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HSE 304 CHAPTER 1

Chapter 1

Volunteer Models and Management

R. Dale Safrit, EdD

North Carolina State University

Ryan Schmiesing, PhD

Ohio Community Service Council

This chapter introduces and defines the concept of volunteer management. Historical models of volunteer management are described, culminating in an in-depth description of the only model of contemporary volunteer management based on empirical data collected from actual volunteer managers, the PEP Model of Volunteer Administration: (Personal) Preparation, (Volunteer) Engagement, and (Program) Perpetuation.1

Volunteers and Their Essential Management

The social phenomenon of volunteerism has had enormous positive effects on individuals, their families and communities, and entire cultures for well over two centuries in the United States and for at least half a century in western Europe and other areas around the globe (Ellis & Noyes, 1990; Govaart, van Daal, Münz, & Keesom, 2001; Jedlicka, 1990). Even in times of national economic slowdowns, individuals continue to readily give their time, energies, and talents to other individuals and groups (other than family members) with no expectation for financial remuneration (Gose, 2009). And while informal volunteerism continues to thrive at the individual and grassroots organizational levels, steady numbers of individuals also continue to volunteer within formal programs and organizations. The United States Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008) concluded that during the 12 months between September of 2007 and 2008, almost 62 million people volunteered for formal organizations in the United States; this roughly corresponds to almost 27% of the population aged 16 and over. Most volunteers were involved with either one or two organizations—68.9% and 19.8%, respectively.

In today's complex society and era of rapid social and technological change, it is essential that formal programs and organizations engaging volunteers do so within a logical, holistic, systematic process that maximizes a volunteer's impacts on the program's/organization's clientele being served while minimizing inconveniences and demands on the volunteer as an individual. While it is important to consider and respect each volunteer as a unique individual, large numbers of volunteers focusing on a single clientele or working within a single program require a higher level of organizational coordination in order for the organization to meet its mission and fulfill its commitments to the volunteers served. Thus, it is essential that all formal volunteer-based programs and organizations develop a consistent and logical approach (or model) to engaging and sustaining (or managing) volunteer involvement. (In actuality, we would argue that even informal volunteer initiatives would also benefit from a logical and consistent approach to engaging and sustaining volunteers, but that is a discussion for another time and place.) This chapter explores the concept of volunteer management, both historically and today, and its essentials components.

Concept of Management

Any discussion of volunteer management must begin with a discussion of the foundation concept of management itself. According to Kreitner (1998), “Management is the process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives in a changing environment. Central to this process is the effective and efficient use of limited resources” (p. 5). Kreitner further identifies eight fundamental management functions that also readily apply to volunteer programs and organizations:

Planning “is the formulation of future courses of action” (Kreitner, 1998, p. 14). Paid staff in volunteer organizations must plan for the services and/or programs offered to clientele. And, of course, they must also plan how to identify, engage, and sustain the volunteers involved in delivering the services and/or programs. Serafino (2010, p. 104) concluded that “[p]lanning is a complex activity [in volunteer organizations], perhaps made more complex by the involvement of volunteers.”

Decision making involves managers “choosing among alternative courses of action” (Kreitner, 1998, p. 15). In volunteer-based programs, decisions must be made regarding which clientele to serve, how to best serve them, and which volunteers to accept into the organization. Yallen (2010) specifically discusses the need for volunteer administrators to be competent in making ethical decisions.

Organizing involves “structural considerations such as the chain of command, division of labor, and assignment of responsibility” (Kreitner 1998, p. 15). Managers in volunteer organizations must decide which paid staff member will be responsible for managing the organization's volunteers, to whom that individual will report, and if that will be a full-time responsibility or if the individual will also have additional professional responsibilities (e.g., fundraising, marketing, etc.) Peach and Murrell (1995) discussed a systems approach to organizing in volunteer organizations and concluded that “replicating current cutting-edge organizing models will lead to. . . evolving even more innovative organizational models unique to the volunteer worker culture” (p. 232).

Staffing “consists of recruiting, training, and developing people who can contribute to the organization” (Kreitner, 1998, p. 15). In volunteer organizations, staffing applies to securing and managing both paid staff and volunteers. Krywood (2010) provides an excellent discussion on staffing within volunteer organizations.

Communicating involves “managers. . . communicating to their employees the technical knowledge, instructions, rules, and information required to get the job done” (Kreitner, 1998, p. 15). Volunteers are a critical second targeted group for communications in a volunteer organization. Macduff (1995) discussed the critical role of communications in volunteer organizations and concluded that “[v]olunteers and [paid] staff need policies, procedures, and structures that permit and encourage them to communicate” (p. 210).

Motivating involves encouraging “individuals to pursue collective objectives by satisfying needs and meeting expectations with meaningful work and valued rewards” (Kreitner, 1998, p. 15). The topic of volunteer motivation has been well studied and commented on for decades. An entire issue of the International Journal of Volunteer Administration is dedicated to the topic of volunteer motivation (e.g., Finkelstein, 2007; Littlepage, Perry, Brudney, & Goff, 2007; Starnes, 2007; Yoshioka, Brown, & Ashcraft, 2007).

Leading involves managers “serving as role models and adapting their management style to the demands of the situation” (Kreitner, 1998, p. 15). Managers of volunteers are very often directly engaged along with volunteers in delivering services or programs to clientele, thus serving as role models. Varella (2010) concluded that leaders in organizations engaging volunteers “must fully appreciate how their own leadership abilities help foster the motivation of volunteers” (p. 434).

Controlling involves “managers [comparing] desired results with actual results and [taking] necessary corrective action” (Kreitner, 1998, p. 15). The concept of “control” is sometimes considered a negative concept wherein one individual attempts to maintain power (or “control”) over another individual or group of individuals. In reality, controlling is readily practiced in volunteer programs and could better be considered under the more widely used term of “supervision.” Volunteer managers sometimes must decide that an individual's involvement as a volunteer is no longer in the best interest of the clientele served, the volunteer, and/or the overall organization and subsequently must take corrective action (Herman, 2010); this is only one example of control in a volunteer organization. Practices involving fiscal management (Kerr, 2010) and quality improvement (Alaimo, 2010) are other examples of controlling in volunteer organizations.

Concepts of Volunteer and Volunteerism

The second foundational concept in volunteer management that must be defined along with the concept of management itself is, of course, the concept of volunteer (or volunteerism). The literature is replete with myriad individual approaches to and definitions of both of these social phenomena, some of which are controversial (Brudney, 1999). As early as 1967, Naylor identified volunteers serving as a committee or board member as administrative volunteers and those that provided direct service to others as operational volunteers. Park (1983) suggested that “the heart of volunteerism is the countless individual acts of commitment encompassing an endless variety of. . . tasks” (p. 118), while Smith (1989) considered a volunteer as anyone who reaches out beyond the confines of their paid employment and their normal responsibilities to contribute time and service to a not-for-profit cause in the belief that their activity is beneficial to others as well as satisfying to themselves. Safrit, King, and Burscu (1994) defined volunteerism operationally as “giving time, energies, or talents to any individual or group for which [the individual] is not paid” (p. 7).

Space in this chapter does not provide for an exhaustive discussion of these concepts. Rather, we basically adhere to Safrit, King, and Burscu's (1994) operational definition of “volunteer” and to Merrill and Safrit's (2000) conclusions that a “volunteer” is anyone who performs “volunteerism” and that any contemporary definition of volunteerism involves four fundamental tenets:

Volunteerism implies active involvement.

Volunteerism is (relatively) uncoerced.

Volunteerism is not motivated primarily by financial gain.

Volunteerism focuses on the common good.

Defining “Volunteer Management”

The ultimate purpose of the discussion in this section is to arrive at a contemporary definition of the process through which an individual (paid or unpaid) may most effectively and efficiently coordinate the contributions of individual volunteers seeking to help a formal organization or agency fulfill its mission. Consequently, and based on the management and volunteerism literature, we define volunteer management as the systematic and logical process of working with and through volunteers to achieve and organization's objectives in an ever-changing environment. Central to this definition is the effective and efficient engagement of volunteers as human resources who are respected and valued for both their individual and collective contributions toward the organization's mission and vision. (Of course, this conceptual definition of volunteer management would involve various fundamental subconstructs or components that would operationally define the concept in greater detail while synergistically contributing to the overall concept's definition.)

The individual who manages volunteers within these parameters is logically called a “volunteer manager” or “volunteer resource manager.” This individual may be a paid or unpaid staff member. (However, the former term often is discouraged in some contemporary associations involving paid managers of volunteers since to the uninformed, “volunteer manager” could be interpreted as a volunteer managing any aspect of the organization's operations or programs.) If that individual is a paid staff member who also performs administrative duties involving policy development or implementation regarding the volunteers being managed, or has fiduciary responsibilities regarding the volunteers’ involvement in the organization, then the term “volunteer administrator” could likewise apply. In their exhaustive Internet search of the literature, Brudney and Heinlein (2010) found nine separate titles used to describe professionals and practitioners in this field, including volunteer manager and volunteer administrator as well as administrator of volunteers, volunteer coordinator, coordinator of volunteers, manager of volunteers, director of volunteers, volunteer director, and community organizer.

Review of Major Volunteer Resource Management Models

Volunteer management has evolved as societies continue to change, requiring new strategies to meet the emerging needs of people in communities around the world through volunteerism. In the United States, from the early days of neighbors helping neighbors to the current virtual volunteering, volunteerism has played an important role in helping address the nation's challenges (Ellis & Noyes, 1990). In addition to the emergence of national service as a catalyst to increase volunteer engagement, strategic initiatives to engage baby boomers, college students, families, and virtual volunteering have all contributed to the growth of volunteerism in the United States. In fact, in 2009, 1.6 million more individuals volunteered than during the previous year (Corporation for National and Community Service, 2010). While still considered a relatively young profession, volunteer management nonetheless has played an important role in the evolution of volunteerism around the world and will continue to be important as more people volunteer and new strategies are introduced to engage individuals as volunteers. Historically, managers of volunteers have accepted responsibilities related to the identification, selection, orientation, training, utilization, recognition, and evaluation of volunteers, commonly referred to as ISOTURE (Boyce, 1971).

In her 1967 book, Volunteers Today: Finding, Training and Working with Them, Harriet Naylor was the first author to publish a text that focused on volunteer management. Following Boyce's seminal work of connecting leadership development to volunteer engagement, numerous authors and practitioners have suggested specific yet varied requisite foundational knowledge and skills for the effective and efficient administration of volunteer programs (Brudney, 1990; Culp, Deppe, Castillo, & Wells, 1998; Ellis, 1996; Fisher & Cole, 1993; Kwarteng, Smith, & Miller, 1988; Navarre, 1989; Penrod, 1991; Safrit, Smith, & Cutler, 1994; Stepputat, 1995; Wilson, 1976). In-depth and thorough reviews of each of these works have revealed similarities and disparities among the authors’ ideas regarding volunteer management competencies as well as similar findings and/or suggestions concerning the needed competencies for managers of volunteer programs to be successful (Safrit & Schmiesing, 2004, 2005). The remainder of this section provides an overview of the more popular models that have been used and adopted in the United States and around the world by volunteer managers.

Naylor (1967)

According to Wilson (1992), “The first book for our field was in 1967 Harriet Naylor: Volunteers Today: Finding, Training and Working with Them” (p. 45). According to Naylor (1967) herself, that “book was directed to those in leadership positions inorganizations which require the unpaid work of citizens in administration and program services. Such citizen volunteers may serve in meeting need for subsistence, health, education, cultural and aesthetic experience, and social acceptance” (p. 8). While Naylor never actually used the term “volunteer management” or “volunteer resource management,” she described the critical components of a plan for the development of volunteer leadership in organizations wherein paid and volunteer staff work hand in hand to fulfill the mission of the overarching organization. Naylor's approach to volunteer development included seven critical components:

An inventory of jobs

An inventory of volunteers

A recruitment plan

A selection and placement process

Induction and supervision

A comprehensive and unified training program

Provision for volunteer mobility (i.e., volunteers leaving their position and the organization)

Regarding the two components inventories of jobs and volunteers, Naylor emphasized “analyzing the work to be done [by volunteers] and dividing it into person-sized parts” (1967, p. 174) correlated with the “registration of all active individuals and a continuing record or prospects and new recruits to be matched against the jobs and vacancies discovered” (p. 175). As far as we can determine, Naylor was the first author to publish actual written volunteer job descriptions, one for what she termed “administrative volunteers” and a second for “program volunteers” (pp. 82–83). Following her two initial components was the development of a recruitment plan that used “an individualized approach, concentrated on [finding] particular individuals to fill specific vacancies” (p. 175). Selection and placement emphasized that “enough time and enough information must be available to the advisory staff and to the person appointing for both of them to consider carefully the qualifications of candidates and their potential for a job that is vacant” (p. 176). Induction and supervision ensured that a new volunteer was adequately introduced to the sponsoring organization and that the volunteer and supervising staff shared responsibility for the volunteer's continued success with the given task. Naylor was again the first author to publish standard volunteer training plan components involving the sequencing of volunteer training, actual teaching methods appropriate for volunteers, and considerations for approaching volunteers as adult learners. Finally, “a carefully individualized process for [volunteer] promotion, transfer, and separation of volunteers from the job” (p. 178) addressed the mobility of volunteers both within the organization and among volunteer organizations. Naylor emphasized the importance of formal exit interviews and referrals when a volunteer decided to leave the organization, for whatever reason.

Boyce (1971)

One of the most highly recognized models of volunteer resource management was first proposed by Milton Boyce in the early 1970s. Boyce's work provided a much-needed framework for the profession and originally was implemented through the national Cooperative Extension Service system. The model adopted by Boyce with a focus on volunteerism as leadership development was originally developed by Dr. Robert Dolan, professor of adult education at North Carolina State University. Importantly, Boyce stated that “the leadership development process is a systematic approach whereby individuals are offered the opportunity to increase their ability to influence the behavior of members of a social group” (1971, p. 3). Although it is a systematic process, it should be noted that “the leadership development process is continuous and this model is only a guide, not a prescription” (p. 15).

The model, commonly referred to as the ISOTURE model, introduced the management concepts of:

Identification. The process of finding people who have the competencies and attitudes essential to fill specific leadership positions

Selection. The process of studying the backgrounds of those potential leaders identified and desired, and motivating them to fill selected positions

Orientation. The process of orientating those leaders selected in the role expectations of the leader position

Training. The process of stimulating and supporting leaders’ efforts to acquire knowledge and to develop attitudes and skills that will improve the quality of their performance in leader positions

Utilization. The process of providing the opportunity for leaders to put acquired knowledge and skills into action in the most appropriate way, and provide them an opportunity to function

Recognition. The process of recognizing and rewarding sound leader performance

Evaluation. The process of determining results of leader performance

Like many authors who have come after him, Boyce emphasized evaluation but pointed out that “evaluation must be used to appraise the behavior of the volunteer leader since one of the goals of leader training and leader utilization is to provide growth in the leaders themselves” (1971, p. 15). The focus on the growth and development of the volunteer leader was unique at that time, and we could argue that it still is unique today.

While published nearly 40 years ago, Boyce's model of volunteer management provided the foundation for the volunteer management profession. The ISOTURE approach to volunteer leader development suggested seven subcategories inherent in volunteer management that remain relevant today and may be found in many, if not all models, that followed his work. Using Boyce's conceptual model more than two decades later, Safrit et al. (1994) developed BLAST: Building Leadership and Skills Together, a volunteer management curriculum targeted toward 4-H Youth Development professionals. This resource, utilized extensively across the U.S. Cooperative Extension Service, includes tools, resources, and worksheets for the volunteer manager.

Wilson (1976)

One of the first to emerge with a focus on the salaried volunteer administrator of volunteers, Marlene Wilson proposed the necessary components for paid staff to be successful and have an effective program engaging volunteers. Wilson placed heavy emphasis on the humane aspects of a management model and stressed the importance of the organizational climate that volunteers would be experiencing. The paid staff member has significant influence over the climate in an organization, and it is important that the volunteer resource manager focus on the nine dimensions that define climate that were originally proposed by Litwin and Stringer (1968). Wilson suggested strategies that might influence climate, including how an administrator might create an achievement-, affiliation-, or power-oriented climate. It is clear in her work that to Wilson, popular management and leadership functions applied to the role of the paid administrator were keys to creating the right culture and climate for volunteers, paid staff, and service recipients. In her model, Wilson relied heavily on management theory and practices from such authors and practitioners as Peter Drucker, Ken Blanchard, and Paul Hersey.

Wilson applied the theory of motivation to the functional steps of recruiting, interviewing and placing, supervising, and retaining volunteers. She stressed the importance of recruiting potential volunteers in a manner that highlighted the importance of their motivational factors. The interview stage provided the first real, in-depth opportunity for the paid administrator to determine the needs and goals of the potential volunteer and if they were congruent with those of the organization. Wilson suggested that it was important to understand if people are achievement, affiliation, or power oriented as that motivation greatly influenced the administrator's decision making and further advanced the notion that not one model fits all volunteers. Finally, retaining volunteers was closely tied to the reward and recognition structure of the organization. Understanding the motivation of individuals and groups would greatly inform the management functions and how they were applied in the volunteer setting.

Brudney (1990)

Jeffrey Brudney suggested steps that focused on mobilizing volunteers for public service in communities, basing a great deal of his discussion and recommendations on the results of the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE Association) study published in 1988. Growth in volunteerism in public services had been driven by several factors, including calls from public officials and the fiscal climate at the time of the book's publication, which was remarkably similar to today's environment. Additionally, Brudney identified the increasingly positive relationships between public administrators and citizens at the local level, resulting in increased volunteer rates through public programs. Regardless of the reason, it was important that volunteer managers in the public sector recognize the importance of formally managing volunteer programs.

Brudney identified the internal work that must be done to prepare for a successful volunteer program. Public sector entities must:

Identify reasons to have volunteers and the needs within the organization to improve services.

Gain employee perspectives and buy-in.

Develop a sound organizational structure, including housing the program.

Identify a director of volunteer services to provide overall leadership.

Once this initial preparation work has been completed, the agency is ready to develop the core components that would lead to successful volunteer engagement.

Brudney outlined the core components that must be developed and implemented, including the position description and recruiting, screening, placing volunteers, educating, evaluating, and recognizing volunteers. An additional and important component advocated by Brudney was the training of employees in volunteer management and supervision that was highlighted by Walter (1987), who indicated that there was little in the background of the public employee that would support their success in volunteer management. Education and training provided to employees was a significant strategy to help overcome resistance that was likely to emerge.

A major part of Brudney's work was also devoted to the concept of the costs and benefits of having a volunteer program. Brudney advocated the importance of understanding these two concepts along with the potential pitfalls that may be encountered by the public agency. The displacement of paid employees, especially during an economic crisis, was (and still is) a critical issue for public agencies (really all agencies) to fully understand. To evaluate the cost effectiveness of a volunteer program, Brudney outlined a six-step process and applied it to the SCORE program as an example.

A concept that Brudney incorporated into his work was how volunteers can improve service quality and impact. To that end, Brudney emphasized the service performance of volunteers and how important it was that they were trained and educated, in an effort to avoid poor performance that may lead to lack of impact. Volunteers could contribute significantly to an organization's performance and outreach in communities, especially in those situations where public agencies did not have, nor ever had, funds to hire paid staff.

Penrod (1991)

Kathryn Penrod developed the L-O-O-P model of volunteer management with a focus on the concepts of locating, orientating, operating, and perpetuating volunteers and volunteerism. Built on these four concepts, Penrod suggested that they are not independent of each other but rather blend together with each being integral to the overall success of the total model. The locating concept addresses the steps of volunteer recruitment and selection and the important considerations that these steps involved. The location step of the model focuses on matching the organization's needs with the individual volunteer's skills and interests. Additionally, through the selection process, it is important to determine the potential volunteer's needs and match those with organizational needs.

The orientation step of the L-O-O-P model focused on strategies to educate the new volunteer, including formal and informal processes. Potential or new volunteers have many ways to collect information about an organization, including newspapers, printed brochures, electronic media, talking with others, and questions asked during their initial inquiry about volunteering with the organization. The formal process of orientation is more structured and includes the explanation of the organization's rules, policies, by-laws, and standard operating procedures. While the organization may controlled the formal orientation, they do not control the informal processes and must recognize that individuals do not always interpret information received as it is intended by the organization.

Penrod introduced the term “operating” when referring to volunteer engagement, the impact that volunteers have in communities, and the impact of volunteering on a volunteer's individual growth. Penrod indicated that it is important that volunteers know that their service is meaningful and that they have an impact. The educational process began during the orientation phase but continued throughout a volunteer's tenure with the organization. Penrod believed that the learning processes in which the volunteers are engaged (e.g., new ideas, meeting new people, learning new methods, etc.) are forms of payment for their service. Also included in this component were the accomplishments of the volunteers and the opportunity for them to be engaged in service that is meaningful to the organization, service recipients, and themselves. It is important that the leader of volunteers recognize the accomplishments of volunteers since they may not also acknowledge this fact or recognize the importance of highlighting the accomplishments.

Perpetuating the involvement of volunteers is a concept with which Penrod concluded the L-O-O-P model; it consists of the evaluation of the volunteer experience and recognition for a volunteer's efforts. Evaluation is an important but difficult task, but it must be completed, focus on the tasks completed by the volunteer, and be constructive in terms of the feedback provided. Penrod, like many others, suggested that recognition be consistent with the desires of the individual volunteers and be varied to meet the needs of many. Most important, perhaps, is that the L-O-O-P model suggests that recognition of volunteer efforts should be done throughout a project, and not simply at the conclusion of the project or program year.

Fisher and Cole (1993)

James Fisher and Kathleen Cole recognized the importance of professional development of the volunteer manager since so many were coming into the profession with little previous experience or education directly related to their position's responsibilities. The authors identified and raised the importance of the leadership functions of a volunteer manager; a leader must set direction, encourage others to buy into the direction, and inspire others to become engaged and support the direction/vision. Fisher and Cole incorporated the work of Bennis (1987), who identified key aspects of leadership, including: the leader as a visionary, sharing the vision, fulfilling the vision, and the leader as an advocate. Additionally, Fisher and Cole identified managerial functions important to the volunteer manager and the importance for nonprofit and volunteer organizations to adopt sound management functions.

Fisher and Cole suggested that both personnel management and program management functions were important to the role of the volunteer manager. Personnel management focuses on the identification of volunteer roles and preparing the organization to engage volunteers. Functionally, the manager must work with other units and departments in the organization to identify tasks for potential volunteers and then work with other paid staff supporting the service of volunteers once they are engaged. Additionally, volunteer managers play a key role in relationships within the organization and the community. Program management functions include the ongoing staffing operations and budgeting and fiscal issues that are important to the success of volunteer programs. Overall, the volunteer manager has broad responsibilities for the climate in the organization to ensure that others were prepared from leadership and management perspectives to engage volunteers.

Training and development are critical to the success of the volunteer program in the Fisher and Cole model. Volunteers come to organizations with varying levels of experience and knowledge; thus, it is imperative for the organization to prepare the volunteers to serve in specific roles. Volunteers must learn about the organization, their specific volunteer position, changes and transitions that are likely to take place, and different opportunities for increased responsibility. Supervising volunteers, as others have indicated, is not a one-size-fits-all model. Volunteers have different needs, desires, interests, and motives, and each needs to be considered when designing a supervision strategy within an organization. Volunteer managers need to know if their organization is centralized or decentralized; this helps determine if one or more paid staff would supervise volunteers or if the structure requires volunteers to supervise volunteers. Regardless of who is supervising volunteers, the training, education, and support for those individuals is important and essentially a requirement for it to be successful.

Demonstrating the value of volunteer programs is the final component of the model proposed by Fisher and Cole. The focus is on evaluation and understanding that it may be on the process, the results, or the overall impact of volunteer engagement. The authors described the essential components of an effective evaluation, including the need to identify the goals of the evaluation, who/what to evaluate, data collection strategies, qualitative versus quantitative data analysis and ultimately communicating the results.

Fisher and Cole (1993) stated that “a discussion of the professionalization of volunteer administration often focuses on two major parts: the feasibility of professionalization and the advisability of professionalization” (p. 165). They recognized that the field of volunteer management is broad and the benefits/costs of professionalization are difficult to ascertain. A strong knowledge base, standards for entry into the profession, standards for practice, a distinctive subculture, and awareness in which the public is apprised of activities are important for the professionalization of volunteer management. Volunteer managers should develop their own personal philosophy of volunteer involvement. In addition, their perspectives and philosophies are also important catalysts and influences within their organizations as they evolve and deploy the organizational volunteerism philosophy best suited to fulfilling an organization's strategic vision and mission.

Stepputat (1995)

Arlene Stepputat identified ten overarching categories that are necessary for successful volunteer resource management:

Recruitment

Application, interview, and screening

Orientation and training

Placement

Supervision and evaluation

Recognition

Retention

Record keeping

Evaluation

Advocacy and education

Like other authors, Stepputat believed that the role of volunteer manager is unlike any other professional position in an organization and is not clearly understood by many, even those in the nonprofit sector.

Educating and preparing professional volunteer managers is an important component of the Stepputat model, recognizing the need to engage with other paid staff and support their work with volunteers. Additionally, policy development and implementation are key components to the volunteer manager's roles and responsibilities, emphasizing that volunteers are an additional human resource and that the interaction between all other departments/units of the organization will increase the likelihood of success.

A primary role of the volunteer manager, according to Stepputat, is that of advocating for volunteers and volunteerism within the organization and the community. This advocacy is more than simply communicating the importance of volunteerism; rather it also includes taking specific steps to make sure that volunteers are engaged in special programs, training, or recognition events. Additionally, advocacy strategies should extend to understanding state and federal legislation that may affect volunteer engagement and organizational policy development that has implications on volunteer engagement.

Ellis (1996)

Susan Ellis placed a significant emphasis on the executive leaders of an organization and their involvement as necessary for successful volunteer programs, beyond engaging just when something went wrong. Recognizing that the nonsalaried personnel department of an agency is the volunteer program, Ellis argued that it deserved as much attention as the salaried personnel department. Before engaging volunteers, Ellis suggested that organizations must develop a statement of philosophy, goals and objectives, policies, management structure, organizational chart, and what they want to communicate about the organization. Having each of these components in place prior to engaging volunteers results in an organization that is prepared for volunteers, thus significantly increasing the likelihood of success.

Ellis suggested that organizational leaders must allocate adequate resources, since volunteer engagement is not free. Consideration must be given to space and facilities, furniture and equipment, telephone, supplies, travel, postage, insurance, recognition, evaluation, and training/orientation. Another significant expense is the personnel assigned to direct the volunteer program, regardless of the percentage of time that the individual focuses on volunteer management. In addition to many of the expenses just identified, there also are expenses associated with the professional development of paid staff and engagement of advisory and support committees.

Building on the planning and staffing functions that Ellis identified, organizations must prepare for and manage volunteer and employee relationships. Organizational leaders must plan for those employees who refuse to accept volunteers, perceived threats from paid staff, tension between volunteers and staff, and volunteer resistance. Many, if not all, of these challenges can be overcome with proper planning and education of current paid staff prior to engaging volunteers. Strategies are offered, including incorporating language that emphasizes working with volunteers in paid staff position descriptions, training for paid and volunteer staff, and a clear delineation of roles and responsibilities. Organizational leaders must be cognizant of legal issues associated with issues of confidentiality, employer/employee relationships, liability and injuries, car insurance, board member indemnification, and conflict and dispute resolution. Program leaders must determine not only what to assess but also how to carry this assessment in an ongoing manner. Likewise, organizations should be cautious not to try to compare the accomplishments of volunteers to paid staff since this may cause more challenges; however, it is important to evaluate the service of individual volunteers and the performance of paid staff directly involved in the volunteer program or who are supervising volunteers. Finally, Ellis provided justification for why it is important to calculate the true costs of the volunteer program, including the donated time of volunteers, and supplied work sheets to calculate these into organizational budgets.

Culp, Deppe, Castillo, and Wells (1998)

The generate, educate, mobilize, and sustain (GEMS) model of volunteer administration built on the models already described as well as the Volunteer Management Cycle proposed by Lawson and Lawson (1987) and the Volunteer Professional Model for Human Services Agencies and Counselors developed by Lenihan and Jackson (1984). Lawson and Lawson focused their work on the religious community and included many of the same components as previously described. Lenihan and Jackson focused their work on community agencies and professional counselors with their model “designed specifically for those who are encouraged by their employer or company to serve in volunteer roles with human service agencies” (p. 37).

The GEMS model consists of four distinct concepts of generating, educating, mobilizing, and sustaining volunteer efforts. Generating includes six phases: conducting a needs assessment, writing position descriptions, and identifying, recruiting, screening, and selecting volunteers. Educating includes the four components of orientating, protecting, resourcing, and teaching. It is worth noting that the “protecting” terminology is unique and includes how an organization addresses risk management broadly, including conflict resolution and appropriate behaviors. The resourcing phase continues the more recent acknowledgment that volunteer management is not free and that there are real and direct costs associated with engaging volunteers.

The mobilizing phase of the GEMS model of volunteer administration includes engaging, motivating, and supervising volunteers. Ken Culp and his coauthors built on and incorporated motivation theory highlighted by Wilson (1976). Finally, the model concludes with the sustaining component that included evaluation, recognition, retention, redirection, and disengagement. Following a more contemporary acknowledgment of the similarities between paid and volunteer staff, the GEMS model recognizes that organizations sometimes have to be orientated again if they are implementing a new volunteer position or receiving a less than desirableevaluation. Additionally, the model recognizes the need to disengage volunteers, either through their own decision or the decision of the organizational leaders. An important component of the GEMS model is that volunteers may enter the model at whatever phase is necessary or that the volunteer resource manager can determine that individuals need to reenter a component at a given time; in other words, the model is not linear.

Comparing the Models: Similarities and Differences

Exhibit 1.1 depicts the volunteer management models discussed in this chapter. In-depth and thorough reviews of each of the previously identified works revealed respective both similarities and disparities among the authors’ ideas regarding volunteer management competencies, as well as similar findings and/or suggestions concerning the needed competencies for managers of volunteer programs to be successful (Safrit & Schmiesing, 2004, 2005). Many, if not all, volunteer management models have built on the early work of Boyce (1971) and include in some format the seven components of leadership development that he adopted from the field of adult learning and applied to volunteer management.

Exhibit 1.1 Historical Development of Volunteer Resource Management Components

Source: Based on Safrit, Schmiesing, Gliem, and Gliem (2005).

It could be argued that, to a degree, all of the models discussed are basically the same, with the only differences being the words used to describe a specific component or that some components are embedded within others and thus not easily identifiable. The authors discussed recognize that volunteer management approaches have to expand beyond a focus on the individual volunteer to address organizational systems as well. Developing a volunteer management model based on best practices, Wilson (1976) focused on the critical practical roles of salaried managers or volunteers, including motivating volunteers; establishing a positive organizational climate for volunteer involvement; planning and evaluating volunteer programs; developing volunteer job descriptions; recruiting, interviewing, and placing volunteers; and effective communications. Another pragmatic approach was proposed by MacKenzie and Moore (1993), who identified fundamental management principles and practices formatted into worksheets to assist the day-to-day manager of volunteers. Ellis (1996) identified components of volunteer management by proposing professional, administrative approaches to volunteer management. Navarre (1989) approached volunteer management from a staff management focus in grassroots volunteer organizations. Navarre's focus included the importance of having written job descriptions; recruiting, interviewing, orienting, and training new volunteers; and volunteer supervision, evaluation, and motivation. Approaching volunteer management in a very similar manner, Stepputat (1995) identified ten overarching categories that were necessary for successful volunteer management, including recruitment; screening; orientation and training; placement; supervision and evaluation; recognition; retention; record keeping; evaluation; and advocacy and education. Finally, Brudney (1990) identified practical components for public agencies to implement in order to mobilize volunteers for public service in communities.

From a purely conceptual approach, several authors developed volunteer management models within the context of the United States Cooperative Extension System. Kwarteng et al. (1988) identified eight conceptual components to volunteer administration: planning volunteer programs; clarifying volunteer tasks; and the recruitment, orientation, training, support/maintenance, recognition, and evaluation of actual volunteers. Penrod's (1991) L-O-O-P model suggested these conceptual components of volunteer management: locating and orientating volunteers, operating volunteer programs, and perpetuating volunteer involvement. Most recently, Culp et al.'s (1998) GEMS model built on and reorganized the earlier works of Penrod and of Kwarteng et al. by organizing components of volunteer administration into four overarching categories: generating, educating, mobilizing, and sustaining volunteers.

Empirically Based Model of Volunteer Resource Management: PEP Model of Volunteer Administration

Prior to 2004, little to no empirical research existed that quantitatively investigated and identified the core competencies needed for managers of volunteers to effectively administer volunteer-based programs and the individuals who serve therein. Safrit and Schmiesing (2004) conducted research to identify the competencies needed based on historical literature and contemporary practices of volunteer administrators, resulting in the PEP model (Safrit, Schmiesing, Gliem, & Gliem, 2005). The purpose of their exploratory study was to identify components of volunteer management based on both published literature and contemporary best practices. The researchers developed a qualitative methodology utilizing both deductive content analysis and inductive thematic development (Thomas, 2003). According to Miles and Huberman (1994), “Qualitative researchers usually work with small [authors’ italics] samples of people, nested in their context and studied in-depth” (p. 27). Kuzel (1992) and Morse (1989) suggested that qualitative samples tend to be purposive (i.e., seeking out specific individuals or types of individuals due to their direct connection or expertise with the focus of the research) rather than random as in broader, quantitative research. Consequently, the researchers utilized practitioner and action research concepts suggested by Jarvis (1999) as well as documented histories of national consulting, program management, and professional leadership in volunteer administration to identify eight current volunteer managers (“practitioners”) and 11 current national/international consultants (“experts”) to participate in the study. Seven individuals from each group agreed to participate.

The researchers asked the seven practitioners to reflect on their day-to-day successful practices in managing volunteers and, based on their reflections and real-life contemporary experiences, to identify effective components of contemporary volunteer management. Similarly, the researchers asked these experts to read two or three entire documents of published literature on volunteer management, to reflect on their readings, and (based on their reflections and the literature read) also to identify effective components. The researchers developed a theme identification work sheet to facilitate participants’ reflections in identifying components of volunteer management and submitting them to the researchers in short words and phrases.

The researchers analyzed the data initially by using constant comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). They read and reviewed the volunteer management components identified by both the practitioners and experts and collapsed the initial data into recurring themes using a modified storyboarding technique (Tesch, 1990). The researchers employed triangulation (Cohen & Mannion, 1985) with two separate groups of volunteer administrators and one group of Ohio State University faculty familiar with volunteerism and qualitative research, in order to strengthen the integrity of the collapsed themes identified, resulting in valid volunteer management components and subcomponents. Based on the data from consultants and practitioners, three categories and nine constructs were identified and included that comprised the conceptual PEP model:

Category I: Personal Preparation

Personal and Professional Development

Serving as an Internal Consultant

Program Planning

Category II: Volunteer Engagement

Recruitment

Selection

Orientation and Training

Coaching and Supervision

Category III: Program Perpetuation

Recognition

Program Evaluation, Impact, and Accountability

Subsequently, the researchers used the PEP conceptual model to ask members of the Association of Volunteer Administration about their perceptions of the importance of each potential competency suggested in the PEP conceptual model (Safrit et al., 2005). The population for the subsequent study was the 2,057 individual members of the Association for Volunteer Administration (AVA) as of July 1, 2004, and included 1,889 AVA members from the United States, 98 from Canada, and 70 from other countries. The researchers used a quantitative methodology approach of a mailed questionnaire consisting of 140 individual volunteer management competencies based on the prior qualitative study. A pilot test provided Cronbach's alpha reliabilities for individual constructs that ranged from.73 to.93. Since all values were greater than.70, the researchers determined the questionnaire to be reliable (Stevens, 1992).

The authors achieved a final response rate of 25% (Wiseman, 2003) and followed up with 150 randomly selected nonrespondents (Linder & Wingenbach, 2002; Miller & Smith, 1983); they found no significant differences between respondents and nonrespondents. To determine if the data were appropriate for factor analysis using the principal component analysis technique, a correlation matrix of volunteer management competencies was reviewed for intercorrelations greater than |0.30|, and two statistics were computed. Based on the correlation matrix and the statistics calculated, the researchers concluded that the data were appropriate for component analysis.

Two criteria were used initially to determine the number of components to be extracted. First, only components with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were considered for the analysis. Second, a scree plot of the component eigenvalues was used to identify breaks or discontinuity in determining the number of major components. After initial extraction, a third criterion for the determination of the number of components to extract was whether they possessed meaningful interpretation (simple structure and conceptual sense). The extraction procedure resulted in the identification ofseven components underlying the conceptual constructs of volunteer management competencies. The components were rotated using a varimax rotation method with Kaiser normalization to aid in interpretation. A maximum likelihood factor extraction procedure was also used to observe the stability of the components identified in the principal component analysis. This second technique resulted in the delineation of identical factors with similar loadings as the principal component analysis, reflecting stability in the results.

The component loadings in the rotated component matrix were examined to understand and interpret the nature of the seven components. To assist in the interpretation and reduce subjectivity and the likelihood of non-significant items loading on the components, only items with component loadings of |0.40| and higher were considered for naming the seven components (Stevens, 1992). The researchers utilized a qualitative triangulation methodology (Cohen & Mannion, 1985) with themselves and three nationally recognized experts in volunteer management and administration to name the components identified.

The end result was an empirically based model for volunteer management, the first of its kind (as far as the authors can ascertain). Still referred to as PEP, the revised model includes seven components of contemporary volunteer management and administration, with each component reflecting respective requisite professional competencies (see Exhibit 1.2). Together, the seven components accounted for 39.2% of the total variance among the empirical data collected.

The seven components identified in PEP emphasize practically all of the volunteer management competencies identified during the previous 35 years by authors and professional leaders in the field. The four components of volunteer recruitment and selection, volunteer orientation and training, volunteer program maintenance, and volunteer recognition address the large majority of volunteer management concepts that have been identified traditionally for volunteer organizations and programs holistically (Boyce, 1971; Brudney, 1990; Culp et al., 1998; Ellis, 1996; Fisher & Cole, 1993; Navarre, 1989; Penrod, 1991; Stepputat, 1995; Wilson, 1976).

Comparing PEP to Historical Models

As shown in Exhibit 1.3, previous models of volunteer management have not adequately addressed the personal and professional growth of the individual volunteer manager (with the possible exception of Fisher and Cole, 1993, and Brudney, 1990, to some degree). This analysis is supported by the Points of Light Foundation (Allen, 1995):

[A]s we have discussed before [regarding volunteer management], volunteer coordinators were, in a way, a missing element. This is not to say that volunteer coordinators are not important—indeed, in an earlier piece we argued that the research leads to a more important role of internal consultant and change agent for volunteer coordinators. Rather, it underscores that it is not the mere presence or absence of a staff position with that title that makes the difference. It is the way the person in the position thinks, what he or she does and what the system is prepared to allow him or her to do—those are the critical differences between the “more effective” and “less effective” organizations. (p. 17)

Two other differences that are worth additional discussion relate to program maintenance and resource development. Perhaps an argument of semantics, program maintenance was not previously included in the historical models. In the PEP model, program maintenance takes a holistic view of the functions related to supervision, performance evaluation, utilization, and overall engagement of the individual volunteer. The competency of resource development is certainly not new to the profession; however, the level of skill and experience needed to be successful likely has increased dramatically in recent years, which is why it has been identified in the research. Resource development goes beyond budgeting and determining the cost effectiveness of a volunteer program to include the overall development and implementation of a comprehensive and contemporary plan to secure resources for the program. The notion of resource development as a significant component of a volunteer manager's position description may be unsettling for some; however, without a comprehensive plan, the ability to support the program and the volunteers adequately is likely diminished significantly. A final component that has some differences from historical models is that of program advocacy that has become a very significant component of the volunteer manager's position. Taking the components of evaluation and sustaining that previous authors identified in their models, the PEP model suggests that one must operationalize those activities so that the volunteer program may grow and be sustainable in local communities.

While there are notable differences between the PEP model and the historical models and concepts previously discussed, there are also similarities. Like most, if not all, models before PEP, the components originally identified by Boyce (1971) are included in this model as well. This notion further validates the importance of those competencies and how they are applicable even in today's complex and often fast-paced environment of engaging volunteers through many different modalities (i.e., short term, long term, episodic, virtual, etc.).

Comparing PEP to Contemporary Models

The Council for Certification of Volunteer Administration (CCVA) is responsible for awarding the credential Certified in Volunteer Administration (CVA) and promoting six core values in volunteer resource management. The CCVA (2008) outlines five core competencies:

Ethics. Acting in the accordance with professional principles

Organizational management. Designing and implementing policies, processes, and structures to align volunteer involvement with organizational mission and vision

Human resource management. Successfully engaging, training, and supporting volunteers systematically and intentionally

Accountability. Collecting relevant data and meaningfully monitoring, evaluating, and reporting

Leadership and advocacy. Advancing and advocating individual, organizational, and community goals and volunteer involvement, internally and community-wide

To support the credentialing process and to provide a comprehensive resource, the CCVA uses the book Volunteer Administration: Professional Practice (Seel, 2010). The chapters in the book align well with the PEP model of volunteer resource management and focus on:

Terminology

Ethics and ethical decision making

Strategic management

Operational management

Staffing and development

Sustainability

Meeting management

Financial management

Data management

Evaluation and outcome measurement

Risk management

Quality improvement

Leadership

Organizational involvement

Advocacy

Collaboration and alliances

Historical perspectives of volunteer management

Exhibit 1.4 includes the competencies identified by CCVA as it compares to PEP and the historical models discussed previously.

Conclusion: Volunteer Resource Management Today and in the Future

Exhibit 1.4 depicts all models of volunteer management that have been discussed in this chapter and compares the PEP model to the CCVA core competencies. There are significant similarities between the two with minor differences noted. Ethics, accountability, and leadership and advocacy from the CCVA core competencies align with the PEP competencies of serving as an internal consultant, personal and professional development, and program evaluation, impact, and accountability. The CCVA core competency of organizational management aligns with PEP program planning. Human resource management, from the CCVA model, aligns with the recruitment, selection, orientation, recognition, training, and coaching and supervision competencies from the PEP model. Differences between the two competency models lie primarily in semantics as both models include the contemporary competencies for an individual to be successful as a volunteer manager.

Research in the field of volunteer resource management continues to expand, specifically related to the required competencies, identification of effective components, and/or level of competence with selected volunteer resource management competencies. Barnes and Sharpe (2009), through a case study, investigated alternatives to traditional volunteer resource management models that would promote lifestyle integration, organizational informality and flexibility, and volunteer-agency collaboration. Hager and Brudney (2004) investigated the adoption of nine practices for volunteer management by charities and congregations. Boyd (2004) conducted a Delphi study to identify those competency areas that would require managers of volunteers to be proficient in the future. Harshfield (1995) investigated the perceived importance of selected volunteer management components in western U.S. schools, while King and Safrit (1998) did likewise for Ohio 4-H Youth Development agents. These research examples demonstrate the significant interest in the field of volunteer management and the need to continue to conduct research to determine best and effective practices that will allow the profession to continue to evolve.

As previously discussed, the literature identified competencies that are certainly consistent across all contexts; however, as volunteerism continues to evolve, it is imperative that the competencies be considered in the right context. It must be recognized that competencies alone do not define the profession or prepare the individual who will be working in the profession. New professionals, and arguably seasoned professionals as well, need to have a chance to practice what is taught in the formal setting, through internships, practicums, and other similar arrangements. Additionally, as new competencies are identified and the field of volunteer management continues to evolve, it is imperative that degree and certificate programs adapt and include in their curriculum the new competencies for the profession to remain relevant and the individuals prepared to enter the workforce.