History of women and minorities

The First Generation of Women Psychologists and the Psychology of Women

Katharine S. Milar Earlham College

A t the end o f the 19th centu~, psychology was among the most hospitable o f the sciences in admitting women to its ranks. Among this so-called first generation o f women psychologists were a number o f individuals who aggres- sively challenged the prevailing stereotypes concerning the psychological characteristics o f women and men. Further, many o f these women actively promoted equal educational and professional opportunities f o r women.

B etween the beginning and the end of the 19th century, enormous gains were made in the educa- tion of women. Under the leadership of pioneers such as Emma Willard and Mary Lyon, first a rigorous secondary education and then a collegiate-level education became available to women. With the founding of Vassar College in 1865, full four-year collegiate education for women was finally accomplished more than 200 years after both Harvard University and the College of William and Mary had begun offering college degrees to men (Rossiter, 1982; Solomon, 1985). Although the justification for the higher education of women was embedded in the notion of republican motherhood--that is, better educated women would be better wives and mothers and raise better sons for the republic--the women who pursued this new college education had other ideas, and, as graduate education began to become available, many of them began very quickly to aspire to advanced degrees (Rossiter, 1982).

At about the same time these major advances in wom- en's education were occurring, psychology was becoming established as an academic discipline. Recruiting and train- ing more psychologists was an important part of establish- ing the academic credentials of the new science. Between 1892 and 1904, over 100 psychology doctorates were awarded, and for the five-year period between 1898 and 1903, psychology ranked fourth among the sciences in doctorate production (Camfield, 1973; Napoli, 1981). Some of these new doctors of philosophy were women; in fact, psychology was among the most hospitable of the sciences in opening graduate study to women (Rossiter, 1982). Elizabeth Scarborough and Laurel Furumoto (1987) have suggested that the admission of women to graduate programs in psychology was an advantage for the disci- pline because women could "swell the numbers and gen- erate studies that would establish the legitimacy of the new science" (p. 136). The picture was not entirely rosy: A number of women who pursued graduate study in psychol-

ogy were not awarded the degree, among them Mary Whi- ton Calkins and Lillien Jane Martin. However, women with and without the formal doctoral degree were nevertheless admitted to the professional ranks through election to mem- bership in the American Psychological Association (APA). Eight women were elected by 1900; the first to be elected were Calkins and Christine Ladd-Franklin in 1893, the year alter the founding of the association (Scarborough, 1992).

Furumoto and Scarborough have sketched the collec- tive portrait of this "first generation" of American women psychologists (Furumoto & Scarborough, 1986; Scarbor- ough & Furumoto, 1987). They identified 25 women who had entered the field by 1906, as evidenced either through their listing as psychologists in the first edition of American Men o f Science (Cattell, 1906) or through their election to membership in APA. Because the collective biography and a number of beautifully detailed individual sketches of these women have been provided by these authors (e.g., Furumoto, 1980, 1992; Goodman, 1980), to avoid repeti- tion I instead examine the way in which some members of this cohort exerted their personal and professional influence in addressing the question of the psychological character- istics and proper social and professional roles of women.

By the time APA was ~bunded in 1892, some 20 psychology laboratories were operating, but the emphasis of the American model differed somewhat from the Ger- man laboratories' emphasis on the normal human adult male mind. As Sokal (1992) has asserted, "From the start • . . this science [of American psychology] was functionally oriented and deeply concerned with d e v e l o p m e n t - - especially with individual differences" (p. 46). The study of individual differences logically included the question of sex differences.

In one of the earliest comparisons of sex differences, Joseph Jastrow (1891) examined "the unconscious and natural mental processes" (p. 559) of his students at the University of Wisconsin by having them write a list of 100

Editor'5 note. Almost two dozen of the leading historians of psychology agreed to write "snapshots" of various aspects of psychology circa 1900. The articles appear in serial form throughout Volume 55. The series was edited by Donald A. Dewsbury.

A u t h o r ' s note. Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- dressed to Katharine S. Milar. Earlham College, Department of Psy- chology, Richmond, IN 47374. Electronic mail may be sent to kathym @ earlham.edu.

616 June 2000 • American Psychologist Copyright 2000 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/00/$5.00

Vol. 55, No. 6, 616 619 DOI: 10.10371/0003-066X.55.6.616

w o r d s as r a p i d l y as p o s s i b l e . His r e p o r t that w o m e n p r o - d u c e d lists w i t h m u c h less v a r i e t y than t h o s e o f m e n was c o n s i s t e n t w i t h v i e w s o f the p e r i o d that m e n w e r e the m o r e v a r i a b l e sex in b o t h p h y s i c a l and m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . G r e a t e r v a r i a b i l i t y was v i e w e d as a p o s i t i v e trait, b e c a u s e it was seen as the m e c h a n i s m for e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o g r e s s (see S h i e l d s , 1975, for d i s c u s s i o n ) . J a s t r o w ' s findings w e r e c h a l l e n g e d b y M a r y W h i t o n C a l k i n s (1896; N e v e r s & C a l k i n s , 1895), w h o s e s a m p l e o f W e l l e s l e y w o m e n s h o w e d no such l a c k o f o r i g i n a l i t y in w o r d p r o d u c t i o n . C a l k i n s c r i t i c i z e d J a s t r o w and s e x o l o g i s t H a v e l o c k Ellis, s u g g e s t - ing that their a t t e m p t s to c h a r a c t e r i z e a " m a s c u l i n e and f e m i n i n e i n t e l l e c t . . . [ s e e m e d ] futile and i m p o s s i b l e be- c a u s e o f our entire i n a b i l i t y to e l i m i n a t e the effect o f e n v i r o n m e n t " ( C a l k i n s , 1896, p. 430).

H e l e n B r a d f o r d T h o m p s o n was the first p s y c h o l o g i s t to u n d e r t a k e an e x t e n s i v e and s y s t e m a t i c e x p e r i m e n t a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f the p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the sexes. H e r d i s s e r t a t i o n , c o m p l e t e d at the U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o in 1900 and l a t e r p u b l i s h e d as The Mental Traits' o f Sex (1903), was an a n a l y s i s o f the p e r f o r m a n c e o f 25 w o m e n and 25 m e n on tests o f m o t o r a b i l i t y , sensations, intellect, and affect. C a r e f u l , d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f the results l e d to her c o n c l u s i o n that,

The psychological differences of sex seem to be largely due, not to difference of average capacity, nor to difference in type of mental activity, but to differences in the social influences brought to bear on the developing individual t¥om early infancy to adult years. (Thompson, 1903, p. 182)

H e r l a t e r r e v i e w o f the l i t e r a t u r e on sex d i f f e r e n c e s written u n d e r h e r m a r r i e d n a m e , H e l e n T h o m p s o n W o o l l e y , was s h a r p l y c r i t i c a l o f authors such as H a v e l o c k Ellis, asserting,

There is perhaps no field aspiring to be scientific where flagrant personal bias, logic martyred in the cause of supporting a preju- dice, unfounded assertions, and even sentimental rot and drivel, have run riot to such an extent as here. (Woolley, 1910, p. 340)

D e s p i t e the p u b l i c a t i o n o f T h o m p s o n ' s r e s e a r c h and the i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s o f w o m e n a t t e n d i n g c o l l e g e , the d e b a t e a b o u t the a d v i s a b i l i t y o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n for w o m e n had n o t b e e n q u i e t e d . P s y c h o l o g i s t s w e r e c a l l e d on to j o i n in the d e b a t e . T h e a s p i r a t i o n o f the f o u n d e r s to e s t a b l i s h the scientific and p r o f e s s i o n a l status o f their f l e d g l i n g d i s c i - p l i n e g e n e r a t e d an i n t e r e s t in p r o v i n g p s y c h o l o g y ' s p r a c t i - cal v a l u e as w e l l ( C a m f i e l d , 1973; S o k a l , 1992). B e g i n n i n g in 1896, m u c h o f e a r l y c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e was d i r e c t e d at c h i l d r e n w i t h l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s ( F a g a n , 1992; W i t m e r , 190711996). T h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l a d j u s t m e n t to e d u c a t i o n led n a t u r a l l y to the q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r e d u c a - tion n e e d e d to be d i f f e r e n t for m e n and w o m e n e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f i n h e r e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l d i f f e r e n c e s o r b e c a u s e dif- ferent e d u c a t i o n was n e e d e d for d i f f e r i n g s o c i a l roles.

O n e p s y c h o l o g i s t w h o a r g u e d that the d i f f e r i n g b i o - l o g i c a l roles o f w o m e n and m e n d e m a n d e d s e g r e g a t e d e d u c a t i o n was G. S t a n l e y Hall. In his b o o k Adolescence (1904/1937), H a l l p r o f f e r e d the v i e w that a p p r o p r i a t e r o l e s for w o m e n w e r e t h o s e o f w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s . T h e n o t i o n p r o m o t e d in 1873 b y E d w a r d C l a r k e , that h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n

for w o m e n w o u l d j e o p a r d i z e t h e i r r e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y and t h r e a t e n the future o f the s p e c i e s , was w h o l e h e a r t e d l y e n d o r s e d b y Hall, w h o b e c a m e o n e o f the l e a d e r s o f an a n t i c o e d u c a t i o n m o v e m e n t in the 1900s (Diehl, 1986).

H a l l u s e d d a t a g a t h e r e d b y p s y c h o l o g i s t M i l l i c e n t S h i n n ( w h o had e a r n e d her d o c t o r a t e o f p h i l o s o p h y at the U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , in 1898) on m a r r i a g e rates o f c o l l e g e - e d u c a t e d w o m e n to b o l s t e r his c l a i m that h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n was h a z a r d o u s for the f e m a l e sex. I n s u m m a r i z i n g S h i n n ' s r e p o r t on the s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r m a r - r i a g e rates o f m e m b e r s o f the A s s o c i a t i o n o f C o l l e g i a t e A l u m n a e ( A C A ) , H a l l a c c u r a t e l y r e p o r t e d s o m e o f her d a t a but not lhe q u a l i f i c a t i o n s she p l a c e d on that d a t a nor her c o n c l u s i o n s . In a s k i n g w h y the m a r r i a g e figures w e r e l o w e r for c o l l e g e - e d u c a t e d w o m e n , S h i n n first p o i n t e d to the y o u t h f u l n e s s o f the w o m e n in the s a m p l e : N e a r l y 50% w e r e r e c e n t g r a d u a t e s still in t h e i r 20s. M a n y a l u m n a e w e r e r e s i d e n t t e a c h e r s in g i r l s ' s c h o o l s , an o c c u p a t i o n S h i n n c h a r a c t e r i z e d as s e c o n d o n l y to the life o f a nun as a c a u s e for c e l i b a c y . B e y o n d this, she p r o v i d e d two a d d i t i o n a l reasons: T h e c o l l e g e - e d u c a t e d w o m a n h a d h i g h e r s t a n d a r d s for a m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r and, b e c a u s e she h a d the t r a i n i n g n e c e s s a r y to s u p p o r t herself, was u n d e r less p r e s s u r e to a c c e p t a p a r t n e r w h o d i d not m e e t t h o s e standards. S h i n n a l s o a d m i t t e d , "I h a v e no d o u b t t h a t . . , m a n y m e n d i s l i k e i n t e l l e c t u a l w o m e n , - - w h e t h e r b e c a u s e such w o m e n are r e a l l y d i s a g r e e a b l e or b e c a u s e m e n ' s taste is at fault, I shall not try to d e t e r m i n e " (Shinn, 1895, p. 948).

H a l l ' s v i s i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e e d u c a t i o n for w o m e n in- c o r p o r a t e d not o n l y e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y and p s y c h o l o g y but a l s o r e l i g i o n :

Biological psychology already dreams of a new philosophy of sex which places the wife and mother at the heart of a new world and makes her the object of a new religion and almost of a new worship. (Hall, 1904/1937, p. 562)

K a t e G o r d o n ( w h o h a d e a r n e d her d o c t o r a t e o f p h i l o s o p h y at the U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o in 1903) s c o f f e d at H a l l ' s n o t i o n s o f m a k i n g w o m e n r e l i g i o u s o b j e c t s in a s p e e c h g i v e n in 1905: " T h i s attitude t o w a r d w o m e n d i d v e r y w e l l in the M i d d l e A g e s , but, to tell the truth, the m o d e r n w o m a n is m a d e a little bit ill b y the i n c e n s e " ( G o r d o n , 1905, p. 790). G o r d o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d H a l l ' s w o r k as t o o " b i z a r r e " to b e literature and too " u n c r i t i c a l in m e t h o d " to b e c o n s i d e r e d s c i e n c e (p. 790).

G o r d o n s e p a r a t e d w h a t she t e r m e d the s o c i a l q u e s t i o n , " S h o u l d a w o m a n ' s s c h o o l and c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g b e in any sense a m a t r i m o n i a l e d u c a t i o n ? " and the p s y c h o l o g i c a l question, " W h e n p u r s u i n g the s a m e s u b j e c t that a m a n is, m u s t she be t a u g h t b y a d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d ? " ( G o r d o n , 1905, p. 790). B a s i n g her a r g u m e n t in p a r t on H e l e n B r a d f o r d T h o m p s o n ' s d i s s e r t a t i o n r e s e a r c h , w h i c h H a l l h a d d i s - m i s s e d as " f e m i n i s t i c , " G o r d o n r e p u d i a t e d the i d e a that m e n and w o m e n r e q u i r e d d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f instruction:

There is an old superstition that women's minds work by feeling and men's by reason. Surely it is time to give that up. Does a woman solve the binomial theorem by feeling, or a quadratic equation by intuition? Does [a man] appreciate a sonnet by logical deduction'? (p. 793)

June 2000 • A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t 617

To Hall's and others' claim that coeducation would coarsen women and make men effeminate, Gordon responded that if they were fit to marry each other, they were certainly fit to go to school together (Gordon, 1905, p. 794).

On the question of designing a woman's education for marriage, Gordon argued that because marriage was only one of many possible occupations for a woman, to educate her only for a domestic career would unfairly limit her freedom of choice. Further, a woman's "social equality with men is conditioned by her ability to do the same work, and this ability is largely dependent upon her having the

, same school and college training which a man has" (Gor- don, 1905, p. 793).

Kate Gordon's argument for social and educational equality for men and women would have been heartily endorsed by fellow psychologist Christine Ladd-Franklin, who had been engaged for some time in promoting the entry of more women into the professorial ranks. In 1878, Ladd-Franklin applied for admission to graduate study at Johns Hopkins University and was admitted as a special student. Her work at Hopkins was sufficiently distin- guished to merit the award of a stipend in 1879 that was renewed yearly thereafter, but the stipend was recorded only in a note to avoid setting any precedent with regard to the admission of women (Furumoto, 1992; Hurvich, 1971). She completed work for the degree in 1882, but because of the university's policy she did not receive her doctorate until 1926, when it was finally awarded to the 79-year-old psychologist as part of the celebration of the 50th anniver- sary of the university (Rossiter, 1982).

Perhaps partly in response to her experience, Ladd- Franklin was one of the prime movers behind the A C A ' s establishment of a European fellowship to provide Amer- ican college women with an opportunity to spend a post- graduate year studying in Europe. The fellowship was designed to give women the opportunity to do postgraduate research that would l e a d t o their being hired to teach at the college level--and not just at women's colleges but at men's colleges and coeducational institutions. Ladd- Franklin argued that increasing the numbers of women teaching at the college level would have an important psychological effect, improving the status and salaries of women teaching at the lower levels: "As long as women are thought to be not worthy of being college professors, it will be impossible for them to receive equal pay with men in the secondary schools" (Ladd-Franklin, 1890, p. 4).

By 1904, Ladd-Franklin was pressing the ACA to establish special endowed professorships for women. She noted that the doctoral degree or an equivalent course of study was now being required for college professorships, and that although women were earning the degree, they were not being hired for academic positions "in proportion to their attainments" (Ladd-Franklin, 1904, p. 54). Her argument was valid. Comparison of the first generation of women psychologists with their male counterparts showed that 65% of the men but only 50% of the women had professorial rank. All of the women who held professorial rank were single and were teaching predominantly in wom- en's colleges. Among this cohort, only Lillien Jane Martin

held the position of full professor at a coeducational insti- tution: She was promoted to that rank at Stanford Univer- sity in 1911 (Furumoto & Scarborough, 1986).

In 1907, Ladd-Franklin successfully secured the funds for what became known as the Berliner Fellowship of the ACA. The recipient received a salary to pursue her research at the college or university of her choice. The university only had to permit her to give a series of lectures during the year she was in residence. Ladd-Franklin assumed that once women had demonstrated their ability to give lectures to coeducational classrooms, the universities would want to retain them and hire other qualified women:

All we ask for our sex is that positions in colleges to which women are admitted as students should be filled . . . by the brilliant and the distinguished among existing Doctors of Philos- ophy without regard to sex, or with very little regard to sex--with the understanding that whenever the woman applicant for the position is distinctly superior to the man she shall have the position. (Ladd-Franklin, 1908, p. 144)

Ladd-Franklin herself held the title of lecturer at Columbia University, but it was an unpaid position. In a 1917 letter to a colleague she resentfully reported that she had never refused a salary, but "lacking a better option, had offered to lecture for nothing" (cited in Furumoto, 1992, p. 180).

Despite such fellowships and the activism of women like Gordon and Ladd-Franklin, women who found aca- demic employment were segregated primarily to women's colleges and to the lower academic ranks. Married women, like Ladd-Franklin, were doubly disadvantaged: W o m e n ' s colleges would hire only single women. In a 1897 letter to Ladd-Franklin, Helen Ridgely wrote that a woman "ought to be taught that she cannot serve two masters, that if she chooses the higher path of learning and wants to do herself and her sex justice, she must forgo matrimony" (cited in Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987, p. 71). This dilemma faced Ethel Puffer, who had graduated from Smith College in 1891 and completed her doctoral work with Hugo Mtin- sterberg at Harvard in 1898, supported by an A C A Amer- ican fellowship. Like Johns Hopkins, Harvard did not grant degrees to women, but Puffer accepted a Radcliffe doctor- ate in 1902; Mary Whiton Calkins, who completed her doctoral work at Harvard in 1895, declined the Radcliffe degree (Furumoto, 1980). When Puffer married Benjamin Howes in 1908, she forfeited her chance for an academic position at Bamard, and she struggled the rest of her life with the marriage-career dilemma. She found making time for scholarship while managing a home a difficult task. Puffer Howes wrote later that it was not only the job discrimination but the lack of "the possibility of mental concentration, of long-sustained intensive application, of freedom from irrelevant cares and interruptions" that mar- riage brought to the woman professional and that prevented her from achieving career success (Howes, 1922, p. 446). Her attempt in the 1920s to establish programs for women to help them manage marriage, motherhood, and profes- sional activities did not succeed (Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987).

618 June 2000 • American Psychologist

P s y c h o l o g y ' s f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f w o m e n p r o f e s s i o n a l s m a d e i t s p r e s e n c e f e l t i n a n u m b e r o f w a y s . T h e s e w o m e n c o n d u c t e d r e s e a r c h t h a t c h a l l e n g e d p r e v a i l i n g n o t i o n s o f s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e y u s e d t h e i r k n o w l e d g e as w o m e n a n d a s p s y c h o l o g i s t s t o p r e s s f o r e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r w o m e n . P r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r s f o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s w e r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y f o u n d i n a c a d e m i a u n t i l a f t e r W o r l d W a r I. D e s p i t e t h e i r e f f o r t s , w o m e n p s y c h o l o g i s t s c o n t i n u e d t o e x p e r i e n c e d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g a c a d e m i c p o s i t i o n s e x - c e p t i n w o m e n ' s c o l l e g e s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , as t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y m a r c h e d o n w a r d , m o r e a n d m o r e w o m e n w e r e t o m o v e i n t o t h e b u r g e o n i n g a r e a o f a p p l i e d p s y c h o l o g y , w h i c h w a s t o h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r b o t h t h e i r s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a n d t h e s t a t u s o f s o m e a p p l i e d a r e a s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n ( F u r u m o t o , 1 9 8 7 ; N a p o l i , 1 9 8 1 ) .

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