quality in people who live life to its fullest
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
research paper a fairly long essay (5–15 pages), complete with thesis statement, supporting evidence, integrated sources, and careful documentation
Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 312
Understand academic research. Take ownership of each research project by exploring a topic or an angle that truly interests you and com- pels you to get started. Your main goal is to become thoroughly knowledgeable about your topic and share your findings in a thoughtful way. The traditional re- search paper is a fairly long essay (5 to 15 pages), com- plete with a thesis statement, supporting evidence, integrated sources, and documentation. Research can also be presented in a field report, on a Web site, or in a multimedia presentation.
Your instructors, peers, and the academic com- munity in general will be your main audience. How- ever, you may also have a more specific audience in mind—smokers, Floridians, fellow immigrants, and so on. The expected voice in most research projects is formal or semiformal. Always try to maintain a thoughtful, confident tone throughout your writing. Generally, you should avoid the pronouns “I” and “you” in an effort to remain objective and academic. Unfortunately though, avoiding “I” and “you” can re- sult in the overuse of the pronoun “one,” so watch for that problem as well.
Some instructors encourage students to con- nect research with personal experience, mean- ing that you can, at times, use the pronouns “I”
and “you.” But be careful to keep the focus where it belongs—on the topic. The best research writing al- ways centers on compelling ideas and information about the topic.
Research involves many steps. The research process involves getting started, plan- ning, conducting research, and developing the re- sults. While research generally follows these steps, you should understand that the process is dynamic and recursive, meaning that it can be full of twists and turns, detours and side trips. For example, during your research, you may discover information that will
change your mind about the topic or about the thesis statement you developed earlier. The flowchart below shows you the different tasks related to research.
A Research Flowchart
Getting Started • Review the assignment. • Consider your resources. • Choose a subject.
List or cluster your current ideas and opinions.
Conduct prelimi- nary research in reference works.
Talk with others to learn opposing opinions.
• Evaluate and take notes from sources.
• Summarize, paraphrase, and quote.
Conduct Primary Research
Take Careful Notes
Conduct Secondary Research
Observe, interview, survey, or experiment.
Reflect in your research journal.
Check books, articles, and Web sites.
Analyze primary documents and artifacts.
Create and add to a working bibliography.
Search catalogs, indexes, databases, and the Internet.
Planning Your Research Narrow the topic, form a research question or working thesis, develop a research plan, and select keyword searching terms.
Conducting Research
Organizing and Drafting • Answer your research question or refine your thesis. • Develop an outline. • Write the research paper, integrating and documenting sources.
Initiate the process. To get started, you need to do four things: (1) under- stand the assignment, (2) select a topic, (3) build re- search questions, and (4) develop a working thesis. Your research project will only be as good as the plan- ning that you put into it, so attend to each step with care.
Understand the assignment. The first important step in a research project is to thoroughly review the assignment. Take some initial
1
2
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
working thesis a preliminary answer to your main research question, the focus of your research
Checklist: Main Question
✔ Is the question too narrow, too broad, or just about right for a research paper?
✔ Is the question too easy or too hard to answer?
✔ Am I committed to answering this question? Does it interest me?
✔ Will I be able to find enough information about it within a reasonable amount of time?
✔ Will the question and answers interest the reader?
C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 313
notes about it; record key words, options, restrictions, and requirements. Finally, write down any questions you still have about the project, find answers, and proceed.
Select a topic. Author Joyce Carol Oates says, “As soon as you con- nect with your true subject, you will write.” Your goal at the outset of a research project is to find your “true subject,” an appropriate topic you sincerely want to explore and write about.
Making It Manageable In most cases, your instructor will establish a general subject area to get you started. Your job is to select a specific, manageable topic related to that subject. A topic is “manageable” when you can learn about it in a reasonable amount of time. (You may have to carry out some cursory research in order to select a topic.)
Build research questions. Generating research questions helps you find mean- ingful information and ideas about your topic. These questions sharpen your research goal, and the answers become the focus of your writing. Create questions by following the guidelines below.
Needing to Know List questions about your topic—both simple and complex—to discover what you need to know about it. Keep listing until you land on the main question you want to answer—the main issue you need to address. Then brainstorm supporting questions that you must research in order to adequately answer the main ques- tion.
General Subject
Area of Interest
Manageable Topic
urban social problems
the homeless
increase in homeless families
World War II legislation & initiatives
the Marshall Plan
the Plan’s impact on the new world order
alternative energy
new generation of vehicles
hybrid-electric vehicles
Main Question:
Should consumers embrace hybrid-electric vehicles?
Supporting Questions (Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?):
Who has developed hybrid-electric cars? What is a hybrid-electric car? When were they developed? Where are they currently in use? Why are hybrids is use? How do they work?
Develop a working thesis. A working thesis offers a preliminary answer to your main research question. An effective working thesis keeps you focused during your research, helping you decide whether to read a particular book or just skim it, fully explore a Web site or quickly surf through it. When forming your working thesis, don’t settle for a simple statement of fact about your topic; instead, form a statement that demands to be proved or that requires thoughtful explanation. The quick guide on the next page includes a formula for writing this statement.
iofoto, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Library of Congress classification a system of classification used in most academic and research libraries
databases a collection of data
Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 314
Quick Guide: Working Thesis
Formula:
a limited topic + a tentative claim, statement, or hypothesis = a working thesis
Samples:
Hybrid-electric cars offer consumers a reasonable alternative to gas-only cars.
The sharp increase in homeless families will force city planners to rethink their social service policies.
The Marshall Plan benefited Europe and the United States in three significant ways.
Use the following checklist to evaluate your working thesis.
Checklist: Working Thesis
✔ Does my working thesis focus on a single, limited topic?
✔ Is it stated clearly and directly?
✔ Does it provide a preliminary answer to my main research question?
✔ Do I have access to information that supports it?
✔ Does my working thesis meet the requirements of the assignment?
Remember that your working thesis is set in sand, not stone. Your thinking on it might change as you research the topic because dif-
ferent sources may push you in new directions. Such changes show that you are truly engaged in your re- search. For more help with developing and refining a thesis, see page 44.
Develop a research plan. As you develop your research plan, consider what you already know about your topic. You can find this out by freewriting, clustering, or talking about your topic. (See pages 37–38.) Push yourself to gather as many of your own thoughts and feelings about the topic as you can before you conduct any “outside” research. Once you determine what you already know, then you can decide what you still need to find out. You should also figure out what resources can help you develop your research questions and working thesis.
Choose research methods. Do you need more background information? Is prima- ry research a possibility? What other types of research are you interested in? The following information will answer your questions about planning your research.
Background Research Take these steps to find information about central concepts and key terms related to your topic.
■ Use the Library of Congress subject headings to find keywords for searching the library catalog, periodical databases, and the Internet (page 320).
■ Conduct a preliminary search of the library catalog, journal databases, and the Internet to confirm that strong resources on your topic ex- ist.
■ Use specialized reference works to find back- ground information, definitions, facts, and sta- tistics (page 327).
Primary Research If at all possible, conduct primary research about your topic. Primary research is firsthand research in which you carry out interviews, observe the topic in action, and so on in order to develop your distinctive ap- proach to the topic.
■ Use interviews (238–249) and surveys (pages 323–324) to get key information from experts and others.
3
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
artifact any object made or modified by a human culture and later discovered
C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 315
■ Conduct observations or experiments (pages 250–261) to obtain hard data.
■ Analyze original documents or artifacts.
Library Research With the help of a librarian or research specialist, search for important library resources. As you prob- ably know, the library contains a wide variety of use- ful materials.
■ Use scholarly books to get in-depth, reliable ma- terial (pages 326–327).
■ Refer to periodical articles (print or electronic) to get current, reliable information (pages 328– 329). Select from news sources, popular maga- zines, scholarly journals, and trade journals.
■ Consider other resources, such as recorded in- terviews, pamphlets, marketing studies, or vari- ous government publications.
Internet Research The Internet serves as an incredible resource that you can access at your fingertips. Use the following infor- mation to help you plan effective Internet searches.
■ Use tools, such as search engines and subject guides, that will lead you to quality resources (pages 331–337).
■ Select reputable Web sites that librarians, in- structors, or other experts recommend (page 332).
■ Test Web sites for reliability (pages 337–340). Sketch out tentative deadlines for completing
each phase of your work: getting started, conducting research, drafting, and so on. Generally, you should spend about half your time on research and planning and half on writing. For some projects, you may have to formalize your planning in the form of a proposal, which shows your instructor that your plan is work- able within the constraints of the assignment.
Consider possible resources and sites. When researching your topic, be sure to use a wide range of quality resources, as opposed to relying ex-
clusively on information, substantial or not, from a few Web sites. (Your instructor may establish guide- lines for the number and type of resources you should consult.) As you review your researching options, consider which resources will give you the best infor- mation about your topic. A sociology paper on air- port behavior may require personal, direct research; a business paper on the evolution of subprime mortgage loans may best be researched in business publications, government reports, journals, newspapers, and so on.
Consider information resources. The sources of information available to you are almost unlimited, from interviewing someone to referring to bibliographies, from reviewing journal articles to studying graphics. Listed here are the common sourc- es of information.
Type of Resource Examples
Personal, primary resources
Memories, diaries, journals, logs, experiments, tests, observations, interviews, surveys
Reference works (print and electronic)
Dictionaries, thesauruses, encyclopedias, almanacs, yearbooks, atlases, directories, guides, handbooks, indexes, abstracts, catalogs, bibliographies
Books (print and electronic)
Nonfiction, how-to, biographies, fiction, trade books, scholarly and scientific studies
Periodicals and news sources
Print newspapers, magazines, and journals; broadcast news and news magazines; online magazines, news sources, and discussion groups
Audiovisual, digital, and multimedia resources
Graphics (tables, graphs, charts, maps, drawings, photos), audiotapes, CD’s, videos, DVD’s, Web pages, online databases
Government publications
Guides, programs, forms, legislation, regulations, reports, records, statistics
Business and nonprofit publications
Correspondence, reports, newsletters, pamphlets, brochures, ads, catalogs, instructions, handbooks, manuals, policies and procedures, seminar and training materials
4
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Understand sources. Information sources can be primary, secondary, or tertiary. Depending on your assignment, you may be required to use primary and/or secondary sources, but rarely tertiary.
The Sources Primary sources are original sources, which means they give firsthand information on a topic. These sources (such as diaries, people, or events) inform you directly about the topic, rather than through other people’s explanations or interpretations. The most common forms of primary research are observations, inter- views, surveys, experiments, and analyses of original documents and artifacts.
Secondary sources present secondhand informa- tion on your topic—information at least once removed from the original. This information has been compiled, summarized, analyzed, synthesized, interpreted, or evaluated by someone studying primary sources. Journal articles, documentaries, and nonfiction books are typical examples of such secondary sources.
Tertiary sources present thirdhand information on your topic. They are essentially reports of reports of research and, therefore, are distant from the original information. Examples of tertiary sources would in- clude some articles in popular magazines and entries in Wikipedia. Aside from giving you ideas for focus- ing your topic and for conducting further research, tertiary sources should generally not be used in col- lege research projects and should not appear in works- cited or reference lists.
The next column lists possible primary and sec- ondary sources for a research project exploring hy- brid car technology and its viability. Note: Whether a source is primary or secondary depends on what you are studying. For example, if you were studying U.S. attitudes toward hybrid cars, a newspaper editorial or a TV roundtable discussion would be a primary source. However, if you were studying hybrid technology itself, the same newspaper editorial or TV roundtable would be a sec- ondary source.
Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 316
Consider information sites. Where do you go to find the resources that you need? Consider the information sites listed below, remem- bering that many resources may be available in differ- ent forms in different locations. For example, a journal article may be available in a library or in an electronic database.
Information Location Specific Sites
People Experts (knowledge area, skill, occupation)
Population segments or individuals (with representative or unusual experiences)
Libraries General: public, college, online
Specialized: legal, medical, government, business
Computer resources
Computers: software, CD-ROM’s
Networks: Internet and other online services (e-mail, limited-access databases, discussion groups, MUDs, chat rooms, Web sites, blogs, YouTube, image banks, wikis); intranets
Mass media Radio (AM and FM), television (network, public, cable, satellite), print (newspapers, magazines, journals)
Testing, training, meeting, and observation sites
Plants, facilities, field sites, laboratories, research centers, universities, think tanks, conventions, conferences, seminars, museums, galleries, historical sites
Municipal, state, and federal government offices
Elected officials, representatives, offices and agencies, Government Printing Office, and Web sites (GPO, www. gpoaccess.gov)
Business and nonprofit publications
Computer databases, company files, desktop reference materials, bulletin boards (physical and electronic), company and department Web sites, departments and offices, associations, professional organizations, consulting, training, and business information services
primary sources original sources that give firsthand information about a topic
secondary sources sources that are at least once removed from the original; sources that provide secondhand information
tertiary sources sources that provide thirdhand information, such as wikis; discouraged for college research projects
S1001, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
5
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 317
Hybrid Car Technology Primary Sources
– E-mail interview with automotive engineer – Fuel-efficiency legislation – Test-drive of a car at a dealership– Published statistics about hybrid car sales
Secondary Sources – Journal article discussing the devel-opment of hybrid car technology– Newspaper editorial on fossil fuels– TV news roundtable discussion of hybrid car advantages and disadvan-tages
– Promotional literature for a specific hybrid car
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following critical-thinking and writing activities by yourself or with classmates. 1. Examine a research paper that you wrote in the
past (e.g., in high school). What features of that paper are consistent with a college-level approach to research writing? What would you have to change to improve the thinking, level, and ap- proach of the paper?
2. From the broad list of research subjects below, se- lect one and (a) brainstorm a list of related topics, (b) select and refine a topic, (c) list key research questions, (d) formulate a working thesis, and (e) develop a list of possible resources (primary, sec- ondary, and tertiary) for the topic.
Subjects: museums, organic foods, department stores, the entertainment industry, third-world struggles, comedy, wealth, mental illness, forests
3. Using what you have learned in this chapter, devel- op a research plan that identifies a topic of interest to you, clarifies the value of the research, zeros in on specific research questions and a working the- sis, maps out research methods, and establishes a workable schedule.
Checklist: Learning Outcomes Use the checklist below to assess what you have learned about planning a research project, as well as to mea- sure what you have done to plan a specific project.
I understand the nature of academic research in terms of its purpose, audience, and context. I understand the research process and have initiated the process through analyzing the assignment, developing a manageable topic, brainstorming research questions, and articu- lating a working thesis. I have developed a research plan that includes consideration of background research, pri- mary research, library research, and Internet research. As part of my planning, I have considered the range of information resources available as well as sites where resources can be found. I understand differences between primary, sec- ondary, and tertiary sources, and I know which types make sense for my project.
N ic
em o
n ke
y, 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
833379753, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 318
“Basic research is what I am doing when I don’t know what I am doing.”
—Wernher von Braun
Yegor Korzh, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
PART 2 WRITE
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Sk yl
in e,
2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
30 Grammar
Grammar is the study of the structure and features of the language, consisting of rules
and standards that are to be followed to pro- duce acceptable writing and speaking. Parts of speech refers to the eight different categories that indicate how words are used in the Eng- lish language—as nouns, pronouns, verbs, ad- jectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, or interjections.
Learning Outcomes
1 Noun 2 Pronoun 3 Verb 4 Adjective 5 Adverb 6 Preposition 7 Conjunction 8 Interjection
Noun A noun is a word that names something: a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
Toni Morrison/author Lone Star/film
Renaissance/era UC-Davis/university
A Congress of Wonders/book
Classes of Nouns All nouns are either proper nouns or common nouns. Nouns may also be classified as individual or collec- tive, or concrete or abstract.
Proper Nouns — A proper noun, which is always capitalized, names a specific person, place, thing, or idea.
Rembrandt, Bertrand Russell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . person
Stratford-upon-Avon, Tower of London . . . . . . . places
The Night Watch, Rosetta stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . things
New Deal, Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ideas
Common Nouns — A common noun is a general name for a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Com- mon nouns are not capitalized.
optimist, instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . person
cafeteria, park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . places
computer, chair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . things
freedom, love . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ideas
Collective Nouns — A collective noun names a group or a unit.
family • audience • crowd • committee • team • class
Concrete Nouns — A concrete noun names a thing that is tangible (can be seen, touched, heard, smelled, or tasted).
child • the White Stripes • gym • village • microwave oven • pizza
1
Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 398
PART 3 WRITE
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 399
Abstract Nouns — An abstract noun names an idea, a condition, or a feeling—in other words, some- thing that cannot be seen, touched, heard, smelled, or tasted.
beauty • Jungian psychology • anxiety • agoraphobia • trust
Forms of Nouns Nouns are grouped according to their number, gender, and case.
Number of Nouns — Number indicates whether a noun is singular or plural. A singular noun refers to one person, place, thing, or idea. A plural noun refers to more than one person, place, thing, or idea.
Singular: student • laboratory • lecture • note • grade result
Plural: students • laboratories • lectures • notes • grade results
Gender of Nouns — Gender indicates whether a noun is masculine, feminine, neuter, or indefinite.
Masculine father • king • brother • men • colt • rooster
Feminine mother • queen • sister • women • filly • hen
Neuter (without gender)
notebook • monitor • car • printer
Indefinite (masculine or feminine)
professor • customer • children • doctor • people
Case of Nouns — The case of a noun tells what role the noun plays in a sentence. There are three cases: nominative, possessive, and objective.
Nominative: A noun in the nominative case is used as a subject. The subject of a sentence tells who or what the sentence is about.
Dean Henning manages the College of Arts and Communication.
Note: A noun is also in the nominative case when it is used as a predicate noun (or predicate nominative). A predicate noun follows a linking verb, usually a form of the be verb (such as am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been), and repeats or renames the subject.
Ms. Yokum is the person to talk to about the college’s impact in our community.
Possessive: A noun in the possessive case shows pos- session or ownership. In this form, it acts as an adjec- tive.
Our president’s willingness to discuss concerns with students has boosted campus morale.
Objective: A noun in the objective case serves as an ob- ject of the preposition, a direct object, an indirect ob- ject, or an object complement.
To survive, institutions of higher learning sometimes cut budgets in spite of protests from students and instructors.
(Learning is the object of the preposition of, pro- tests is the object of the preposition in spite of, budgets is the direct object of the verb cut, and students and instructors are the objects of the preposition from.)
A Closer Look: Direct and Indirect Objects A direct object is a noun (or pronoun) that iden- tifies what or who receives the action of the verb.
Budget cutbacks reduced class choices. (Choices is the direct object of the active verb reduced.)
An indirect object is a noun (or pronoun) that identifies the person to whom or for whom some- thing is done, or the thing to which or for which something is done. An indirect object is always accompanied by a direct object.
Recent budget cuts have given students fewer class choices. (Choices is the direct object of have given; students is the indirect object.)
ESL Note: Not every transitive verb is followed by both a direct object and an indirect object. Both can, however, follow give, send, show, tell, teach, find, sell, ask, offer, pay, pass, and hand.
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
555-7 514
Quick Guide: Classes of Pronouns
Personal I, me, my, mine / we, us, our, ours / you, your, yours / they, them, their, theirs / he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its
Reflexive and Intensive
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, your- selves, themselves
Relative who, whose, whom, which, that
Indefinite all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, each one, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, most, much, neither, nobody, none, no one, noth- ing, one, other, several, some, somebody, someone, some- thing, such
Interrogative who, whose, whom, which, what
Demonstrative this, that, these, those
Reciprocal each other, one another
Alexander Kalina, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com © Graffizone/iStockphoto.com400 Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k
Classes of Pronouns There are several classes of pronouns: personal, ref lex- ive and intensive, relative, indefinite, interrogative, de- monstrative, and reciprocal.
Personal Pronouns — A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing.
Marge started her car; she drove the antique convertible to Monterey, where she hoped to sell it at an auction.
Reflexive Pronouns — A reflexive pronoun is formed by adding -self or -selves to a personal pro- noun. A ref lexive pronoun can act as a direct object or an indirect object of a verb, an object of a preposition, or a predicate nominative.
Pronoun A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun. Most pronouns have an antecedent. An antecedent is the noun or pronoun that the pronoun refers to or re- places. Most pronouns have antecedents, but not all do. (See “Indefinite Pronouns” on page 401.)
Sample Pronouns: Roger was the most interesting 10-year-old I ever taught. He was a good thinker and thus a good writer. I remember his paragraph about the cowboy hat he received from his grandparents. It was “too new looking.” The brim was not rolled properly. But the hat’s imperfections were not the main idea in Roger’s writing. No, the main idea was how he was fixing the hat himself by wearing it when he showered.
Sample Antecedents: As the wellness counselor checked her chart, several students who were waiting their turns shifted uncomfortably.
(Counselor is the antecedent of her; students is the antecedent of who and their.)
Note: Each pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person, and gender. (See page 421.)
2
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 401
Note: When an interrogative pronoun modifies a noun, it functions as an adjective.
Demonstrative Pronouns — A demonstrative pronoun points out people, places, or things.
We advise this: Bring along as many maps and schedules as you need.
Those are useful tools. That is the solution.
Note: When a demonstrative pronoun modifies a noun, it functions as an adjective.
Forms of Personal Pronouns The form of a personal pronoun indicates its number (singular or plural), its person (first, second, or third), its case (nominative, possessive, or objective), and its gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, or indefinite).
Number of Pronouns — A personal pronoun is either singular (I, you, he, she, it) or plural (we, you, they).
He should have a budget and stick to it. (singular)
We can help new students learn about budgeting. (plural)
Person of Pronouns — The person of a pronoun indicates whether the person is speaking (first per- son), is spoken to (second person), or is spoken about (third person).
First person is used to name the speaker(s).
I know I need to handle my stress in a healthful way, especially during exam week; my usual chips-and- doughnuts binge isn’t helping.
(singular)
We all decided to bike to the tennis court. (plural)
Second person is used to name the person(s) spoken to.
Maria, you grab the rackets, okay? (singular)
John and Tanya, can you find the water bottles? (plural)
Charles loves himself. direct object of loves
Charles gives himself A’s for fashion sense indirect object of gives
Charles smiles at himself in store windows. object of preposition at
Charles can be himself anywhere. predicate nominative
Intensive Pronouns — An intensive pronoun inten- sifies, or emphasizes, the noun or pronoun it refers to.
Leo himself taught his children to invest their lives in others.
The lesson was sometimes painful—but they learned it themselves.
Relative Pronouns — A relative pronoun relates an adjective dependent (relative) clause to the noun or pronoun it modifies. (The noun is italicized in each example below; the relative pronoun is in bold.)
Freshmen who believe they have a lot to learn are absolutely right.
Just navigating this campus, which is huge, can be challenging.
Indefinite Pronouns — An indefinite pronoun re- fers to unnamed or unknown people, places, or things.
Everyone seemed amused when I was searching for my classroom in the student center.
(The antecedent of everyone is unnamed.)
Nothing is more unnerving than rushing at the last minute into the wrong room for the wrong class.
(The antecedent of nothing is unknown.)
Most indefinite pronouns are singular, so when they are used as subjects, they should have singular verbs. (See pages 418–420.)
Interrogative Pronouns — An interrogative pro- noun asks a question.
So which will it be—highlighting and attaching a campus map to the inside of your backpack, or being lost and late for the first two weeks?
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Quick Guide: Number, Person, and Case of Personal Pronouns
Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 402
Third person is used to name the person(s) or thing(s) spoken about.
Today’s students are interested in wellness issues. They are concerned about their health, fitness, and nutrition.
(plural)
Maria practices yoga and feels she is calmer for her choice.
(singular)
One of the advantages of regular exercise is that it raises one’s energy level.
(singular)
Case of Pronouns — The case of each pronoun tells what role it plays in a sentence. There are three cases: nominative, possessive, and objective.
Nominative: A pronoun in the nominative case is used as a subject. The following are nominative forms: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
He found an old map in the trunk.
My friend and I went biking. (not me)
A pronoun is also in the nominative case when it is used as a predicate nominative, following a linking verb (am, is, are, was, were, seems) and renaming the subject.
It was he who discovered electricity. (not him)
Possessive: A pronoun in the possessive case shows possession or ownership: my, mine, our, ours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, its, your, yours. A possessive pronoun before a noun acts as an adjective: your coat.
That coat is hers. | This coat is mine. | Your coat is lost.
Objective: A pronoun in the objective case can be used as the direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, or object complement: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
Professor Adler hired her. (Her is the direct object of the verb hired.)
He showed Mary and me the language lab. (Me is the indirect object of the verb showed.)
He introduced the three of us—Mary, Shavonn, and me—to the faculty.
(Us is the object of the preposition of; me is part of the appositive renaming us.)
Gender of Pronouns — The gender of a pronoun indicates whether the pronoun is masculine, femi- nine, neuter, or indefinite.
Masculine he, him, his
Feminine she, her, hers
Neuter (without gender)
it, its
Indefinite (masculine or feminine)
they, them, their
Nominative Case Possessive Case Objective Case
First Person Singular I my, mine me
Second Person Singular you your, yours you
Third Person Singular he, she, it his, her, hers, its him, her, it
First Person Plural we our, ours us
Second Person Plural you your, yours you Third Person Plural they their, theirs them
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Z el
jk o
R ad
o jk
o , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 403
Verb A verb shows action (pondered, grins), links words (is, seemed), or accompanies another action verb as an auxiliary or helping verb (can, does).
Harry honked the horn. (shows action)
Harry is impatient. (links words)
Harry was honking the truck’s horn. (accompanies the verb honking)
Classes of Verbs Verbs are classified as action, auxiliary (helping), or linking (state of being).
Action Verbs: Transitive and Intransitive — As its name implies, an action verb shows action. Some action verbs are transitive; others are intransitive. (The term action does not always refer to a physical activity.)
Rain splashed the windshield. (transitive verb)
Josie drove off the road. (intransitive verb)
Transitive: Transitive verbs have direct objects that receive the action.
The health-care industry employs more than 7 million workers in the United States.
(Workers is the direct object of the action verb em- ploys.)
Intransitive: Intransitive verbs communicate action that is complete in itself. They do not need an object to receive the action.
My new college roommate smiles and laughs a lot.
Note: Some verbs can be either transitive or intransi- tive.
Ms. Hull teaches physiology and microbiology. (transitive)
She teaches well. (intransitive)
3 Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs — Auxiliary verbs (help- ing verbs) help to form some of the tenses, the mood, and the voice of the main verb. (See pages 404–405.)
Auxiliary Verbs is am are was
were be being been
can could will would
shall should may might
must have has did
ESL Note: “Be” auxiliary verbs are always followed by either a verb ending in ing or a past participle.
Linking (State of Being) Verbs — A linking verb is a special form of intransitive verb that links the sub- ject of a sentence to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective in the predicate.
The streets are flooded. (adjective)
The streets are rivers! (noun)
Common Linking Verbs am are
be become
been being
is was
were
Additional Linking Verbs appear feel
look seem
sound grow
remain smell
taste
Note: The verbs listed as “additional linking verbs” above function as linking verbs when they do not show actual action. An adjective usually follows these linking verbs.
The sky looked ominous. (adjective)
My little brother grew frightened. (adjective)
Note: When these same words are used as action verbs, an adverb or a direct object may follow them.
I looked carefully at him. (adverb)
My little brother grew corn for a science project. (direct object)
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 404
Forms of Verbs A verb’s form differs depending on its number (sin- gular, plural), person (first, second, third), tense (pres- ent, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect), voice (active, passive), and mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive).
Number of a Verb — Number indicates whether a verb is singular or plural. The verb and its subject both must be singular, or they both must be plural. (See “Subject-Verb Agreement,” pages 418–420.)
My college enrolls high schoolers in summer programs. (singular)
Many colleges enroll high schoolers in summer courses. (plural)
Person of a Verb — Person indicates whether the subject of the verb is first, second, or third person. The verb and its subject must be in the same person. Verbs usually have a different form only in third person sin- gular of the present tense.
Tense of a Verb — Tense indicates the time of an action or state of being. There are three basic tenses (past, present, and future) and three verbal aspects (progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive).
Present tense: This tense expresses action happen- ing at the present time or regularly.
In the United States, more than 75 percent of workers hold service jobs.
Present progressive tense: This tense also express- es action that is happening continually, in an ongoing fashion at the present time, but it is formed by com- bining am, are, or is and the present participle (ending in ing) of the main verb.
More women than ever before are working outside the home.
Present perfect tense: This tense expresses action that began in the past and has recently been complet-
ed or that continues up to the present time.
My sister has taken four years of swimming lessons.
Present perfect progressive tense: This tense also expresses an action that began in the past but stresses the continuing nature of the action. Like the present progressive tense, it is formed by combining auxiliary verbs (have been or has been) and present participles.
She has been taking them since she was six years old.
Past tense: This tense expresses action that was com- pleted at a particular time in the past.
A hundred years ago, more than 75 percent of laborers worked in agriculture.
Past progressive tense: This tense expresses past ac- tion that continued over time. It is formed by combining was or were with the present participle of the main verb.
In 1900, my great-grandparents were farming.
Past perfect tense: This tense expresses an action in the past that was completed at a specific time before another past action occurred.
By the time we sat down for dinner, my cousins had eaten all the olives.
Past perfect progressive tense: This tense express- es a past action but stresses the continuing nature of the action. It is formed by using had been along with the present participle.
They had been eating the olives all afternoon.
Future tense: This tense expresses action that will take place in the future.
Next summer I will work as a lifeguard.
Future progressive tense: This tense expresses an action that will be continuous in the future.
I will be working for the park district at North Beach.
Future perfect tense: This tense expresses future ac- tion that will be completed by a specific time.
By 10:00 p.m., I will have completed my research project.
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Singular I think you think he/she/it thinks
Plural we think you think they think
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Quick Guide: Using Active Voice Generally, use active voice rather than passive voice for more direct, energetic writing. To change your passive sentences to active ones, do the following: First, find the noun that is doing the action and make it the subject. Then find the word that had been the subject and use it as the direct object.
Passive: The winning goal was scored by Eva. (The subject, goal, is not acting.)
Active: Eva scored the winning goal. (The subject, Eva, is acting.)
Note: When you want to emphasize the receiver more than the doer—or when the doer is un- known—use the passive voice. (Much technical and scientific writing regularly uses the passive voice.)
Le D
o , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
Fe su
s R
o b
er t,
2 0
1 1
/ U
se d
u n
d er
li ce
n se
fr o
m S
h u
tt er
st o
ck .c
o m
C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 405
Mood of a Verb — The mood of a verb indicates the tone or attitude with which a statement is made.
Indicative mood: This mood is the most common, is used to state a fact or to ask a question.
Can any theme capture the essence of the complex 1960s culture? President John F. Kennedy’s directive [to the right] represents one ideal popular during that decade.
Imperative mood: This mood is used to give a com- mand. (The subject of an imperative sentence is you, which is usually understood and not stated in the sen- tence.)
Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country. —John F. Kennedy
Subjunctive mood: This mood is used to express a wish, an impossibility or unlikely condition, or a ne- cessity. The subjunctive mood is often used with if or that. The verb forms below create an atypical subject- verb agreement, forming the subjunctive mood.
If I were rich, I would travel for the rest of my life. (a wish)
If each of your brain cells were one person, there would be enough people to populate 25 planets.
(an impossibility)
The English Department requires that every student pass a proficiency test.
(a necessity)
Verbals — A verbal is a word that is made from a verb, but it functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. There are three types of verbals: gerunds, in- finitives, and participles.
Gerund: A gerund ends in ing and is used as a noun.
Waking each morning is the first challenge. (subject)
I start moving at about seven o’clock. (direct object)
I work at jump-starting my weary system. (object of the preposition)
As Woody Allen once said, “Eighty percent of life is showing up.” (predicate nominative)
Future perfect progressive tense: This tense also expresses future action that will be completed by a specific time but (as with other perfect progressive tenses) stresses the action’s continuous nature. It is formed using will have been along with the present participle.
I will have been researching the project for three weeks by the time it’s due.
Voice of a Verb — Voice indicates whether the sub- ject is acting or being acted upon.
Active voice: This voice indicates that the subject of the verb is performing the action.
People update their résumés on a regular basis. (The subject, people, is acting; résumés is the di- rect object.)
Passive voice: This voice indicates that the subject of the verb is being acted upon or is receiving the action. A passive verb is formed by combining a be verb with a past participle.
Your résumé should be updated on a regular basis. (The subject, résumé, is receiving the action.)
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Quick Guide: Using Verbals Make sure that you use verbals correctly; look care- fully at the examples below.
Verbal: Diving is a popular Olympic sport. (Diving is a gerund used as a subject.)
Diving gracefully, the Olympian hoped to get high marks.
(Diving is a participle modifying Olympian.)
Verb: The next competitor was diving in the practice pool.
(Here, diving is a verb, not a verbal.)
Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 406
Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs can often be confusing. That’s because the past tense and past participle of irregular verbs are formed by changing the word itself, not merely by adding d or ed. The following list contains the most troublesome irregular verbs.
Common Irregular Verbs and Their Principal Parts
Present Past Past Tense Tense Participle
am, be was, were been
arise arose arisen
awake awoke, awoken,
awaked awaked
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bite bit bitten, bit
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
build built built
burn burnt, burnt,
burned burned
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
dig dug dug
dive dived, dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed, dreamed,
dreamt dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
Infinitive: An infinitive is to and the base form of the verb. The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjec- tive, or an adverb.
To succeed is not easy. (noun)
That is the most important thing to remember. (adjective)
Students are wise to work hard. (adverb)
ESL Note: It can be difficult to know whether a ger- und or an infinitive should follow a verb. It’s helpful to become familiar with lists of specific verbs that can be followed by one but not the other.
Participle: A present participle ends in ing and func- tions as an adjective. A past participle ends in ed (or another past tense form) and also functions as an ad- jective.
The studying students were annoyed by the partying ones.
The students playing loud music were annoying. (These participles function as adjectives: studying, partying, playing, and annoying students. Notice, however, that playing has a direct object: music. All three types of verbals may have direct objects. See “Verbal Phrase” on page 414.)
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Se b
as ti
an C
ro ck
er , 2
0 1
1 /
U se
d u
n d
er li
ce n
se fr
o m
S h
u tt
er st
o ck
.c o
m
C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 407
Present Past Past Tense Tense Participle
fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten,
forgot
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (execute) hanged hanged
hang (suspend) hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie (deceive) lied lied
lie (recline) lay lain
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
prove proved proved,
proven
put put put
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
Present Past Past Tense Tense Participle
rise rose risen
run ran run
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine (light) shone shone
shine (polish) shined shined
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
strike struck struck,
stricken
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
wake woke, woken,
waked waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wind wound wound
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
matka_Wariatka, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 408
Adjective An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. The articles a, an, and the are adjectives.
Advertising is a big and powerful industry. (A, big, and powerful modify the noun industry.)
Note: Many demonstrative, indefinite, and inter- rogative forms may be used as either adjectives or pronouns (that, these, many, some, whose, and so on). These words are adjectives if they come before a noun and modify it; they are pronouns if they stand alone.
Some advertisements are less than truthful. (Some modifies advertisements and is an adjec- tive.)
Many cause us to chuckle at their outrageous claims. (Many stands alone; it is a pronoun and replaces the noun advertisements.)
Proper Adjectives — Proper adjectives are created from proper nouns and are capitalized.
English has been influenced by advertising slogans. (proper noun)
The English language is constantly changing. (proper adjective)
Predicate Adjectives — A predicate adjective fol- lows a form of the be verb (or other linking verb) and describes the subject. (See “Linking (State of Being) Verbs” on page 403.)
At its best, advertising is useful; at its worst, deceptive. (Useful and deceptive modify the noun advertis- ing.)
Forms of Adjectives — Adjectives have three forms: positive, comparative, and superlative.
The positive form is the adjective in its regular form. It describes a noun or a pronoun without comparing it to anyone or anything else.
Joysport walking shoes are strong and comfortable.
4 The comparative form (-er, more, or less) compares two things. (More and less are used generally with ad- jectives of two or more syllables.)
Air soles make Mile Eaters stronger and more comfortable than Joysports.
The superlative form (-est, most, or least) compares three or more things. (Most and least are used most often with adjectives of two or more syllables.)
My old Canvas Wonders are the strongest, most comfortable shoes of all!
Adverb An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a whole sentence. An adverb an- swers questions such as how, when, where, why, how often, or how much.
The temperature fell sharply. (Sharply modifies the verb fell.)
The temperature was quite low. (Quite modifies the adjective low.)
The temperature dropped very quickly. (Very modifies the adverb quickly, which modifies the verb dropped.)
Unfortunately, the temperature stayed cool. (Unfortunately modifies the whole sentence.)
Types of Adverbs — Adverbs can be grouped in four ways: time, place, manner, and degree.
Time: These adverbs tell when, how often, and how long.
Place: These adverbs tell where, to where, and from where.
5
today, yesterday daily, weekly briefly, eternally
here, there nearby, beyond backward, forward
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Quick Guide: Regular and Irregular Adverbs
C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 409
Manner: These adverbs often end in ly and tell how something is done.
Degree: These adverbs tell how much or how little.
Forms of Adverbs — Adverbs have three forms: positive, comparative, and superlative.
The positive form is the adverb in its regular form. It describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb with- out comparing it to anyone or anything else.
With Joysport shoes, you’ll walk fast. They support your feet well.
The comparative form (-er, more, or less) compares two things. (More and less are used generally with ad- verbs of two or more syllables.)
Wear Jockos instead of Joysports, and you’ll walk faster. Jockos’ special soles support your feet better than the Joysports do.
The superlative form (-est, most, or least) compares three or more things. (Most and least are used most often with adverbs of two or more syllables.)
Really, I walk fastest wearing my old Canvas Wonders. They seem to support my feet, my knees, and my pocketbook best of all.
Preposition A preposition is a word (or group of words) that shows the relationship between its object (a noun or pronoun following the preposition) and another word in the sentence.
Regarding your reasons for going to college, do they all hinge on getting a good job after graduation?
(In this sentence, reasons, going, college, getting, and graduation are objects of their preceding prepositions regarding, for, to, on, and after.)
6 precisely regularly regally well
substantially greatly entirely
partly too
Prepositions aboard about above according to across across from after against along alongside alongside of along with amid among apart from around as far as aside from at away from back of because of before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by by means of concerning considering despite
down down from during except except for excepting for from from among from between from under in in addition to in behalf of in front of in place of in regard to inside inside of in spite of instead of into like near near to notwithstanding of off on on account of on behalf of onto on top of opposite out out of
outside outside of over over to owing to past prior to regarding round save since subsequent to through throughout till to together with toward under underneath until unto up upon up to with within without
Regular Irregular
Positive fast effectively
well badly
Comparative faster more effectively
better worse
Superlative fastest most effectively
best worst
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 410
Experience is the worst teacher; it gives the test before it presents the lesson.
(The clause before it presents the lesson is depen- dent. It connects to the independent clause it gives the test.)
Note: Relative pronouns can also connect clauses. (See “Relative Pronouns” on page 401.)
Conjunctions
Interjection An interjection communicates strong emotion or sur- prise (oh, ouch, hey, and so on). Punctuation (often a comma or an exclamation point) is used to set off an interjection.
Hey! Wait! Well, so much for catching the bus.
8
ESL Note: Prepositions often pair up with a verb and become part of an idiom, a slang expression, or a two- word verb.
Prepositional Phrases — A prepositional phrase includes the preposition, the object of the preposition, and the modifiers of the object. A prepositional phrase may function as an adverb or an adjective.
A broader knowledge of the world is one benefit of higher education.
(The two phrases function as adjectives modifying the nouns knowledge and benefit respectively.)
He placed the flower in the window. (The phrase functions as an adverb modifying the verb placed.)
Conjunction A conjunction connects individual words or groups of words.
When we came back to Paris, it was clear and cold and lovely. —Ernest Hemingway
Coordinating Conjunctions — Coordinating con- junctions usually connect a word to a word, a phrase to a phrase, or a clause to a clause. The words, phrases, or clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction are equal in importance or are of the same type.
Civilization is a race between education and catastrophe. —H. G. Wells
Correlative Conjunctions — Correlative conjunc- tions are a type of coordinating conjunction used in pairs.
There are two inadvisable ways to think: either believe everything or doubt everything.
Subordinating Conjunctions — Subordinating conjunctions connect two clauses that are not equally important. A subordinating conjunction connects a dependent clause to an independent clause. The con- junction is part of the dependent clause.
7
and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
either, or; neither, nor; not only, but (but also); both, and; whether, or
after, although, as, as if, as long as, because, before, even though, if, in order that, provided that, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, while
Coordinating
Correlative
Subordinating
Noun — A noun is a word that names some- thing: a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
Toni Morrison/author Lone Star/film
UC–Davis/university Renaissance/era
A Congress of Wonders/book
A Closer Look: Parts of Speech
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
© Tetra Images/Jupiter Images C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 411
Pronoun — A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
I my that themselves which
it ours they everybody you
Verb — A verb is a word that expresses action, links words, or acts as an auxiliary verb to the main verb.
are break drag fly run sit was
bite catch eat is see tear were
Adjective — An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. (The articles a, an, and the are adjectives.)
The carbonated drink went down easy on that hot, dry day. (The and carbonated modify drink; that, hot, and dry modify day.)
Adverb — An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a whole sentence. An adverb generally answers questions such as how, when, where, how often, or how much.
greatly precisely regularly there
here today partly quickly
slowly yesterday nearly loudly
Preposition — A preposition is a word (or group of words) that shows the relationship between its ob- ject (a noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and another word in the sentence. Prepositions in- troduce prepositional phrases, which are modifiers.
across for with out to of
Conjunction — A conjunction connects individu- al words or groups of words.
and because but for or since so yet
Interjection — An interjection is a word that com- municates strong emotion or surprise. Punctuation (often a comma or an exclamation point) is used to set off an interjection from the rest of the sentence.
Stop! No! What, am I invisible?
C op
yr ig
ht 2
01 1
C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g. A
ll R
ig ht
s R
es er
ve d.
M ay
n ot
b e
co pi
ed , s
ca nn
ed , o
r du
pl ic
at ed
, i n
w ho
le o
r in
p ar
t. D
ue t
o el
ec tr
on ic
r ig
ht s,
s om
e th
ir d
pa rt
y co
nt en
t m
ay b
e su
pp re
ss ed
f ro
m t
he e
B oo
k an
d/ or
e C
ha pt
er (s
). E
di to
ri al
r ev
ie w
h as
d ee
m ed
t ha
t an
y su
pp re
ss ed
c on
te nt
d oe
s no
t m
at er
ia ll
y af
fe ct
t he
o ve
ra ll
l ea
rn in
g ex
pe ri
en ce
. C en
ga ge
L ea
rn in
g re
se rv
es t
he r
ig ht
t o
re m
ov e
ad di
ti on
al c
on te
nt a
t an
y ti
m e
if s
ub se
qu en
t ri
gh ts
r es
tr ic
ti on
s re
qu ir
e it
.
F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S
- read
- Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch01
- PART 1: WRITE
- Chapter 1: Understanding the Reading-Writing Connection�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
- Use the SQ3R reading strategy.
- Read actively.
- Respond to a text.
- Summarize a text.
- Effectively analyze images.
- Think critically through writing.
- Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
- Pages from EnglishCompII_Unit1Read
- read
- Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch03
- Chapter 3: Starting�������������������������������������������������������������������������
- Discover your process.
- Understand the rhetorical situation.
- Understand the assignment.
- Select, limit, and explore your topic.
- Collect information and track your sources.
- Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
- Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch04
- Chapter 4: Planning�������������������������������������������������������������������������
- Revisit the rhetorical situation.
- Form your thesis statement.
- Select a method of development.
- Develop a plan or an outline.
- Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
- Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch25
- Chapter 25: Planning Your Research Project����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
- Understand academic research.
- Initiate the process.
- Develop a research plan.
- Consider possible resources and sites.
- Understand sources.
- Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
- Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch30
- PART 3: WRITE
- Chapter 30: Grammar�������������������������������������������������������������������������
- Noun
- Pronoun
- Verb
- Adjective
- Adverb
- Preposition
- Conjunction
- Interjection
