Research Proposal - Assessment Practices in PE

The efficacy of using HW in PE

Kory Hill

Introduction

Of the many barriers to quality physical education, limited time and resources are some of the most formidable (Barroso, McCullum‐Gomez, Hoelscher, Kelder, & Murray, 2005; Morgan & Hansen, 2008). In an effort to overcome such barriers, some experts have suggest the use of a tool that has traditionally been used by classroom teachers (Gill & Schlossman, 2004a) but seldomly by physical educators (Mitchell, Stanne, & Barton, 2000; van Sluijs, McMinn, & Griffin, 2007) – homework (Novak & Lynott III, 2015; St. Ours & Scrabis-Fletcher, 2013a). Some of the criticisms of homework use for classroom subjects are that it promotes rote practice and busy work (Kohn, 2006). However, those same factors may be a seen as assets in a physical education context. When learning a motor skills, rote practice (# of practice trials/hours of practice) is arguably the most important variable for improvment (Schmidt, Lee, Winstein, Wulf, & Zelaznik, 2018). Additionally, when encouraging children to accumulate at least an hour of daily physical activity, what some call busy work, may be useful. After all, anything that keeps a child physically active is likely helping to meet national or state standards regarding physical activity (Hill, 2009; Novak & Lynott III, 2015).

The purpose of this study will be to investigate the efficacy of motor skill homework in elementary physical education classes. This inquiry is significant because there is very little in the current literature on the topic. Most of the current body of literature focuses on active homework (Duncan et al., 2011; Fairclough et al., 2013) or the attitudes and opinions of stakeholders (Barney & Strand, 2008; Kinchin & O’Sullivan, 2003; Smith & Madden, 2014). Furthermore, children are not as physically active as they should be to maintain optimal health (Roman-Viñas et al., 2016; Tremblay et al., 2016) and research shows that such inactivity can result from being physically illiterate (Whitehead, 2010). Inquiries such as this are valuable because they contribute to the body of knowledge regarding best practices in the utilization of homework in physical education contexts. When children engage in programs that improve physical literacy, they are more likely to lead physically active lives (Behringer, Heede, Matthews, & Mester, 2011; Clark & Metcalfe, 2002; Harris, 2014) and thus healthier lives (Reiner, Niermann, Jekauc, & Woll, 2013).

Delimitations

This study will be delimited to 5th grade students at a public elementary school. The classes must be left in-tact and the participants will be volunteers so the sample is on of convenience. Measures of skill achievement will be made via a skills test of a novel skill – juggling a footbag. Homework compliance will be reported from self record forms signed by parents/guardians. Students failing to submit the required approval forms or choosing to drop out will not be included.

Limitations

Where possible, study weaknesses were addressed, however limitations still exist. The ability completely control participant behavior outside of school is lacking. This includes maintenance of practice schedule and the honesty with which students report homework compliance. The sample is not randomly drawn and thus the we will not be able to use the results to make generalizations.

Assumptions

It will be assumed that most student will complete homework assignments honestly as the forms must be signed by parents and the homework is not for a required grade. It is further assumed that the skills test (footbag juggle) and control task (pedometers) are developmentally appropriate for the participants in the study. Finally, there is an assumption that the amount of practice time will be sufficient to generate skill improvement.

Hypothesis

The following hypotheses will be evaluated:

1. There is a difference between homework adherence rates for students engaged in motor skill practice and students engaged in physical activity (step counts) homework.

2. Students engaging in motor skill homework will show improvement on motor skill tests.

Review of Literature

Duncan et al. (2011) found that fifth and sixth graders in New Zealand logged more pedometer steps after a school-based intervention that included physical activity logs as the main form of homework. Fairclough et al. (2013) reported similar results from a cross-curricular, school-based intervention that included active homework and resulted in self-reported increases in moderate physical activity. The study was unique because the reporting included various subgroups; the authors noted that girls appeared to benefit more than boys, and students who were obese seemed to benefit more than those of normal body weight (Fairclough et al., 2013). A third study, which was similar in design, produced comparable results. When first and fifth graders were placed in an intervention group that included active homework, they showed increases in moderate to vigorous physical activity as measured by accelerometers (Kriemler et al., 2010).

Multiple studies were located regarding physical activity homework, but only a few dealt with cognitive content; and most of those came from studies of collegiate health and fitness courses. The only study found relating to k-12 students, focused on high school students. (Williams, McGladrey, Silva, & Hannon, 2013) separated students in a weight training unit into three treatment groups: lecture only, homework only, and lecture with homework. Following the interventions, the students in all three groups performed equally well on a written test covering muscular strength and endurance knowledge. These students were not questioned about their opinions regarding the use of homework as a learning tool (Williams et al., 2013).

Attitudes toward Homework in Physical Education

Behaviors are influenced by attitudes (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005). Teachers make the important decisions about the use of homework as a teaching/learning tool, thus teacher attitudes and perceptions are important. (Mitchell et al., 2000) reported that 805 of the high school teachers surveyed in a physical education in-service program reported using homework in some form, but the majority claimed to use it mainly as make-up work to account for absences. Conversely, when Burt ( 2012) surveyed all levels of k-12 physical education teachers (not in an in-service program) they found that only 17% of the teachers said that they assigned homework to students. Michael, Dittus, and Epstein (2007) observed that 31% of the physical education teachers surveyed, from all levels of k-12, indicated that they assigned homework; however, this survey specifically asked about homework involving the rest of the family.

Thom and Yun (2012) did not report the percentage of teachers who assigned homework in physical education, but through multiple regression analysis they did identify three factors that can predict homework assignment behavior. Knowledge of how to assign homework, attitudes toward homework, and the expectations of significant others were identified as the main factors influencing the choice of whether or not to assign homework (Thom & Yun, 2012).

Piech, Nowak, Birontiene, and Bula-Biteniece (2013) examined the assignment of physical activity and play homework to Polish preschoolers and their parents. Thirty-two percent of the parents surveyed afterwards admitted that they did not complete the homework with their children. Of the noncompliant parents, 66% gave lack of time as the reason, 25% informed researchers that they were simply unwilling, and 8% reported that they had forgotten (Piech et al., 2013). As part of a study that evaluated the effectiveness of homework for physical education among Israeli teens, Pantanowitz, Lidor, Nemet, and Eliakim (2011) observed that 95% of the parents surveyed expressed support for the notion of assigning homework in physical education.

The greatest amount of attention seems to have been directed towards examination of student attitudes towards physical education homework. Scrutiny of homework compliance rates is appropriate because attitudes will definitely influence behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005). (Kinchin & O’Sullivan, 2003) reported that the high school students participating in an intervention involving a cultural studies physical education unit had a low compliance rate for homework. The students often refused to complete the homework at all or the completed it very quickly, just before the start of class. Interview responses revealed beliefs that physical education is not a "real class" and that homework is "unreasonable" for such a class (Kinchin & O’Sullivan, 2003). Smith and Madden (2014) reported student comments such as "homework in gym is stupid." The authors also found that compliance was not robust and students were willing to falsify physical activity logs. In gathering student opinions, Barney and Strand (2008) similarly reported student comments about physical education being "unnecessary" and "inappropriate." Studies that recorded and reported actual compliance rates provide even more evidence of poor homework compliance. One study reported that only 32% of the girls and only 22% of the boys in an elementary school intervention completed the homework (SMITH, CLUPH, & O’CONNOR, 2001), and another involving high school participants reported that only 4% completed all the assignments while 53% completed none of them (Pantanowitz et al., 2011).

Conclusions

The limited research suggests that knowledge can be gained through the completion of homework in physical education (Claxton & Wells, 2009; Jenkins, Jenkins, Collums, & Werhonig, 2006; Williams et al., 2013). Some evidence indicates that using homework to help students acquire knowledge is equal, if not superior, to lecture-only methods (Jorgenson & George, 2001; Williams et al., 2013). Limiting the amount of class time devoted to lecture-type instruction should allow more time for physical activity and the acquisition of fitness and motor skills. As such, flipping the classroom has been suggested as a useful strategy for physical education (Osterlie, 2016). If the goal of a flipped classroom is to free up more class time for time on task, there may be no more appropriate subject than physical education. Physical activity outside of school should also be promoted if students are to truly lead physically active lifestyles. Again, though limited, research suggest that active homework can be effective in increasing levels of physical activity (Duncan et al., 2011; Fairclough et al., 2013; Kriemler et al., 2010). Whether measured by pedometer, accelerometer, or self-report, the majority of the reviewed studies showed an increase in physical activity levels as a result of active homework (Claxton & Wells, 2009; Duncan et al., 2011; Fairclough et al., 2013; Kriemler et al., 2010). Finally, the majority of the studies included for review reported on attitudes and behaviors related to homework in physical education. Student attitudes toward physical education homework vary, but in general it is apparent that many students believe homework does not belong in physical education (Barney & Strand, 2008; Kinchin & O’Sullivan, 2003; SMITH et al., 2001; Smith & Madden, 2014). Across literature, students were documented as making comments indicating that physical education is not a real class. The poor completion rates reported in virtually all of the studies that were reviewed seemed to further support the notion that students do not believe in the importance of homework for learning in physical education. Many of the attitudes and beliefs about homework in physical education may be due to a history of marginalization of the subject matter (Henry, 1964; James, 2011). Perhaps appropriately assigned homework could help to reverse some of the marginalization; well thought out, intelligently administered homework could help students reinforce what is learned in class and make connections to the real world (St. Ours & Scrabis-Fletcher, 2013b).

With respect to methodology and design issues that could add to the body of knowledge, one logical suggestion is the isolation of homework as an independent variable. Most of the experimental studies detail interventions involving homework as one of several components. Additional studies in which other factors are better controlled and homework is the only difference between the treatment and control groups would provide useful information.

When examining physical activity levels, it would be helpful to determine whether there is a difference in compliance when using devices such as pedometers and accelerometers compared to using pen and paper to record/recall physical activity. Apparently while many students enjoy regular bouts of physical activity, they do not enjoy taking time and effort to record all the details on paper (Duncan et al., 2011; Fairclough et al., 2013). Compliance rates were poor in a majority of the studies (Williams & Hannon, 2013), so any means of improving them should be explored. Finally, there is also a need for research that attempts to establish appropriate amounts of homework. How much time and effort can teachers reasonably expect students to give? There is a point where too much homework becomes overly burdensome and thus counterproductive (Williams & Hannon, 2013). These are questions that classroom teachers have been asking (Gill & Schlossman, 2004b); perhaps it is time that physical education teachers begin asking them as well.

Methods

Participants

The participants will come from 2 physical education classes at a local public elementary school in Northeast Alabama. The classes all have the same physical education teacher and aids. All the students will be required to participate as the skills to be learned are part of the approved curriculum. However, only students submitting an assent form and parental approval form will be included in the study.

Instrumentation

The motor skill of study will be footbag juggling. The footbag is a promotional 2-inch kickbag made of plastic pellets covered by vinyl stitched together in a pattern similar to a baseball. 2 inches in diameter they. The footbag skills test consists of a count of the number of times a student can bounce the footbag off of the legs or feet before the footbag hits the ground. The footbag must be contacted within a marked 6 x 6 foot square. The students will get 6 trail attempts with the highest two scores being averaged. Student will be instructed by the researcher on how to complete the homework record forms.

The control group will be given mechanical step counters with digital displays. They pedometers are for promotional use and of low quality. The reliability of the instruments is not important as they are simply being used as a control when homework compliance is being evaluated.

Homework compliance will be recorded through self reports (appendix A). Students will be advised that the homework is not mandatory but that they can acquire bonus points towards their PE grades. The point value will be worked out with the teacher, but it will be minimal.

Design and Procedures

This study will use a pre/post test experimental counterbalance design. All the students will be given a pretest using the footbag skills test on a Friday. The following Monday, the classes will be randomly assigned to one of 2 groups. Group 1 will be assigned the motor skill (footbag) practice as homework for the next 5 consecutive days. The following Monday, they will submit the homework record forms and be given a post test with the footbag skills test at the beginning of class. At the end of class they will be given a pedometer and record form for the active homework. At the end of the second week, the students will submit active homework record forms and they will be allowed to keep the footbag and pedometer. Group 2 will complete the active homework during the first week and the motor skill homework during second week with the footbag skills test posttest on the following Monday.

A few days will be allowed for students to make late submission of record forms or take the posttest if unable to do so because of an absence. Following, the interviews of the students and teachers in will occurs. The teachers and aids will be asked open ended questions to obtain their thoughts and opinions on the project. The students will be pulled from they daily lesson in groups of 6 and asked a few open-ended questions in an unstructured focus group style.

Data Analysis

Skillst test scores and homework record forms will be entered in to an Excel spreadsheet. Student names will be omitted and only an ID number will be used to identify individuals. Excel will be used to compute descriptive statistics: means, medians, standard deviations, and frequency distributions. T tests will be run in Excel to compare homework compliance between active homework and motor skill homework. Also T tests will be performed to compare pre and post test scores for the footbag skills test.

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