Research paper of 10 pages "Benefits of Information Technology in the Global Economy"

How Seniors in Taiwan Use Information Technology: Computer and Cell Phones Alexander N. Chen a, Ronald E. McGaugheyb, Steven M. Zeltmannb, Hsin-Ke Luc, and Maria R. Leed

aManagement and Marketing, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas, USA; bDepartment of Management Information Systems, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas, USA; cDepartment of Information Management, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan; dDepartment of Information Technology and Management, Shih Chien University, Taipei, Taiwan

ABSTRACT In most developed and developing nations seniors lag behind the general population in information technology (IT) adoption and use. This phenomenon has been labeled the “gray divide” by various authors. This study examines the use of IT by seniors in Taiwan. We conducted a survey to examine Taiwanese seniors’ computer and cell phone ownership and use as well as attitudes and behaviors that result from and influence use, to better understand the extent to which Taiwanese seniors have and will utilize IT. We found that seniors in Taiwan had generally high usage and access to computers and cell phones; however, the duration of use these two devices was relatively low. Our focus was on computers and mobile phones because they are the most commonly used personal IT appliances. These devices are the “face” of IT to users. This study also examined self-efficacy, satisfaction, and comfort with these devices, as well as positive and negative attitudes, because research has shown these to influence the use of IT. Taiwanese seniors had generally positively attitudes and beliefs toward information technology.

1. Introduction

As a consequence of the demographic shifts taking place over the last several decades, seniors have become a larger percen- tage of the population in most countries. This can be observed around the world in both developed and developing nations. These changing demographics have become a concern for the world’s major economies and governments. This situation presents problems and opportunities for governments, busi- nesses, and other institutions that serve the growing senior population and presents opportunities for research. Information technology holds promise in addressing some of the challenges related to growing senior populations; how- ever, seniors generally use IT less than other segments of the population; a phenomenon that has been labeled the “gray divide” (Van Deursen & Helsper, 2015; Van Deursen & Van Dijk, 2014). This gray divide exists when senior accessibility and use of information technology lags behind the overall population (McMurtrey, McGaughey, & Downey, 2008). While research indicates that the broader “digital divide” might be shrinking in many countries as it relates to various socioeconomic strata, this might not be the case for the gray divide, at least not in all countries (Eurostat, 2013; Lam & Lee, 2006; McMurtrey, McGaughey, Downey, & Zeltmann, 2013; Rainie, 2013).

There are many possible reasons why seniors may be reluctant to adopt and use IT, and those appear to vary among countries (Chen, Downey, McGaughey, & Jin, 2016; Guo, 2012; Heinz, 2013; McMurtrey et al., 2013; Research Council of the Executive Yuan, 2012a; Yu & Chao, 2014;

Zhou, Rau, & Salvendy, 2012). Given the changing needs of this segment as life expectancies increase and the potential of IT to improve the quality of seniors’ lives, it is not surprising that senior IT use is the subject of numerous studies. The evidence generally supports the existence of a gray divide in countries where it has been studied (Bernadas, Verville, & Burton, 2012; Fernández-Ardèvol & Arroyo, 2012; McMurtrey et al., 2013; Neves & Amaro, 2012; Pan & Jordan–Marsh, 2010). While there is some research examining senior IT acceptance and use in Taiwan (Hsu & Chang, 2013; Su, Tsai, & Chen, 2012; Yang, Yu, Huang, & Yang, 2010; Yu & Chao, 2014), those studies were not broad in scope. Rather than focusing on ownership and use of IT (what do they own and how they use it) to establish baseline measures of Taiwanese senior ownership and use of IT, previous studies tended to focus more narrowly on Taiwanese senior adoption of and use of specific systems and the things that influenced adoption and use. Our research questions address the owner- ship and use of devices that allow seniors to access informa- tion systems. One study in 2012 showed that only 16.3% of Taiwanese seniors over 61 used the Internet and 26.1 per used computers (Research Council, Executive Yuan, 2012a), but that study was more narrowly focused than the study we conducted.

Taiwan, like other industrialized nations, is experiencing growth of its elderly population relative to growth in other segments of the population. In 1993 it officially became an aging society with 7% of its population being 65 and older. In 2018 it will officially become an aged society when that percentage reaches 14%, and a super aged society by 2025

CONTACT Alexander N. Chen [email protected] Management and Marketing, University of Central Arkansas, 305 M COB, Conway, AR 72035, USA.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN–COMPUTER INTERACTION 2018, VOL. 34, NO. 2, 166–176 https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2017.1335445

© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

with over 20% of the population being 65 and older. Projections suggest that Taiwan will be a “super-aged” coun- try–over 39% seniors–by 2060 (National Development Council, 2016). Projections also show that the proportion of prime working age Taiwanese adults (15–64) started dropping in 2013, and that segment of the population is contracting even more rapidly than the senior population increases. As a consequence of the changing Taiwanese population demo- graphics, in 2014 it took approximately 6.1 working age Taiwanese adults to support one elderly person. If current trends continue, by 2060 that ratio will drop to 1.3 (National Development Council, 2016). That is a tremendous burden for a society, so ways must be found to alter trends or to cope with the changes.

If Taiwan follows the lead of other industrialized nations like the US, they will increasingly turn to IT to help effi- ciently serve their aging population. According to Yu and Chao (2014), Taiwan has started promoting mobile or dis- tance healthcare systems to serve remote townships (Internet World Stats, 2016; TWNIC, 2015). The challenge for Taiwan will be the same as for other countries: how to encourage senior IT use. Taiwan’s government and busi- nesses need to know the current status of IT ownership and use among Taiwanese seniors and understand factors that might influence adoption and use in the future. Our research sheds light on both. The relevance of our study is our attempt to establish baseline measures of senior IT ownership and use in Taiwan and for attitudes and beliefs known to result from and influence present and future use. Our findings should be of interest to businesses looking for opportunities to market products and services to seniors, and to the Taiwanese government that must meet many of the needs of this growing segment of the population, including healthcare needs (McKinzie, Cangelosi, Chen, & Li, 2016). It is hoped that the finding of this study might motivate researchers to continue the effort to better under- stand and influence senior adoption and use of IT in Taiwan and elsewhere.

Our study attempts to answer the following questions to accomplish its stated purpose.

(1) To what extent do Taiwanese seniors own personal computers and cell phones?

(2) To what extent do Taiwanese seniors use computers and cell phones? a) How often do they use computers and cell

phones? b) What is the duration of computer and cell phone

use? (3) How, and for what, do Taiwanese seniors use com-

puters and cell phones? (4) Do Taiwanese seniors like computers and cell phones

and are they comfortable with computers and cell phones? a) Are there differences in their liking of and satis-

faction with cell phones and computers? b) Are there differences in their comfort and per-

ceived competence with cell phones and computers?

Answers to these questions are intended to establish base- line measures of Taiwanese seniors’ ownership and use of cell phones and computers, and for attitudes and beliefs that might influence their predisposition toward future IT use. This study thus examines two primary facets of Taiwanese seniors’ relationship with IT: the current status of IT owner- ship and use and existing attitudes and beliefs about compu- ters and cell phones and their use. An assessment of the current status will provide something of a baseline for future studies of IT ownership, use, attitudes, and beliefs. The beliefs and attitudes will provide insight into possible motivators or inhibitors to present and future technology adoption and use. The specific information technologies examined were the personal computer (including laptops) and the mobile/cell phone—the two most commonly used personal IT devices. This study differs from prior research in that it is not aimed at confirming specific models or relationships, or even at build- ing a model. It aims instead to examine ownership and use of cell phones and computers to understand what is the current state of IT ownership and use in Taiwan. It aims also to explore attitudes and beliefs shown by prior research to influ- ence adoption and use to assess Taiwanese seniors’ predispo- sition toward future use of cell phones and computers. Those potential psychological influences on technology adoption and use also assist in explaining our findings on current use of cell phones and computers among the Taiwanese senior citizens studied.

2. Background

Existing research has produced substantial evidence from var- ious countries of a disparity between the young and old in terms of IT adoption and use (McMurtrey, Downey, McGaughey, & Zeltmann, 2011; Peng, 2010; Plaisant, Clamage, Hutchinson, Bederson, & Druin, 2006; Rainie, 2013). In U.S. studies by McMurtrey et al. (2008, 2009, 2013); U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (i.e., census data) and survey data were used to highlight gaps between the young and old in terms of Internet and computer use. Peng (2010) emphasizes that studies and government statistics repeatedly show that access to computers and the Internet remains uneven. In a similar vein, another study acknowledged that older adults are subject to the same “digital divide” in accessibility as the larger population (Plaisant et al., 2006). In one UK study, statistically significant differences in broadband adoption were found among age groups (Dwivedi & Lal, 2007). Another UK study concluded that many seniors simply did not recognize the potential benefits of information technology because they lack an awareness and understanding of the digital world (Olphert, Damodaran, & May, 2005). Similar findings else- where in Europe were reported in a study of the reasons for non-use, and the frequency, intensity, and socio-demographic correlates of Internet use of older citizens in Europe (Peacock & Kunemund, 2007). A 2012 report on Internet trends in China prepared by the China Digital Divide Team of International Information Center (2013) produced evidence of a gray divide in Internet access/use, revealing that 93.6% of Internet users were between 10 and 49, and only 4.8% were 50 and over. In fact, the gap was slightly worse than in 2010,

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largely because of the relative growth of the younger (growing slower) and older (growing faster) segments of China’s popula- tion. One study of Taiwanese seniors over 61 revealed that only 16.3% of them used the Internet and 26.1% used a computer (Research Council, Executive Yuan, 2012a). These low rates of Internet and computer use by seniors gave the Taiwanese government cause for concern. The Taiwanese government developed different projects to educate seniors and reduce this digital divide between seniors and other age groups (Research Council of the Executive Yuan, 2012b).

Various studies have been conducted exploring IT use by seniors in Taiwan. The focus of each is different, because the goals of each differ. Two such studies focused on IT in a healthcare context (Hsu & Chang, 2013; McKinzie et al., 2016). These two studies are particularly important given the growing size of the senior population and likely role of IT in health-information seeking behaviors for the elderly in Taiwan.

Su, Tsai, and Chen (2012) applied the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Structural Equation Modeling to explore and explain senior intent to use a telecare system in Taiwan. They found a strong link between ease of use, per- ceived usefulness, and intention to use. More specifically, they found that, for the Taiwanese seniors they studied, ease of use and perceived usefulness were important antecedents directly impacting behavioral intent to use the telecare system studied. They recommended that systems to be used by seniors be designed with this in mind—they should be easy to use, and they should produce useful, accurate information that actually contributed to the improved health of seniors. They con- cluded with the recommendation that future research explore other factors that might influence adoption and use of such systems. Research question 4 examines liking and comfort with computers, both of which have been shown to influence use (Bandura, 1997; Heinz, 2013; Taveira & Choi, 2009; Yu & Chao, 2014).

Other researchers have examined Taiwanese senior IT competence and use. Yu and Chao (2014) examined Taiwanese senior’s IT ability. Their questionnaire-based study was designed to examine how seniors used the Internet and packaged software in order to identify contextual factors influencing senior use of said tools, then to develop an elderly adult Information Technology Ability Index (ATAI). They then used the ATAI to examine senior IT abilities and gender differences. Their index included an Internet use assessment, a packaged software use assessment, and a perso- nal innovativeness attitude assessment. All three components had their own index values which were partial measures of IT ability. A composite score including all three was the overall measure of IT ability. Among their findings, it is noteworthy that males used the Internet more than females, and that older adult Internet usage frequency was generally low. They also found that the personal innovativeness attitude score, in aggregate, was higher for women than for men. Overall, they found the Internet use assessment and personal innovative- ness attitude indexes to be higher than the packaged software use index. The order of the first two were reversed for males and females, with Internet use assessment and personal inno- vativeness attitude first and second for males, but their order

reversed for females. The authors noted that older senior adult IT ability generally lagged behind that of younger adults, a result consistent with the findings of many other studies, and highlighting the need for further study of those things believed to influence adoption and use. A tool that could reliably test senior IT ability would be quite helpful in estab- lishing benchmarks and could be used in measuring progress in improving that ability.

Yang et al. (2010) examined a small group of Taiwanese seniors to better understand the influences on their use of computers. The authors were interested in better understand- ing how IT, computers, social networks, etc., might enhance or diminish the social capital of the aged. The study included 54 participants, 27 of which were taking a computer skills class and 27 were not. Semi-structured, open-ended inter- views were used to delve into subjects’ behaviors and motives relative to the use of computers. Among the influences (posi- tive or negative) on learning among the seniors studied were physical characteristics like difficulty hearing, poor vision, or loss of dexterity and coordination, psychological and social influences like learning motivation, desire to remain current, confidence in one’s ability, retention, learning speed, and overall mental health, and environmental influences like the physical environment and encouragement of trainers. Among the things that the seniors wanted to be able to do with computers were personal communication, literature develop- ment, information searches, information storage, information sharing, business communication, information creation, and playing Internet games. While the study suggests that Taiwanese seniors do not differ appreciably from seniors studied in other countries with it comes to their use of IT or obstacles hindering use, when it came to assessing compu- ters’ influence on the social capital of seniors, the study seemed inconclusive.

There are multiple reasons why seniors worldwide have been slow to adopt information technology. One reason is physical; research has shown that the elderly often do not have the dexterity to operate technology (Ellis & Kurniawan, 2009; Fernández-Ardèvol & Arroyo, 2012; McMurtrey et al., 2013; Picking et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2012). Research has also shown that information technology, from computers to tablets to mobile phones, is not designed with the elderly in mind (Hwangbo, Yoon, Jin, Han, & Ji, 2013; McGaughey, Zeltmann, & McMurtrey, 2013; McMurtrey et al., 2012; Picking et al., 2012; Roupa et al., 2010; Yu & Chao, 2014; Zhou, Rau, & Salvendy, 2014).

Another important reason for seniors not adopting tech- nology (or underusing it) may be categorized simply as distaste for change, based on a wide range of negative beliefs and attitudes which might lead to avoidance beha- vior. One important factor is an individual’s beliefs about their technology skills. Those beliefs are known to be an important indicator and subsequent motivator for initial and continued use. Perceived belief about technology skills, technology self-efficacy, is an important motivator in what activities users engage their effort in learning and pursuing technology skills, and their persistence in the face of adver- sity (Gist & Mitchell, 1992; Heinz, 2013). Self-efficacy sti- mulates a motivational component that mobilizes the

168 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

cognitive effort to accomplish tasks (Bandura, 1997; Heinz, 2013; Yu & Chao, 2014). Another factor is comfort with technology, which is a psychological response to an activity that encourages or discourages use (Hwangbo et al., 2013; Taveira & Choi, 2009).

Existing research suggests variability in computer and cell phone ownership and use across demographics with owner- ship and use perhaps less common among seniors. That motivates our first two research questions addressing owner- ship and use of both by Taiwanese seniors. These specific questions have not been adequately addressed in prior research.

Attitudes have long been recognized as precursors of action (Heinz, 2013). In their Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) maintain that behavior is predictable, and based on attitudes (positive and negative) toward the behavior. Positive attitudes toward or less anxiety about a behavior tend to encourage one to perform or learn the behavior, while negative attitudes tend to cause avoidance of the behavior. Our examination of senior attitudes relating to computers and mobile phones is grounded in TRA. We examined three attitudes, affect, anxiety, and satisfaction with cell phone and computer skills. Anxiety is a fear of the domain under examination and usage in that domain, tech- nology in this case. (Loyd & Gressard, 1984). Affect is the feeling of like (positive affect) or dislike (negative affect) toward the domain of interest (Taveira & Choi, 2009). One who likes cell phones (or computers) is more inclined to learn how and to use them than one who has less liking. We measured positive affect in this study. Satisfaction is an affec- tive attitude that has a long research stream in technology and has been demonstrated to increase usage (Doll & Torkzadeh, 1988).

We examined Taiwanese seniors’ usage behavior and moti- vations for use more closely with research questions three and four pertaining to how and why Taiwanese seniors use their cell phones and computers. The answers to these questions should help researchers, businesses, and government better understand Taiwanese seniors’ predisposition toward or aver- sion to adoption and use of IT in the future.

3. Methodology

In this article, we provide insight into IT usage levels and patterns among Taiwanese seniors and shed light on the psychological influences on behaviors contributing to it. We use the terms “senior” and “senior-citizen” interchangeably in this study. Many in Taiwan retire at 65, but some, as is fairly common in the US, retire at 60, 55, or even younger (Lee, Hung, & Tsai, 2014; Research Council, Executive Yuan, 2012b). Other published research set in China used 55 because it was the official retirement age (Chen et al., 2016). We intend to compare samples gathered in China and in Taiwan in the future. To make such comparison possible, we opted in this article to use 55 years as a cut off for this study. Using 55 as our cut off for inclusion as a “senior,” the vast majority of our Taiwanese sample of seniors were already retired or semi-retired (working part time).

Data were gathered using a survey methodology. The sur- vey was developed using standard survey development tech- niques (Churchill, 1979; Nunnally, 1967; Straub, 1989). Previous instruments provided some items used in this study (Eastman & Iyer, 2004; Iyer & Eastman, 2006; Reisenwitz, Iyer, Kuhlmeier, & Eastman, 2007). The primary source of survey items was the validated survey items used by McMurtrey et al. (2011) to examine technology behaviors among American seniors. Data were gathered for both cell phone and computers on ownership, level of usage, functions for use, e-commerce information, beliefs about the technology (self-efficacy and comfort), and attitudes toward the technol- ogy (anxiety, affect, and satisfaction with skills).

For the self-efficacy and attitude scales, we used previously validated scales. Self-efficacy items came from the global instrument of Hill, Smith, and Mann (1987). Anxiety and affect came from the Computer Attitude Scale of Loyd and Gressard (1984). Comfort and satisfaction were derived from the survey used by McMurtrey et al. (2011). Beliefs and attitudes (i.e., positive affect, anxiety, and satisfaction) were assessed for both cell phones and computers.

For our China study, the English version of the survey was translated into Chinese by two individuals fluent in both lan- guages. Before we finalized the Chinese version, we sent the draft to bilingual experts, i.e., faculty in the foreign language, education, and psychology departments of our university, for comments. We used the Chinese questionnaire to conduct the survey in China. Chinese and Taiwanese are the same Mandarin, but people in two countries have different jargons and usage patterns. Two Taiwanese faculty, with the assistance of Taiwanese students, modified the Chinese version to make it more appropriate for Taiwan. We also used a pilot survey using Taiwanese students to make sure the instrument was appropriately adjusted for Taiwanese-speaking subjects.

The survey was administered by two Taiwanese faculty members in three different cities; Taipei City, Taichung City, and Kaohsiung City, located in north, middle, and south Taiwan respectively. Senior participants were selected from continuing education classes of the Chinese Culture University in three cities and from senior community centers. A total of 363 participants completed surveyed, 95 of whom were aged 54 or younger. We did not include the participants younger than 55 for reasons previously noted. This left 268 usable surveys.

Among the usable questionnaires, 26.9% of respondents were male (see Table 1). The average age of respondent was 63.5 (SDSD = 6.2). In terms of education, 13.8% had less than a high school education, 25.4% high school, 28.4% an Associate’s degree (or equivalent), and 26.9% had a bachelor’s degree or higher. Nearly 72% were unem- ployed or retired, nearly 17% reported they were engaging in full-time work, and 12% engaging in some part-time work. Most respondents, about 50.4%, reported a monthly income level between NT19,999 or less (with an exchange rate of about 1–30 compared to US dollars, this is about $666), with 18.7% reporting between NT20,000 ($666) and NT29,999 ($1,000), and 19% reporting a monthly income NT50,000 ($1,666) or more. The average monthly income of this sample was NT24,170 or about $806 US. In

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general, our sample consisted of a higher proportion of females and seniors who were relatively well educated.

4. Results

This study examined technology behaviors of Taiwanese seniors age 55 and older. Two main IT platforms, i.e., cell phones and computers, were examined. We collected owner- ship and usage data about computers and cell phones, online purchasing information, and finally beliefs and attitudes toward computers and cell phones (self-efficacy, comfort, anxiety, affect, and satisfaction). The results provide valuable insight into the IT usage, skills, availability, behavior, and attitudes of the studied Taiwanese seniors.

4.1. To what extent do Taiwanese seniors own and use personal computers and cell phones?

Widespread cell phone ownership and use is a global phe- nomenon and was clearly evident among the Taiwanese seniors studied. About 96% of all respondents owned a cell phone and 91% reported they had a landline as well. Respondents reported owning a cell phone for 11.0 years

(SD = 5.7) and using a cell phone for approximately the same amount of time (10.9 years, SD = 5.8).

About 85% of respondents reported that they owned a desk- top computer. Only 68% reported owning a laptop. When we combined them, 90% of the respondents owned one or the other, or both. On average, respondents had owned a computer for slightly over 10.1 years (SD = 6.5). Our data thus indicate that about 90% owned a cell phone and/or computer (desktop, laptop, or both) for an average of about 10 years.

Direct usage was measured two ways, frequency and duration, for both cell phone usage and computer usage. About 3% of respondents reported that they never used a cell phone. Some 89% reported that they used their cell phones from several times a week to several times a day. Specifically, 63% reported several times a day, 9% reported once per day, and another 17% reported several times a week. Only 7% reported using their phone once a week or less and, as already stated, 3% never used a cell phone.

The subjects used their cell phones for relatively short duration. About half, or 48% percent, reported using their phone less than a half-hour per day, 30% reported a half-hour to an hour per day, and the rest were scattered. About 7% reported using their phone over 3 hrs per day. Taiwanese seniors’ usage of cell phones is of relatively short duration.

Approximately 11% of respondents reported that they never used a computer. About 17% of respondents reported that they used a computer a few times a week (17%). About 58% reported that they used computers at least daily–once per day (16%) to several times per day (42%). In terms of duration per day, most people (24%) used the computer between 30 minutes and 1 hr; however, 16% used their computer more than 3 hrs per day. The remaining respondents (about 36%) used computers between 1 and 3 hrs per day. Usage figures are presented in Table 2.

It is interesting to note that the cell phone was generally used for shorter duration than the computer. That may simply have reflected the nature of use, talk vs. perform some task, but could have been the result of metered service in Taiwan. At the time of the study, Internet access via a computer was not normally metered in the same way as cell phone use—it is a fixed charge per amount of data (1G, 5G, 10G, or unlimited amount) per time period.

4.2. How, and for what, do Taiwanese seniors use computers and cell phones?

In general, respondents did not use cell phones for a wide variety of tasks besides talking. On a question in which

Table 1. Demographic background of respondents (n = 268).

Variables Classification of variables n %

Gender Male 72 26.9 Female 196 73.1

Age 55–59 66 24.6 60–64 92 34.3 65–69 50 18.7 70–74 33 12.3 75–79 9 3.4 >80 4 1.5 Missing 14 5.2

Education Less HS 37 13.8 HS 68 25.4 Associate degree 76 28.4 College degree 72 26.9 Adv. degree 15 5.6

Employment Full 46 17.2 Part 32 11.9 Unemployed 192 71.6 Missing 1 0.4

Income NT$19,999 or less 135 50.4 20,000–29,999 50 18.7 30,000–39,999 18 6.7 40,000–49,999 5 1.9 50,000 or more 51 19.0 Missing 9 3.4 With mean of NT$24,170 and standard deviation of NT$10,000

*1 USD = 30 NT$

Table 2. Computers and cell phone usage in frequency and duration (n = 268).

Frequency Duration (per day)

Computers Cell Phones Computers Cell phones

Never 30 (11%) 9 (03%) Never 29 (11%) 14 (05%) <Once a month 10 (04%) 7 (03%) 0.5 hr 32 (12%) 115 (43%) Once a month 6 (02%) 6 (02%) 0.5–1 hr 65 (24%) 81 (30%) Once a week 19 (07%) 6 (02%) 1–1.5 hr 30 (11%) 10 (04%) Several times a week 45 (17%) 45 (17%) 1.5–2 hr 35 (13%) 19 (07%) Once a day 43 (16%) 23 (09%) 2–3 hr 32 (12%) 7 (03%) Several times a day 113 (42%) 170 (63%) >3 hr 42 (16%) 18 (07%) Missing 2 (1%) 2 (1%) 3 (01%) 4 (01%) Total 268 268 268 268

170 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

respondents could choose multiple reasons for using their cell phones, 74% of respondents reported using it for texting, 63% reported using them for taking pictures, 33% used their phones for email, 31% used their phones for other Internet activity, 18% reported using their cell phones for games and 11% used their phones for social media.

Our survey specifically asked about e-commerce–pur- chasing items online using a cell phone. Eighty-three per- cent reported that they never used a phone to make purchases online, while only 10% reported making one to five purchases online in the previous year. It seems the majority of the respondents did not use phones for much more than texting, talking, and taking photos. It appears that, for the Taiwanese seniors studied, the cell phone was most used for interpersonal communications, i.e., calling and messaging, and for taking/viewing pictures.

We examined computer-based Internet use. Questions focused on general Internet access and e-commerce: what did users access, and did they engage in online buying? Specifically, we asked respondents why they accessed the Internet in the previous year with 21 choices, allowing respondents to pick as many as applied (see Table 3). The number one reason for using the Internet was to stay in touch with family and friends (62%). Other com- mon reasons included tracking news and current events (50%), accessing Facebook (36%), and accessing health information (34%). Other common Internet uses were to research stocks and investments (29%), watch TV/movies (25%), gather product information (22%), play games (22%), and banking (21%). There was some reported Internet activity for other things, including chatting (17%), accessing government sites (15%), buying or selling on eBay or Kimo (15%), buying online (14%), other enter- tainment (14%), investing (13%), or researching other topics (12%). While the purposes of the two studies were somewhat different, our findings were very similar to the findings of Wang, Rau, and Salvendy (2011) with regard to the things seniors do, or not do, on the Internet and their relative importance. For instance, they found seniors

use the Internet for keeping up with the news, playing games, researching products, communicating with others, researching various topics, and more. Interestingly, e-com- merce activities were not common among their subjects or ours, and use of the Internet for social networking and news/information was relatively common.

In terms of e-commerce, 65% of respondents reported they bought nothing online via a computer in the past year. Of the remaining 35% (who did buy online), the three most common types of purchases were books (23%), travel (22%), and cloth- ing or apparel (20%). See Table 4. Other items made small contributions to the total, including groceries (15%), electro- nics (13%), software (13%), computers (8%), hobby acces- sories (8%), music (7%), and hardware (7%).

Despite the large majority not actually buying online, many used the Internet to research products. The number one researched item was travel (air or hotel or similar), comprising 27% of all reported searches. Groceries were second at 26%, while electronics was third at 25% along with books, also 25%. Other items researched included clothing/apparel at 24%, computers at 21%, music at 15%, software at 15%, and autos at 14%. Taiwanese seniors tend to use the Internet for researching and sometimes for purchasing books, travel, electronics, clothing/apparel, and software.

Table 3. Reasons for using computers and cell phones (n = 268).

Reasons for using Internet via computers Frequency and % Reasons for

using cell phone Frequency and %

Stay in touch with family/friends 167 (62%) Texting 198 (74%) News and events 135 (50%) Pics 169 (63%) Access Facebook 96 (36%) E-mail 88 (33%) Access health information 90 (34%) Internet 82 (31%) Research stocks and investments 77 (29%) Games 48 (18%) Watch TV/movies 68 (25%) Facebook 30 (11%) Gather product info 60 (22%) Bank 15 (6%) Play games 59 (22%) Pay bills 14 (5%) Banking 55 (21%) To buy things 11 (4%) Chatting with people 45 (17%) Access government sites 41 (15%) Buy or sell on eBay or KIMO 39 (15%) Buy online 38 (14%) Other entertainment 38 (14%) Investment 34 (13%) Research on other topics 32 (12%) Access chatrooms 28 (10%) Other 15 (6%) Total 268 (100%) 268 (100%)

Table 4. Internet purchasing and research behavior (n = 268).

Purchasing Frequency and % Research Frequency and %

Books 62 (23%) Travel 72 (27%) Travel 59 (22%) Groceries 69 (26%) Clothing/apparel 53 (20%) Electronics 67 (25%) Groceries 40 (15%) Books 66 (25%) Electronics 35 (13%) Clothing/apparel 65 (24%) Software 35 (13%) Computers 56 (21%) Other 35 (13%) Music 40 (15%) Computers 22 (8%) Software 40 (15%) Hobby 22 (8%) Autos 38 (14%) Music 20 (7%) Other 34 (13%) Hardware 20 (7%) Hardware 31 (12%) Sports 16 (6%) Jobs 22 (8%) Autos 9 (3%) Drugs 16 (6%) Personal care 8 (3%) Personal care 10 (4%) Drugs 7 (3%)

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4.3. Do Taiwanese seniors like computers and cell phones; Are they comfortable with computers and cell phones?

In addition to usage behavior and functions, we also exam- ined beliefs and attitudes toward both cell phone and compu- ter technology, including self-efficacy, comfort, affect, anxiety, and satisfaction. We believe this to be a unique contribution of our study—examination of Taiwanese senior attitudes and behaviors toward technology which can affect adoption and use (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Attitudes and behaviors can be a consequence of use and impact future adoption and use. Comfort and satisfaction were measured with single items. The other three included three to four questions. Reliability was examined using Cronbach’s alpha; each construct exhibited satisfactory internal reliability. Internal reliability and correlations are indicated with coeffi- cients of 0.8 or higher (see Table 5).

We assessed cell phone self-efficacy among respondents using a scale that ranged from 0 (no confidence in their cell phone ability) to 10 (totally confident). In this study, respon- dents averaged 5.84, indicating they felt reasonably confident in their phone skill-level (slightly above the center anchor of 5). Comfort with cell phones was examined, measured on a scale of 1–7, with 7 being very comfortable. For comfort, respondents averaged 5.31, indicating they felt relatively com- fortable using cell phones.

We examined three attitudes: anxiety, positive affect, and satisfaction with cell phone skills. Anxiety was measured on a scale of 1–7, with 1 indicating low phone anxiety and 7 indicat- ing high anxiety. Respondents averaged 2.09, which suggests that they were not very anxious about using cell phones. For positive affect, also measured on a scale of 1–7 (with 7 indicat- ing a great liking for cell phones), respondents scored 3.77, indicating that they had above the median (of 3.5) liking for cell phones. In this study, satisfaction was measured on a scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 7 (very satisfied). Respondents averaged 3.98, again above the median of 3.5.

As with cell phones, beliefs and attitudes concerning com- puters were examined. Computer self-efficacy, comfort, anxi- ety, affect, and satisfaction were included. The computer self- efficacy mean was 5.10, which placed this group in the middle of the scale (moderately confident). The comfort mean was 4.73 on a 1–7 scale, indicating a moderate amount of comfort with computers. For computer anxiety, measured on a 1–7 scale, respondents averaged 2.35, which suggests that respon- dents were not particularly anxious about computing (1 is low

anxiety). For computer affect, also measured on a 1–7 scaled, respondents averaged 3.71, indicating a moderately high (higher than median) affect level—they generally liked computers.

Respondents displayed mostly positive beliefs and attitudes toward cell phones and computers. They were comfortable with both computers and cell phones, mostly satisfied with their skills, had moderate self-efficacy, relatively low anxiety, and above average affect or liking of the two technologies.

This study compared beliefs and attitudes for the two domains of cell phones and computers. For all five beliefs and attitudes, respondents reported higher self-efficacy, com- fort, satisfaction and affect, and lower anxiety, for cell phones. The differences between the two technologies were significant with the exception of affect (see Table 6). The differences likely explain why most of the Taiwanese seniors in our study were more likely to use cell phones than computers.

5. Discussion, limitations, and directions for future research

5.1. Discussion

Overall, our findings indicate that most of the Taiwanese seniors in this study owned, used, liked and were comfortable with computers and mobile phones. Particularly relevant find- ings are summarized below as they relate to the research questions posed.

Taiwanese seniors own and use information technology Research question 1 asked to what extent do Taiwanese seniors own personal computers and cell phones? Almost all subjects reported owning and using a cell phone (96%); an additional 88% owned and used a personal computer. The evidence suggests that the majority of respondents have not only been exposed to IT, but they own it and use it.

Table 5. Internal consistency (alpha) statistics and correlations of beliefs and attitudes.

No. of Items α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Computer anxiety 3 .882 1 Computer affect 4 .868 −.196** 1 Computer self-efficacy 3 .948 −.250** .593** 1 Cell anxiety 3 .887 .528** −.030 −.070 1 Cell affect 4 .876 −.184** .627** .503** −.080 1 Cell self-efficacy 3 .968 −.124* .469** .596** −.170** .613** 1 Computer comfortable 1 NA −.387** .544** .484** −.139* .365** .317** 1 Computer satisfaction 1 NA −.383** .487** .523** −.126* .318** .333** .768** 1 Cell comfortable 1 NA −.196** .405** .337** −.273** .544** .561** .333** .228** 1 Cell satisfaction 1 NA −.185** .391** .374** −.201** .585** .640** .370** .327** .519**

*p < .05, **p < .01.

Table 6. Descriptive statistics and comparisons between computers and cell phones (n = 268).

Computers Cell phones Comparison

mean (SD) mean (SD) t value p value

Beliefs Self-efficacy 5.10 (2.66) 5.84 (2.62) −5.28 p < .001 Comfort 4.73 (1.83) 5.31 (1.71) −5.70 p < .001

Attitudes Satisfaction 3.55 (1.38) 3.98 (1.24) −4.92 p < .001 Anxiety 2.35 (1.45) 2.09 (1.34) 2.56 p < .01 Affect 3.71 (1.65) 3.77 (1.71) −0.55 n.s.

172 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

Research question 2 asked to what extent do Taiwanese seniors use computers and cell phones? They use both frequently but the duration of use for both is relatively short. Cell phone use exceeded computer use which was expected; cell phone ubiquity is a global phenomenon. Cell phones, and now even smart phones, can be purchased for less than the cost of a computer. For cell phones, while frequency of use was relatively high (90% reported using it at least a few times a week), duration of use was relatively low. Some 48% reported using cell phones less than 30 min- utes per day. The data suggest that our sample of Taiwanese seniors owned information technology but were somewhat light users of the technology.

Variety is not a common characteristic in computer and cell phone use With regard to research question 3, how, and for what, do Taiwanese seniors use computers and cell phones? While respondents did use IT, most displayed limited variety in its use. In addition to talking (the cell phones primary purpose), Taiwanese seniors used their cell phones primarily for texting (74%) and taking/sharing pictures (63%). The Taiwanese seniors studied did not often use their cell phones to access the Internet (31%) or to send e-mail (33%). Communication with people was the primary function of cell phones for the Taiwanese seniors studied. Substantially fewer respondents used their phone for other Internet-related uses.

The Taiwanese seniors studied used a computer for a wider variety of tasks than they did their cell phones. Much of their computer use involved the Internet, with 50% reporting that they used their computers to keep up with news, 62% to stay in touch with family and friends, 25% to watch TV or movies, and 22% to play games.

An intriguing finding: Social networking and e-commerce were rare Taiwanese seniors use technology relatively little for social networking and e-commerce (or mobile-commerce). When asked if they intended to buy online in the future, they responded strongly that it was unlikely. Only 14% of seniors use computers to buy online. Among this small proportion of e-commerce users, we found that they were more likely to purchase clothing, hobby related goods, travel, and medical products. E-commerce was still relatively rare at the time the conducted the survey. This may suggest a significant area of opportunity for Taiwanese businesses—they should explore ways to expand E-commerce among seniors.

More of the Taiwanese seniors studied used computers for social networking (Facebook) than they did their cell phones. Still only 36% used computers to access Facebook and 11% used their phones for accessing Facebook; relatively low compared to other uses of each device. Given their age, the degraded vision and dexterity that comes with aging (Fernández-Ardèvol & Arroyo, 2012; Hwangbo et al., 2013; Taveira & Choi, 2009) may make it easier for the studied seniors to use the computer for social networking than the cell phone. Also, usage charges for the computer vs. the cell phone may explain the difference, as might the type of the cell phones used (smart phones vs. feature phones).

Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Technology Are Surprisingly Positive Question 4 asked, do Taiwanese seniors like computers and cell phones and are they comfortable with computers and cell phones? Given the lack of variety and the relatively low number of years of technology use, Taiwanese senior attitudes and beliefs were surprisingly positive for both cell phones and computers. With regard to 4a, subjects generally liked and were satisfied with both; however, cell phones fared better on almost all measures of liking and satisfaction but were sig- nificantly better only for satisfaction. Anxiety was also lower for cell phone, which is better—subjects less anxious using them. This might be because cell phones are generally easier to use than computers, particularly if they are simple feature phones (not smart phones), which we think may be the case for cell phones owned by these seniors based on what they did with them. With regard to 4b, the studied seniors generally felt comfortable and competent (self-efficacy) with both com- puters and cell phones, but significantly more so with cell phones. The study found that respondents had positive beliefs about their own perceived skills which would tend to motivate them to learn and use technology. Moreover, comfort, satis- faction, affect and anxiety, scores were above the mid-point (or below in the case of anxiety), suggesting that users had positive beliefs and attitudes concerning the two technologies.

What is the state of senior IT use and adoption in Taiwan? We examined information technology (computers and cell phones) usage behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes among Taiwanese seniors to establish baseline measures of their use and acceptance of information technology. Given the signifi- cant numbers of the studied Taiwanese urban seniors owning and using cell phones and computers (96% and about 88% respectively), and similar numbers reported by Wang et al. (2011), any “grey” divide may not be as sharp as perhaps expected, at least not among urban Taiwanese.

There are some other positive findings among this sample of seniors. In general, their belief in their ability to learn and use technology is relatively strong, which is a powerful moti- vating factor in changing actual technology behaviors (Bandura, 1997). They are fairly comfortable with technology and satisfied with its potential, also important indicators of future willingness to use technology. In addition, their atti- tudes remain positive with relatively high liking of technology and relatively low anxiety levels about using technology, espe- cially cell phone technology. These factors make any “catching up” to the rest of their countrymen a real possibility in the future, at least for urban Taiwanese seniors.

5.2. Limitations of this study

There were some obvious limitations to this study. The big- gest limitation is generalizability; the population and diversity of seniors is vast. Making comparisons between this study population and other groups of seniors is risky. Ours was limited like all sample studies. Our Taiwanese seniors were primarily urban and female. We are mindful of studies which indicate significant differences among socioeconomic factors between urban and rural populations (China Digital Divide

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN–COMPUTER INTERACTION 173

Team, 2013; Zhang, 2008), suggesting rural seniors may exhi- bit different technology behaviors; this study did not include rural seniors. Our higher percentage of female respondents than male could have influenced our findings.

Another limitation is that all of the data were self-reported. While some data must be self-reported (attitudes and percep- tions, for example), other data are more meaningful if gath- ered objectively, like usage statistics from mobile service providers and hard sales data for online purchases. Finally, we only gathered data from seniors (those 55 and older) and, of course, that was by design since we are studying that population. Accordingly, evidence of a gray divide comes only from comparing the respondents in this study to groups from the general population in other citations and references. We did not include full spectrum of age groups in our research, but then we did not set out to prove or disprove the existence of a grey divide in Taiwan. We set out to better understand technology usage, attitudes, and behaviors of Taiwanese seniors.

5.3. Directions for future research

Overall, our sample of Taiwanese seniors exhibited relatively light information technology use, like seniors in other coun- tries (Bernadas et al., 2012; Fernández-Ardèvol & Arroyo, 2011; McMurtrey et al., 2013; Neves & Amaro, 2012). Respondents in this study did not use technology for lengthy periods, and did not use it for a wide variety of tasks. Especially noteworthy for business organizations is that Taiwanese seniors were generally not buying much online. Given that this population consisted of relatively well-off seniors (at least compared to rural seniors), the actual use of IT among all Taiwanese seniors might be even lower. Despite these findings, however, there is much that is positive about senior’s interactions with technology.

For the most part, respondents owned cell phones and computers, and used them, even if not for long periods. They had positive beliefs about technology, including their self-perceived ability to use the technology (self-efficacy), and were comfortable using it. Such beliefs can be motivators for learning and using technology in the future. They also had positive attitudes toward technology, including a positive lik- ing (affect), satisfaction with technology, and low anxiety about using it. Like the self-efficacy and comfort, attitudes serve as predictors of future adoption and use. The findings of this study, therefore, reveal that these Taiwanese seniors have not entirely embraced IT, but that they may be open to the possibilities.

Further research is needed. Since other researchers like Wang et al. (2011) and Zhou et al. (2012) studied groups similar to our own sample (more educated and affluent than average), it may highlight the difficulty of studying the broader population of all Taiwanese seniors. Those living in rural areas, and there are many, would seem to be particularly difficult to survey for studies such as our own; they would simply be more difficult to locate and survey. There likely are significant differences among segments of the Taiwanese senior population based on geography, community size, edu- cation level, socioeconomic status, and even age (younger

seniors can be quite different than older seniors). While it may be impossible to fully map this population, other studies could help triangulate the status of technology adoption and use by seniors in Taiwan.

This study examined adoption and use of two relatively broad categories of information technology, cell phones and computers. Other studies could further segment IT in order to conduct a more detailed analysis of IT adoption and use. For example, cell phones could be divided into smart phones and feature phones (plain cell phones), and those with and those without a data services. Likewise, computers today include many more popular devices than just laptops and desktops, like tablets.

Costs associated with computer and cellphone usage should be examined carefully in the future. While studies based on TAM, or variations of TAM such as the Senior Technology Acceptance Model (STAM), address many factors that influence technology acceptance, and they have proven useful, they do not generally address economic factors that likely influence adoption and use such as the cost of products and services. That is because TAM was originally developed for application in work settings. Economic realities could outweigh peoples’ wants, particularly when they live on fixed incomes as do many seniors, and every choice means giving up something else. For seniors, that which is forgone could be something like needed medication, or food, which translate into high opportunity costs. Yang (2013) found that costs inhibited phone app adoption among young American college students, even though attitude and intent may have been favorable toward adoption. Seniors often have limited bud- gets, so it is reasonable that the costs associated with acquiring and using information technology would influence senior adoption and use. Future studies should incorporate eco- nomic influences on choice with questions that adequately address relevant costs. Furthermore, usability, usefulness, branding, regulation, and service availability will likely influ- ence adoption and use and should be studied.

It is noted that most seniors in our study use computers and cellphones to stay in touch with family and friends. Social support and networks are important factors that affect seniors’ lifestyle and quality of life. Seniors, especially those in retirement, lose some interactions with people like former coworkers. Usage of computers and cellphones can increase interaction with family, friends, and others. More study of the use of IT in senior social interactions would desirable in the future.

Taiwan is an established player in the global economy, and technology remains a key factor in economic growth. Taiwan is changing socially, culturally, and economically. Information technology is important for seniors because it has the cap- ability to improve and enhance their quality of life, economic well-being, health, and more. Moreover, the growing Taiwanese senior population has the potential to be a force in the marketplace. As populations grow older, we should study and develop creative ways to use IT to improve the quality of life for seniors, and develop relevant policies, pro- grams, and support systems to help them. Accordingly, we believe research focusing on the patterns of IT usage among senior citizens is valuable research.

174 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

5.4. Survey instrument

Our survey instrument is available upon request.

ORCID

Alexander N. Chen http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3619-6677

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About the Authors

Alexander N. Chen, PhD, is a full professor of Management at the University of Central Arkansas. He had work at Penn State Altoona, University of North Carolina at Pembroke, and Macau University of Science and Technology. His research areas are computer/cell phone as well as medical information usage for seniors; international business; and e-payment.

Ronald E. McGaughey, PhD, is the Acxiom Professor of MIS at the University of Central Arkansas. His research appears in many journals including the European Journal of Operational Research, and he serves on numerous editorial boards. He has management experience in the textile, construction, and logging industries.

Steven M. Zeltmann, PhD, is a professor of MIS at the University of Central Arkansas and past department chair. He has published in MISQ, CACM, JCIS, and many other academic journals plus two textbook editions. Dr. Zeltmann is a past editor of the Academy of Information and Management Sciences Journal.

Hsin-Ke Lu, PhD, is the Director of Information Management (Master Program) and the Dean of School of Continuing Education at Chinese Culture University in Taiwan. His academic interests focus on e-learning, corporate structure, lifelong learning, and information system planning (Enterprise Architecture).

Maria R. Lee, PhD, is a full professor of the Department of Information Technology and Management at Shih Chien University, Taipei, Taiwan. Her research interests include big data analytics, e-commerce, and knowledge management.

176 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

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