DUE 5/21
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HistoryofUrbanPlanning.pptxPADM 708 URBAN PLANNING FOR STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT
DR. HARRY MCGINNIS
PROFESSOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
History of Urban Planning
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WEEK ONE: MODULE ONE URBAN PLANNING HISTORY
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Many thanks to my friend and colleague Professor Michael Elliott, School of City and Regional Planning at Georgia Tech, for use of his slides. Also, a thank you to my fellow members at the Georgia Planning Association who made the slides available for those seeking AICP certification.
EARLY HISTORY OF URBAN PLANNING
Evidence in the ruins of cities in China, India, Egypt, Asia Minor, the Mediterranean area, South America, and Central America.
Roman city of Londinium (later named London) around 200 A.D.
During the Middle Ages, there was little building of cities in Europe.
Later, cities formed as centers of trade, religious connections, and feudalism.
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| 1682 | Philadelphia plan | Grid system & neighborhood parks | William Penn Thomas Holme |
| 1695 | Annapolis plan | Radiocentric | Francis Nicholson |
| 1733 | Savannah | Ward park system | Oglethorpe |
| 1790 | Washington | Grand, whole city plan | Pierre L’Enfant |
| 1852-1870 | Paris | Model for “City Beautiful” | Napoleon III; Haussmann |
| 1856 | Central Park | First major purchase of parkland | F L Olmsted Sr |
| 1869 | Riverside, IL | Model curved street “suburb” | FL Olmsted Sr Calvert Vaux |
| 1880 | Pullman, IL | Model industrial town | George Pullman |
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The Industrial City
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The Industrial City
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1865 NYC
Response to Emerging Industrial City: Public Health Movement
| 1867 | San Francisco | First modern land-use zoning in US (forbad slaughterhouses in geographic districts) | |
| 1867/1879 | New York City | First major tenement house controls | |
| 1879 | Memphis | 60% of city flees from yellow fever; of those who remain, 80% get sick; 25% die | |
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A Utopian Model
an ideal, self-contained community of predetermined area and population surrounded by a greenbelt
was intended to bring together the economic and cultural advantages of both city and country life while at the same time discouraging metropolitan sprawl and industrial centralization
land ownership would be vested in the community (socialist element)
The garden city was foreshadowed in the writings of Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and James Silk Buckingham, and in the planned industrial communities of Saltaire (1851), Bournville (1879), and Port Sunlight (1887) in England
Howard organized the Garden-City Association (1899) in England and secured backing for the establishment of Letchworth and Welwyn
Neither community was an entirely self-contained garden city
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Frederick Law Olmsted
1822-1903
advanced quite impressively for a park superintendent without a college degree
with Calvert Vaux (1847) won the competition & went on to design:
Prospect Park (1865-1873)
Chicago's Riverside subdivision
Buffalo's park system (1868-1876),
the park at Niagara Falls (1887)
In later years worked on Boston’s
park system, “the Emerald Necklace” and the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago
Olmsted’s parks were not natural but they were “naturalistic” or “organic” in form
This form was seen as uplifting urban dwellers and addressing the social and psychological impacts of crowding
Environmental determinism
Olmsted’s Park Design Principles
SCENERY: design spaces in which movement creates constant opening up of new views and “obscurity of detail further away”
SUITABILITY: respect the natural scenery and topography of the site
STYLE:
Pastoral” = open greensward with small bodies of water and scattered trees and groves create a soothing, restorative atmosphere
“Picturesque = profuse planting, especially with shrubs, creepers and ground cover, on steep and broken terrain create a sense of the richness and bounteousness of nature, produce a sense of mystery with light and shade
SUBORDINATION: subordinate all elements to the overall design and the effect it is intended to achieve: “Art to conceal Art”
SEPARATION:
of areas designed in different styles
of ways, in order to insure safety of use and reduce distractions of
conflicting or incompatible uses
SANITATION: promote both the physical and mental health of users
SERVICE: meet fundamental social and psychological needs
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The Birth of Land use Zoning
1886 statute: San Fran. Chinese laundries shut down
Fed. court case: Yick Wo v. Hopkins, Sheriff struck down statute, so city imposed no-laundry zone
other CA cities zoned against laundries, brothels, pool halls, dance halls, livery stables, slaughterhouses
How? municipality’s trad. responsibility for protecting “health, safety, morals and general welfare” of citizens
1st NY zoning law (1916) protected Fifth Ave. luxury store owners from expansion of Jewish garment factories
protected property values and expressed chauvinism
idea spread to 100s of cities in decade after the NY law was passed, promoting property values and special interests of the upper class, white majority
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Settlement House Movement
Jane Addams founded Hull House (Chicago) 1889
soon over 100 others are founded in American cities
goals: educating, elevating and saving the poor (condescending attitude) gradually evolved into something more responsive and scientific
residents surveyed slum populations, organized housing studies
the gathering of information from such surveys and studies became central to urban planning
famous tenement studies around 1901: Lawrence Veiller (NY) and Robert Hunter (Chicago)
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Garden City Movement
| 1898 | “Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform” | anti-urban, agrarian | Ebenezar Howard |
| 1903-1920 1919-1934 | Leetchworth Welwyn | Two garden city projects | Welwyn introduces superblock |
1930 Plan for Greenbelt MD
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City Beautiful Movement
| 1893 | Columbian Exposition | The “White City” | Burnham, Olmsted Sr, |
| 1902 | McMillan Plan for Washington DC | Update of L’Enfant’s Plan | Burnhan Olmsted Jr |
| 1906 | San Francisco Plan | First major application of City Beautiful in US | Daniel Burnham Edward Bennett |
| 1909 Chicago Plan | Burnham | ||
| First metro regional plan | “Make no little plans; they have no magic…” |
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The City Beautiful Movement
main emphasis: showy urban landscapes
drew on “beaux arts” tradition (France)
aped classical architecture
iconography of and for the urban elites
moral diagnosis: people need to be civilized
Daniel Burnham: 1893 Chicago World’s Fair
orderly and clean
aesthetic rather than social sensibility
grandiose and ambitious
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The City Efficient: Developing Tools for Planning
1913
Massachusetts: planning mandatory for local gov’ts; planning boards required
1916
New York: first comprehensive zoning ordinance
1917
American City Planning Institute established in Kansas City
1922
Standard State Enabling Act issued by US Dept of Commerce
Los Angeles County establishes planning board
1925
Cincinnati: first comprehensive plan based on welfare of city as a whole
1926
Euclid vs. Ambler Realty Co: Supreme Court upholds comprehensive zoning
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1920s
Robert Moses replaces Burnham as leading American planner: “If the ends don’t justify the means, then what the hell does?”
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Standard City Planning Enabling Act issued by US Dept of Commerce
1929
Completion of Radburn NJ, innovative neighborhood design based on Howard’s theory
Harvard: Creation of first school of city planning
Publication of Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs
Regional Plan of New York completed
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Garden City Legacy in the U.S.
Garden City idea spread rapidly to Europe and the United States
Under the auspices of the Regional Planning Association of America, the garden-city idea inspired a “New Town,” Radburn,
N.J. (1928–32) outside New York City
The congestion and destruction accompanying World War II greatly stimulated the garden-city movement, especially in Great Britain
Britain’s New Towns Act (1946) led to the development of
over a dozen new communities based on Howard's idea
The open layout of garden cities also had a great influence on the development of modern city planning
Most satellite towns fail to attain Howard's ideal
residential suburbs of individually owned homes
local industries are unable to provide enough employment for the inhabitants, many of whom commute to work in larger centers
Garden Cities (a British innovation)
Ebenezer Howard: Garden Cities of To-morrow (1902)
“three magnets”
town (high wages, opportunity, and amusement)
country (natural beauty, low rents, fresh air)
town-country (combination of both)
separated from central city by greenbelt
two actually built in England
Letchworth
Welwyn
Ebenezer Howard
no training in urban planning or design
1850-1928
opposed urban crowding/density
hoped to create a “magnet” people would want to come to
Garden Cities
would combine the best elements of city and country
would avoid the worst elements of city and country
formed the basis of the earliest suburbs,
separation from the city has been lost virtually every time due to infill
Actual Garden Cities
Letchworth, England
Founded 1903
Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin, planners
Welwyn, England
Founded 1920 by E. Howard
designed by Louis de Soissons
most of the population now commutes to London
More Welwyn photos
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Three Major Shifts
Migration of African Americans to the north and west during and after World Wars I and II
1960: Washington becomes first major city where residents are predominately minorities
Migration of “rust belt” residents to “sun belt” areas with the widespread availability of air conditioning
Migration from inner cities to suburbs
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Origins of the Planning Profession in the U.S.
emerges during the first third of the 20th c.
adopts less critical stance relative to modernity
first national conference on city planning in Washington D.C., 1909
shifts slowly from concern with aesthetics (city beautiful) to concern with efficiency and scientific management
patriarchal attitude
naïve faith in social engineering
left-leaning political bias almost disappears, esp. with role of zoning
Professionalization of Planning
1901
NYC: “New Law” regulates tenement housing
1907
Hartford: first official & permanent local planning board
1909
Washington DC: first planning association
National Conference on City Planning
Wisconsin: first state enabling legislation permitting cities to plan
Chicago Plan: Burnham creates first regional plan
Los Angeles: first land use zoning ordinance
Harvard School of Landscape Architecture: first course in city planning
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Giants of Planning in the U.S.
concept of the “master plan”: Edward Bassett, 1935, included:
infrastructure layout
zoning
Patrick Geddes (1904, 1915) called for urban planning to take into account the ecosystem and history of a region, called for social surveys
a protégé of Geddes, Lewis Mumford (1895- 1990) was the first notable critic of sprawl and the main figure in the Regional Plan Association of America, which built new towns in NJ & NY
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A New Generation of Dreamers
Le Corbusier (1920s): skyscrapers in parks
apartment tower idea caught on, but not the park setting
bland concrete apartment building is everywhere, and is hated everywhere
Frank Lloyd Wright (1930s): “Broadacre City”
his small house with carport became more or less the American standard in the 1950s
his dream of a decentralized, automobile-dependent society materialized
Wright’s vision, with 1-acre lots, would have created even worse traffic nightmares
Le Corbusier
originally Charles-Edouard Jeanneret
1887-1965
a founding father of the modernist movement
“social engineering”
Elements of Le Corbusier’s Plan
very high density
1,200 people per acre in skyscrapers
overcrowded sectors of Paris & London ranged from 169-213 pers./acre at the time
Manhattan has only 81 pers./acre
120 people per acre in luxury houses
6 to 10 times denser than current luxury housing in the U.S.
multi-level traffic system to manage the intensity of traffic
Elements of Le Corbusier’s Plan
access to greenspace
between 48% and 95% of the surface area is reserved for greenspace
gardens
squares
sports fields
restaurants
theaters
with no sprawl, access to the “protected zone” (greenbelt/open space) is quick and easy
The logic of increasing urban density
“The more dense the population of a city is the less are the distances that have to be covered.”
traffic is increased by:
the number of people in a city
the degree to which private transportation is more appealing (clean, fast, convenient, cheap) than public transportation
the average distance people travel per trip
the number of trips people must make each week
“The moral, therefore, is that we must increase the density of the centres of our cities, where business affairs are carried on.”
Frank Lloyd Wright
1867-1959
532 architectural designs built
(twice as many drawn)
designed houses, office buildings and a kind of suburban layout he called “Broadacre City”
Broadacre City
low-density car-oriented freeways
+feeder roads
multinucleated
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Modeling
1962 The urban growth simulation model emerges in the Penn-Jersey Transportation Study.
1968 Pittsburg Community Redevelopment Model
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Planning Today
main tool: zoning
19,000 different systems
tends to actually do little in the way of planning
imposes a rigidity to existing land uses
encourages separation by class
encourages retail strip development
discourages mixed use, pedestrian areas
in practice, it promotes satellite bedroom communities and suburbs superficially like Garden cities or Broadacre City
Relationship between Planning and the Crises that Created It?
Water quality and sanitation is controlled
Most people have adequate light and air
Fire danger is controlled
Disease is controlled
Current planning practice has even more to do with protecting property values
Urban growth continues to create unhealthy and dehumanizing environments (air pollution, stress, isolation, lack of community, etc.)
genuine planning is desperately needed
Is there Hope?
Precedents:
Cluster zoning & PUDs (dates back to Radburn, NJ, designed by Regional Planning Association of America in 1923)
New Urbanism & Neo-Traditional Planning
Peter Calthorpe Leon Krier
Congress for the New Urbanism
Participatory Planning
What else could planning involve?
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