Literature HOMEWORK

Joshua Casey

National University

HSE490: Supervised Senior Project

Professor Bruce Reaves

April 4, 2026

Chapter I: Introduction

Background of the Study

Public schools have faced sustained pressure to strengthen emergency preparedness since highly publicized school shootings exposed serious weaknesses in school response systems. Schildkraut et al. (2022) described how lockdown drills became standardized after the attack at Columbine and that 95% of U.S. public schools conducted them in 2015-2016 (pp. 1877-1878). The authors also noted that following the Parkland massacre, concerns intensified about whether staff and students were adequately prepared to respond to an active threat, particularly because prior training had been limited. (Schildkraut et al., 2022, pp. 1877 - 1878) [since you are continuing from the same author, no need to cite it. This history suggests that emergency preparedness has shifted from a peripheral safety function to a central feature of school safety planning. This is much better engagement with the source. Don’t be afraid to elaborate a little more to “introduce your topic”.

The growth of preparedness activity, however, has not guaranteed plan quality. Aspiranti et al. (2024) reviewed 73 school crisis plans using a 102-item checklist. They found that plans averaged only 22.29 items, suggesting that many written plans may lack comprehensive coverage of recommended crisis planning elements (p. 4189). The authors also noted that a plan should include responsible personnel, resource availability, realistic scenarios, evaluation processes, and effective communication strategies for staff, students, parents, emergency services, and community members (Aspiranti et al., 2024, p. 4190). This is significant because a plan may be perceived as adequate even if it does not provide the level of detail required in a rapidly evolving situation. This means a district might be compliant but still not provide the operational details needed in a fast-evolving crisis. Excellent.

Research on drills also shows that preparedness cannot be judged solely by frequency. When teachers found active shooter and lockdown drills effective, they also felt safer and had lower intentions to leave their school or leave the teaching profession (Perry et al., 2026, p. 258). On the other hand, the study also showed that the greater the number of drills, the lower perceived safety and intentions to quit, suggesting that repetition in and of itself does not necessarily increase confidence or trust in the preparedness process (Perry et al., 2026, (p. 266). This distinction shifts attention from drill frequency alone to the quality and perceived usefulness of preparedness practices. It suggests that readiness may depend less on repetition by itself and more on how clearly training, support, and communication are integrated into the preparedness process. Yes!

There is also evidence that preparedness may reduce injuries when it leads to improved performance. Schildkraut et al. (2023) found that ongoing training and drills developed and sustained skill mastery in lockdown procedures and that use of lockdowns during real-world school shootings was protective and correlated with fewer injuries and deaths (p. 167). In the same study, the authors reported that training effects were maintained during later drills over the four-year study period, suggesting that practice may improve procedural performance over time as long as it is well-designed (p. 176). This is important because casualty reduction doesn't happen by accident during an active threat. Rather, it is influenced by staff members’ ability to execute protective actions quickly, consistently, and under stress.

Problem Statement

A challenge in homeland security and emergency management is that public schools may have emergency preparedness plans and drills in place, but school staff may not know which practices are effective in improving staff their response performance during an active threat. Welton-Mitchell et al. (2025) noted that teachers and school staff are rarely included in the development of emergency preparedness plans and drills, even though they are expected to follow procedures that reduce harm to students in an emergency (p. 389). Great point. The study later reported that psychological preparedness was the strongest training-related outcome, suggesting that this aspect of preparedness may be especially responsive to targeted intervention (Welton-Mitchell et al., 2025, (p. 396). This is important because active threat scenarios are fast-moving, and unclear roles, communication, and coordination increase vulnerability to harm. If school leaders had a better understanding of the impact of training, communication, and coordination on staff readiness and response performance, they could better justify which practices to prioritize in their emergency preparedness plans. The purpose of this study is to answer that question by exploring the impact of emergency preparedness practices on staff readiness, response performance, and the ultimate objective of casualty reduction in public high schools. Excellent.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine whether emergency preparedness plans in public high schools become effective only when they translate into measurable staff readiness and response performance during active threat situations. More specifically, the study investigates whether training helps staff understand their roles, feel prepared to act under pressure, and carry out protective actions in a coordinated manner.

Research Question

How effective are emergency preparedness practices in public high schools at improving staff readiness and response performance during active threat situations?

Objectives of the Study

· Examine how emergency preparedness training influences staff readiness, including confidence, situational awareness, and understanding of protective responsibilities during active threat situations.

· Evaluate staff response performance during active threat situations through indicators such as timely action, procedural compliance, communication effectiveness, and coordination with first responders.

· Analyze the relationship between staff readiness and response performance to determine whether greater readiness is associated with stronger emergency response.

· Identify gaps in current preparedness practices that may weaken staff response performance and reduce the ability of public high schools to minimize injuries and deaths during active threat events. These are good. You may need to refine as your literature review moves forward.

Rationale of the Study

This study is needed because districts are making life-or-death preparedness decisions in a field where the research is inconclusive. Advant et al. (2026) found 42% of surveyed school staff reported observing negative psychological consequences resulting from shooter drills, but 79% also reported the drills had been helpful (p. 1). This mix of support and concern underscores the need for stronger evidence to help districts decide what to retain, change, or eliminate in school preparedness. A policy that is perceived to be beneficial can still be costly if it is poorly designed, unevenly implemented, or does not meet staff needs. The current study examines preparedness practices that can be assessed by staff readiness and response performance rather than drill participation. The evidence here is strong.

It is also important because drills do not influence all of the factors that affect response. Perry et al. (2026) found that drills may not be sufficient to meet teachers' professional needs, even when teachers report a positive experience (p. 258). This suggests that emergency preparedness should be viewed as a broader system encompassing communication, role clarity, support, and coordination, rather than simply as a drill program. Thus, the present study is important because it aims to determine which preparedness features are most likely to lead to capacity in a given situation. This can help districts achieve readiness rather than symbolic preparedness. Good point. I like the word choice of symbolic as often we think we are ready but in fact no.

Definition of Terms

1. Active threat situation: A violent event in or near a school that requires immediate protective action from school personnel and students.

2. Emergency preparedness practices: School-based activities used to prepare personnel for emergencies, including drills, training, and related planning procedures incorporated into school safety systems (Welton-Mitchell et al., 2025, p. 389).

3. Staff readiness: School staff members’ level of emergency preparedness, understood as knowing what to do to protect themselves and others during a school emergency (Schildkraut et al., 2022, p. 1877).

4. Response performance: The extent to which school personnel correctly carry out protective procedures during an emergency, including accurate deployment of lockdown steps and other trained actions (Schildkraut et al., 2023, p. 176).

5. Casualty reduction: A decrease in injuries and deaths during school shooting events through the protective use of preparedness measures such as lockdowns (Schildkraut et al., 2023, p. 167).

Limitations of the Study

The first limitation is the study's narrow focus on the study setting. The study is limited to public high schools, so the results may not apply to elementary, private, or postsecondary schools, where student ages, staffing models, and emergency management procedures may differ.

The second limitation is the use of existing literature rather than primary research. Since the study does not gather evidence from a single school district, it can uncover patterns, themes, and relationships among previous literature. Still, it cannot observe staff responses during a real active threat incident.

The third limitation is the rarity of actual active threat events. Because these events are relatively rare, most of the literature uses drills, simulations, perceptions, and other proxies for preparedness as indicators rather than comparing casualty counts from real events. This leaves the study better able to assess preparedness and response performance, rather than definitively prove casualty reduction across all scenarios.

The fourth limitation is the decision to emphasize recent literature. The focus on current literature increases its relevance to current school safety practice, but it may overlook some older, seminal work that informs emergency preparedness planning and interpretation.

Theoretical Framework

The Protection Motivation Theory guides this study. Schildkraut et al. (2022) clarified that this theory connects protective responses to people's appraisal of the threat's danger, their vulnerability to the harm, the efficacy of the response, and their self-efficacy to execute it (pp. 1877 - 1878). This theory is helpful in the context of school emergency preparedness because staff are more likely to respond quickly and appropriately to a threat if they believe the threat is genuine, that the response procedures are effective, and that they can implement them. This theory is relevant to the current study because staff readiness represents self-efficacy, while staff response performance measures whether staff can put their beliefs into action. Protection Motivation Theory, therefore, provides a rationale for the impact of training, communication, and coordination on school emergency response.

Research Hypotheses

· Emergency preparedness practices centered on training, communication, and coordination are positively associated with improved staff readiness in public high schools during active threat situations.

· Emergency preparedness practices centered on training, communication, and coordination are positively associated with stronger staff response performance in public high schools during active threat situations.

· Higher staff readiness is associated with stronger response performance during active threat situations.

· Stronger staff readiness and response performance increase the likelihood that emergency preparedness practices will contribute to reducing injuries and deaths during active threat events.

Summary of Remaining Chapters

Chapter II will review the literature on school plan quality, staff training, drills, communication systems, coordination with responders, and performance-related outcomes. Chapter III will present the study methodology and results. Chapter IV will discuss the findings, draw conclusions, and provide recommendations for improving emergency preparedness in public high schools.

References