world literature

Let’s start with a working definition: plagiarism is using someone else’s ideas or words without giving them credit. If we think about that, right away we can see complications. For example, I copied my own (italicized) sentence and pasted it into the Google search bar. I didn’t find the whole sentence exactly as stated, but I did find many web sites that used, for example, the first five words (“plagiarism is using someone else’s…”). And as you might expect, a keyword search rather than a verbatim search revealed many more web pages that use more or less the same words to express the same “idea.” Of course, if I searched databases and print sources, I would find many other matches.

So, in defining plagiarism, was I guilty of plagiarism? Well, no; and not only because I simply wrote what was in my head. I would say that general definitions, and even some exact phrases, are “general knowledge”; and general knowledge does not, as a rule, need to be cited. I say “as a rule” because there is no absolute way to define what is “general knowledge” and what isn’t. It depends, like a lot of things, especially in the fields of ethics and law, on “reasonableness.” That’s one reason why we need judges to make continuing interpretations of what’s “reasonable” in a given situation. Who has “jurisdiction” in the essays you will write? You and I both, I guess: I guide, and you seek a concurrence that makes sense to you, and seems right within the new sensibility that one generally forms while involved in an intense learning experience as one experiences in college, the military, etc. Inasmuch as you are practicing how to participate in a particular discourse community, or plural discourse communities (the group, field, discipline, etc. in which a mode of language, a range and type of information, and a general sensibility are shared), you are appealing to an ideal reader – an image developed from reading, talking to people, listening and learning, picking up the jargon, becoming familiar with the specialized history and customs, and otherwise practicing within the field or discipline you have entered.

Let’s go back to general knowledge – something that’s fairly general, and not specific to a particular field. The birth and death dates of George Washington we might “reasonably” consider general knowledge, and so you don’t necessarily need to cite the source – although it is generally a good idea, especially when you are repeating several basic facts about a subject, to provide a citation for your source, anyway, perhaps at the outset of your exposition upon that topic, with a framing, introductory attribution. For one thing, if the source is wrong – or to put it differently, at odds with other sources – it will be easier for readers (who might actively be seeking authenticity) to trace the source of that incorrect information.

One problem in the transmission of information is that most of us use secondary sources, or really, sources that are several times removed from the original source (which is sometimes lost, in any case). Think of it as a chain-link: if one link in the chain gets the facts wrong, the next information-gatherer using that source will transmit the wrong information to future users. In reality, people tend to double- and triple-check their sources when it matters; scholars, journalists, and other professionals often compare sources as well, and so if one source stands out from several others on a matter of fact, one might infer that the minority source is the one that’s wrong. At a certain point, this becomes a philosophical problem: can we ever be certain about anything? Even “facts” like birth and death dates can be arguable, especially for people who lived long ago.

Here’s another example of “general knowledge”: proverbs. If you have heard all your life that “honesty is the best policy,” it isn’t necessary to cite some originating source (unless you want to honor your mother or Kindergarten teacher for being the first person to teach it to you). Even there, we can describe complications: for example, I have a phrase in my mind, “everyone has the face he deserves by the age of fifty.” We carry many things in our memory that might be words composed by a traceable author. In this case, I knew that I hadn’t thought of the phrase myself, but I couldn’t remember where I had gotten it. I have searched a few times, and to the best of my knowledge, it was George Orwell who deserves the credit.

However, I have found print sources that attribute this phrase, or something very close to it, to Mark Twain and Abraham Lincoln. If indeed Lincoln did ever write or say something like this (I think it’s wrong, however) then he would deserve credit before Twain or Orwell, because he is likely to have beaten them to the punch, being a little older than Twain, and a lot older than Orwell. However, if I had not succeeded in tracing this phrase or idea, would I be wrong to use it? No; but the best way to use it would be like this:

I have heard it said that most people, by the time they turn fifty, have the face they deserve.

or:

Someone once said that most people have the face they deserve by age fifty.

or:

Someone – I think it was George Orwell – once said that most people have the face they deserve by age fifty.

There are many other ways to introduce the idea into a paragraph. The main point is to frame the idea or phrase as something that comes from somewhere else, even if you’re not sure of the source. In the cases above, I simply used a main clause with the idea itself presented as a noun clause subordinate to that framing main clause. When we do know the source, it can look something like this:

Orwell once said that we all have the faces we deserve by the time we are fifty.

Or:

According to George Orwell, “Everyone has the face he deserves by age fifty.”

In an academic work, I might provide a parenthetical citation (as is done in MLA- formatted texts):

According to George Orwell, “Everyone has the face he deserves by age fifty” (78).

Where “78” is the page number of the book or journal article that holds the phrase (although in this case I’m making it up to have an easy example); then, at the end of my document, I would give the bibliographic information – implied to be a work by Orwell himself. If in fact I got the phrase from someone quoting Orwell, I might do this:

According to George Orwell, “Everyone has the face he deserves by age fifty” (qtd. in Smith 78).

Where “qtd.” means “quoted in.” Again, I would give a bibliographic reference at the end of my essay, this time for a work by Smith.

But often, you need to make a judgment call: if an expression is generally known (let’s say, of you are a literature scholar, “generally known” by the literary readers you are writing for), then you might not bother to provide a formal attribution for something like this, especially if you are simply carrying it around in your head.

Notice, by the way, that I could choose to paraphrase, as I did in the first three examples above; or, I could quote exactly, as I did in the last two examples (making up the Smith version, just to fit a common research situation: quoting someone quoted by someone else). More broadly, it is important to note that quoting or paraphrasing is transformative – you will attempt to be accurate, of course, but really, it is impossible not to change what someone has said: for one thing, you are making it fit the rhetorical situation of your own writing; for another, you are surgically removing their words or ideas, leaving behind the broader context for which it was intended. It is best to consider citation a rhetorical – that is, you are constructing meaning according to your own identity as a writer, toward an audience you have in mind as well as the audience that will actually encounter what you write – not only here and now, perhaps, but elsewhere and in the future, beyond your own intended contexts and occasions.

I will not talk here about the mechanics of quotation and paraphrase, except to point out that it is an important issue – your quotation must fit grammatically within your larger, framing sentence, for one thing, and must be appropriately punctuated.

When I said, “according to George Orwell….” I was using what is called a “tag line” or a “signal verb.” There are scores of ways to write a tag line, and often, if you choose your signal verb well, you can very nicely comment on the quote or paraphrase you are presenting: “As Orwell so pithily remarked….” is another way– putting in the clever adverb, if I want. That way, I’m thinking alongside my source, which is one of the things you want to do when you write and refer to other people’s ideas and words. That, too, is part of what I meant above by being “rhetorical.”

Here are examples of different quotation-framing methods:

Bergson argues that comedy is “the deflection of life toward the mechanical” (58).

(Notice that there is no punctuation between the framing and the quotation; that is because the quotation is in the form of a noun phrase. It is not, in other words, a full clause in itself.)

Comedy, Bergson argues, is “the deflection of life toward the mechanical” (58).

(Notice that here we do use punctuation – but only because the tag line is set of as a nonrestrictive element. There is still no punctuation between the framing and the quotation.)

According to Bergson, “Comedy is the deflection of life toward the mechanical” (58).

(Here we do use a comma to separate the framing from the quotation – because the quotation is a complete clause.)

Sometimes you will introduce a quotation with a colon (this mark :). That is generally (but not always) true with long quotations, defined in MLA guidelines as anything that will be more than four lines of text margin to margin in your paper.

Long quotations look like this:

Bergson’s essay on comedy is to a great extent an exploration of human character and personality within the context of society. He says:

Let us go on to society. As we are both in and of it, we cannot help treating it as a living being. Any image, then, suggestive of the notion of a society disguising itself, or of a social masquerade, so to speak, will be laughable. Now, such a notion is formed when we perceive anything inert or stereotyped, or simply ready-made, on the surface of living society. (89)

(Notice that I don’t use quotation marks for this exact quotation; I set it off by indenting it. Also, the parenthetical citation of the page number is outside the period. However, consider that you want to quote economically, and carefully, and so you should not use too many long quotes; and you should use them – that is, you need to comment, analyze, refute, or otherwise respond to your citations. Also, there are times when you insert editorial additions – letters, words, etc. – that are necessary for sense, but not part of the original – using brackets [ ]. Or, you will take out an unnecessary word or phrase, and show the omission with ellipses, or three dots …)

So, you need to know the mechanics of citation; being familiar with the various ways people provide attributions is one good way to avoid plagiarism (and there are many different ways to shape the attribution, and different standards governing when it is necessary, in all the fields and disciplines you might be writing in).

Let’s go back a little and talk about why plagiarism is wrong. One reason you need to attribute what you borrow from other writers is that it is considered necessary in our culture to acknowledge intellectual ownership. I say “in our culture” because there are, and have been, other cultures and historical periods when that was not a value. In fact, through long ages of manuscript-based culture in Europe (that is, before printing), it was common for people to simply copy over passages and whole works, without giving any attribution – even to themselves! Authorship itself is a created idea – not a completely natural fact. Nobody really creates what they write entirely without help from other people, or other writers; we all write under the influence of those who wrote before us. But long ago, it mattered little, sometimes, who said what first. Or, curiously, something I think of as anti- plagiarism occurred (forgery, really, but without monetary gain): there is an early- medieval text by someone known as the pseudo-Dionysus, because he (or she?) wrote a book and claimed that St. Dionysus (sometimes given as “Dionysius”) wrote it. Scholars centuries later determined that it could not have been penned by St. Dionysus, but they didn’t know who did write it, so they called him the “pseudo-[false] Dionysus.” There is also a pseudo-Aristotle, and a pseudo-Cicero. But the point is that people were much more interested in pedigree, in authority, and in precedent than was true at a later stage in intellectual history. That is, the pseudo-Dionysus understood that his writings and his ideas were more likely to have influence if they were taken as those of an already-respected (and dead) Christian father. That mattered more to him, evidently, than the fame and glory, or the “intellectual property” he was unlikely to make money from anyway.

So, our ideas about plagiarism are culturally based; that is, we have invented them, starting perhaps three hundred years ago, more or less. That doesn’t mean they don’t matter, but if you know that these values have changed and evolved over time, it might make it easier to understand what it all means.

I suppose one way to avoid plagiarism would be to stay away from other peoples’ words altogether. But that is not desirable. First, we learn to write by seeing how others write, and to a great extent, especially early on, by copying them. In fact, a common way of learning to write (as in learning most other kinds of things) is to methodically imitate. Now, let’s look at this: I just spent a lot of energy telling you it was bad to copy – or did I? No, I said it was bad to use other people’s words or ideas without attributing them. Sometimes, you need to copy. Learning by imitation means several (usually progressive) things: you might start by literally copying a text, verbatim, simply to get it under your skin, so to speak. If any of you are musicians, you probably learned play your instrument in part by listening and then mimicking what your heard. Then, you took a melody, or a chord-like structure, or a rhythmic structure, and you copied it with variations – close variations, and then maybe quite dissimilar versions. In writing as well, it is a good idea to internalize a variety of patterns by copying them, and then composing variations that are not much different, and some that are considerably different.

You will develop a better sense of grammar, syntax, and overall sentence style by doing so, and you will strengthen your own individual style (paradoxical as it

seems) by working with other writer’s styles.

Since you might do imitation exercises, and even full-length essays based on imitation in this course, it is especially important to distinguish good from bad practices. I have another lecture on “Imitation” that goes into more detail on this issue, and if there is a “Pastiche and Defense” assignment, there is more information in that handout. So, there are times when it is acceptable, or even unavoidable, to copy. The important thing is to clarify what the nature of the writing task is (whether it is for a school assignment or a professional project).

Beyond controlled imitation exercises in a course, writers “borrow” from one another in various ways. I have talked generally about research-based writing above, and there are assignments or writing projects that are more emphatically or formally research-based than others. But really, most writing could be considered research-based, I think. Even essays that are largely personal will often use at least a little bit of informal reference to another text, or will refer to information acquired outside of first-hand experience. Even repeating what someone said to you is a kind of “research,” in the (admittedly over-broad) sense in which I am using the term right at the moment. My main point is that the separation between research-writing and non-research writing is not always clear. So, again, you need mainly to be clear about the nature of your assignment, the form and style of writing, the nature of the publication you’re writing for, and the particular discourse community you’re participating in.

Writers also collaborate in various ways. I mean that term in two main senses: first, one way to write is to read until you “prime the pump” – other people’s flow of words can get your own flow going. Often, what happens is simply that you get going in your thoughts, and pick up where someone else left off, or through creative association you have an “original” idea that was born from your interaction with what you were reading or listening to. We talk, we share ideas, we brainstorm; some ideas are simply “in the air” – lots of people are talking back and forth, and then going back to their spaces of solitude and writing down what’s still echoing in their ears. You might say there is sometimes a “synchronicity” – some ideas, inventions, or feelings arise in different people’s minds at roughly the same time (that was true in the development of electricity, photography, the automobile, cinema, and other achievements).

Another kind of collaboration, generally speaking, is allusion. One hallmark of certain key Modernist texts like T. S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land” is a frequent, intensive allusion that comprises, in fact, most of the poem in this particular work; it is at times essentially a collage of phrases and longer passages from a wide variety of works that Eliot didn’t write; but even quotation or collage can be creative – even ingenious. But more conventionally, allusion (“to allude”) is like a subtler kind of quotation or paraphrase. If you read a lot, you will have lots of phrases, and more abstractly, sentence patterns and rhythms, in your head (just as the musician will have rhythms and melodies in his or her head). Some of these will work into our own writing without your full awareness; other times, you will see that your idea can be deepened, countered, or connected to a larger expressiveness by working in references to other words by other people, to catchphrases, slogans, movies, television shows, song lyrics – practically anything. The Bible is a key source or allusive references; Shakespeare is probably the runner-up. Sometimes the allusive reference is deliberately altered, given an ironic context, updated, or otherwise changed. Sometimes it will be clear to any careful reader that an allusion is being made; other times, allusions are a Catch-22: if you don’t get the reference, you don’t know there’s something you might need to look up in the first place. If nothing is clearly highlighted as an allusion, the clue might be in a subtle change in diction or style. But that’s not easy to catch. If you are aware, though, that writers always allude to each other, and to the great variety of things that comprise our culture and history, you will be more likely to catch on; and it will deepen your understand and enjoyment of reading.

I used at least one allusion above, by the way – one you probably noticed, but might not have understood completely. “Catch-22” is a phrase that is now part of our colloquial vocabulary, but it comes from a relatively recent work of fiction about Army Air Corps pilots in Italy during World War II (written, I think, around forty years ago). Here are some other examples:

The drama begins to unfold with the arrival of the corpse at the mortuary. Alas, poor Yorick! How surprised he would be to see how his counterpart of today is whisked off to a funeral parlor….

(This is a passage in Jessica Mitford’s The American Way of Death. Since she uses the metaphor of drama for her description of mortuary practices, she alludes to a line in Shakespeare’s Hamlet that is relevant to attitudes toward mortality.)

As I am going to show in a little while, that is how most Americans still perceive the country now: morning in America, a green light ahead, nature glad and strong and free….

(This passage from Noel Perrin’s “Forever Virgin: The American View of America” makes a subtler sort of allusion: “it’s morning in America” alludes to a catchphrase used by President Reagan in the early 1980’s, just before Perrin published this essay. The “green light” reference points back to a much more explicit reference to a novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald that is extended and detailed – more reference than allusion per se.)

Writers collaborate in various other ways. The more precise, focused meaning of the word, actually (in contrast to my rather provisional use of “collaboration” above) is to describe two or more writers working on the same text. In many fields (though not literary studies, really), group authorship of articles and books is standard. Even this more-precise meaning of collaboration, though, can mean many things. Sometimes, one writer will compose one part of a work, and someone else will compose another part; the authors will probably confer over the synthesis of these parts, sometimes long distance, but they might also work with an editor who is not directly involved in the initial stages of thinking and composing. Another form of collaboration is for one writer to write a draft, and submit it to the other for editing – which might be slight, or so extensive that the original is essentially re-written or over-written. Also, if a writer dies before finishing a work, it is not uncommon for another writer to be commissioned to bring the work toward some sort of publishable state, perhaps by editing, or even by creating what will amount to the greater part of the finished text. Some writers collaborate without asking for credit; some writers (perhaps individuals with some sort of apprentice-relationship to other participants) will not be offered credit. The articles you read in the weekly news-magazines are generally group-authored; there are also researchers who provide the raw material for such articles, but whose work might not survive in sentence form.

I will conclude, now, by talking about some of the reasons why student writers (and others) might plagiarize; how a professor might notice it; and finally, how to avoid the temptation or the unintended “fall” into plagiarized writing.

The best description of the likely causes of plagiarism I know of are given in a book by Robert A. Harris called The Plagiarism Handbook; it’s intended for teachers, but students can learn a lot from it, too. In Harris’ view, students plagiarize for many reasons, among them: (1) stress – after procrastinating, for example, some people will do whatever it takes at the moment, even if they know it’s wrong, to avoid certain negative consequences – thinking that they at least have a chance to “get away with it” by copying.. (2) Economy. It’s natural for most of us to look for the simplest way through a problem, and if we aren’t clear on the reasons why plagiarism shouldn’t even be on the list of strategies, we’ll consider it. (3) Many people are simply careless note-takers; we might honestly think we thought something that we actually read, or again, if our notes are not in a coherent state, we’ll panic and resort to the “easy” way out. So, keep clear, consistent notes, using a system that easily allows you to cross-reference each note with its source; and clearly distinguish verbatim quotations from paraphrases and summaries. (4) “Tu quoque,” in the Latin: we do something because we believe that “everyone” else is doing it. A lot of people speed for the same reason. First, not everyone does it – though unfortunately, a lot of people do cheat. Second, as “Boy Scout”-ish as it may sound, academic cheaters only cheating themselves in the long run – assuming they get away with it, which is harder these days, thanks to the Internet and other electronic resources.(5) Some people are unaware that plagiarism is wrong, or don’t even know what it is. Having read this lecture, you no longer have that excuse! (6) Students don’t feel familiar with the ins and outs of academic culture, or they feel disenfranchised; that is, that don’t feel they belong to the discourse community. It might be true that most of you are not going to become essay- writers, or literary scholars, or rhetoricians, or college teachers. But most of you do plan on entering some other sort of discourse community: engineering, medicine, business, law, etc. Although the formats of writing, citation, documentation, and general presentation differ, the same basic ethics applies in any professional area. So, it’s best to learn the proper values now.

How can a professor tell when you’ve plagiarized? First, we’ve usually read thousands of student essays, many of them of roughly the same stamp (we design the assignments, after all), before you come into our classes. So, we are highly sensitive to the medium. Second, we have sometimes already read the sources you are plagiarizing. Third, you and another unwise person in the class might have both stolen from the same easily-accessible source (quite possible, given that plagiarism is often a form of laziness – not mentioned, really, on Harris’ list!); so, Student B’s paper is proof that both he/she and Student A are plagiarists. Fourth, we are writers and readers – experts, you might say, or connoisseurs. We know that a student’s sense of style, even when it is clear and fluent, is not as accomplished, not as subtle, witty, aware, or eloquent as that of professional writers. Or alternatively, students haven’t yet been corrupted so thoroughly by jargon, obfuscation, verbosity, and other bad habits one finds in much so-called professional writing. Also, we can tell one “flavor” of writing from another, and so we can easily identify the inconsistencies of style, diction, sentence length and complexity, thought patterns, and so forth. Fifth (going back to the laziness mentioned above), some plagiarists don’t steal neatly; phrases or ideas are abruptly cut, or references to something not present in the student’s abridged version of the source are left embedded. Last, we generally teach writing as process: we will expect to see outlines, notes, rough drafts, subsequent drafts, copies of research sources…if you submit a brilliant essay after silence throughout the process period, you will be immediately suspect – even if you actually did give birth to a work of genius in a magical, moonlit night of inspiration. Also, if the assignment is specifically a research essay, and you provide no citations or no Works Cited page, it will automatically fail – whether you decided to do you own original writing and did no research, or did “patch-writing” – wove together paraphrases and unmarked quotations without bothering to insert tag lines or citations.

If a professor suspects you of plagiarizing, there are various ways he or she will deal with it. At some institutions now, the burden of proof is on the student: if you’re accused, you have to demonstrate that the accusation is in error. In other words, you’re guilty until proven innocent. I take that approach only somewhat; if I “confer” with you (rather than accuse), you will be expected to talk authoritatively about the essay you gave me, its backgrounds, your methods of writing, and so forth. If you used sophisticated words and somehow no longer remember what they mean, that will not look good. If you can’t summarize your ideas and development very well, that will also not look good.

But the most important “threat” you should be aware of is that we now have software and Internet-based programs to assist us, just as students tempted to cheat have a variety of online sources (some of them cost money). However, I have found that what the would-be plagiarist has in his or her arsenal is badly conceived, developed, and maintained – even when you pay. In any case, a simple search- engine foray will sometimes lead me to the same source; or, to another, open- Internet copy of the same thing (stolen work often crops up in many spots online; you might pay for something you could actually download for free, if you kept looking). Also, some assignments are very specific; you’ll find, perhaps, a slightly relevant paper at a cheat site, but if f the paper isn’t right for the assignment, no matter how good it is, it will probably be an “F” for being off-topic.

I sometimes Google-ize a phrase from a paper I’m concerned about, and usually, my suspicions prove correct. That doesn’t mean I will take note of every plagiarized paper, but if you’ve read what I wrote above, why would you risk it? But beyond Google, there are other, more extensive tools, such as turnitin.com, which collects papers submitted by teachers all over the country, as well as other sources. I have found it amazingly effective; that is, when Google didn’t come up with a hit, and I was still suspicious, I always found the stolen material at turnitin.com --- always, over the past two semesters.

What are the consequences? Start by reading the Student Handbook. Basically, depending on the professor and the particular circumstances of the student's transgression, you can: (1) suffer no consequences, either because you got away with it, or the professor is apathetic (I'm not); (2) find your self rewriting the assignment; (3) find yourself rewriting the assignment, but only to avoid an "F" for the course -- the assignment will still be a "0" or some other reduced grade; (4) receive a "0" for that assignment, along with a warning, but stay in the course; (5) find yourself dropped from the course with a "W"; (6) find yourself dropped from the course with an "F"; (7) find yourself charged with a violation of the Conduct Code, along with an "F" for the course -- meaning your future standing as a student at this institution is in question. In my case, I usually drop the student with a "W" for the course -- but that depends on the precise circumstances of the incident. In some cases, if I sense that the infraction was minor, and was out of ignorance rather than the attempt to deceive, I will allow the student to redo the assignment without penalty. Other professors are often much more strict; be thankful I'm such a nice fellow!

Like most professors, I don’t like playing Big Brother. But the reasons for maintaining honesty and integrity are very compelling; I’ll be a plagiarism cop if I have to, because I want students to learn; and I want them to be honorable people, even if it’s fear of the consequences that makes them so. We’re all better off, I firmly believe, if we live honorably.

So, how do you avoid plagiarism, aside from having the will and desire to be honest? First, understand the assignment. I make extensive handouts for all graded essays, and sometimes samples; read them, read them again, reflect on what you’ve read, and ask questions to clarify at any point in the process of writing – ask me, but also ask your fellow students. Communicate! Second, start early, even if your first efforts are brief and slight. If you define a project for yourself, in your own words, you will actually be able to “work” on the idea as you go about your life. That is, some part of your mind will be busy, and ideas will seem to rise to the surface now and then. A lot of creative work comes from the periphery of our minds, or draws from our unconscious. You can piece things together, and have a lot to draw on from raw material when you finally sit down to work steadily. Even then, you will find that most writing projects require several work-sessions; so, don’t wait until the last minute. Third, define for yourself some broader personal or professional reason for doing the assignment – something that goes beyond the course requirement itself. That’s not easy for some types of writing, but you’d be surprised how often you can fit an assignment into your own interests and needs. The more committed you are to a project, the more you will see it as a part of yourself – and you think of yourself as honorable, right? Some of us will do bad things when we feel disenfranchised, alienated, or otherwise detached; but most of us won’t soil our own bed, as the saying goes: we won’t do harm to what we feel is our own property, or a part of our own identity.

Well, this was really about many other things besides plagiarism. That’s because I think it’s important to understand that plagiarism is not simply a “bad” behavior; it’s often a result of the failure to understand or communicate; and it’s awkwardly close, in some ways, to other, more acceptable or even necessary practices, like imitation, quotation, collaboration, allusion, and other things I haven’t even mentioned. Let me close by reminding you that it is your responsibility to communicate with me: ask questions as often as necessary when you are unsure of something; don’t try to get through this course anonymously. In the words of the British novelist E. M. Forster, “Only connect!” We’re all in this together.

If this were a formal, MLA-formatted essay, I would now give you a page like this:

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Works Cited

Harris, Robert A. The Plagiarism Handbook Glendale, CA: Pyrczak, 2001.

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but we’ll discuss documentation another time….

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Here are a few links that you might also explore; or, you can do your own Internet/library search: