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Lecture Slides Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture

NINETEENTH EDITION

Joshua Cole

Carol Symes

Lecture Slides

Chapter 5

The Civilization of Ancient Rome

Joshua Cole

Carol Symes

Early Influences and Foundation Myths

When Romans arrived in Italy—the dominant inhabitants were the Etruscans (Greeks called them Tyrrhenians).

They remain mysterious despite their archaeological record:

although they adapted the Greek alphabet

their language is non-Indo-European and has not been deciphered

By the sixth century B.C.E., the Etruscans established a confederation of independent city-states in north-central Italy.

skilled metalworkers, artists, and architects, from whom the Romans later took their knowledge of the arch and the vault

Romans adopted the bloody sport of gladiatorial combat from them

Also adopted the practice of foretelling the future by studying the entrails of animals and the flight of birds

Also derived from the Etruscans and adopted in The Aeneid of the poet Virgil (70–19 B.C.E.)

the story of Aeneas’s escape from Troy

the story of the infant twins Romulus and Remus

The story of the infant twins Romulus and Remus, abandoned at birth and then raised by a maternal wolf, afterward founding a city on the slopes of the Palatine Hill

Rome’s politicians and historians mined legends for their significance and added further details for a changing audience.

Etruscan and Greek Influences

Etruscan women enjoyed very high status and played important roles in public life.

participated in politics and sporting events

attended dramatic performances, athletic competitions, and openly danced

ate meals with their husbands and reclined with them on the same couch at banquets

were buried with their husbands in the same mortuary vaults, and their tombstones and sarcophagi often emphasize mutual affection

Roman women were less sequestered than but did not enjoy the same rights as Etruscan women until much later.

The Romans also borrowed ideas from the Greek settlers in southern Italy and Sicily including their alphabet, many of their religious beliefs, and much of their art.

The Romans downplayed Greek influence and preferred to accentuate their descent from the Trojans and from an Italic people called the Sabines, whose women (according to legend) Romulus and his men had forcibly abducted.

An Etruscan Couple

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

AN ETRUSCAN COUPLE. This sarcophagus lid dates from the middle of the fourth century b.c.e. and depicts a deceased couple as they lie together in bed, emphasizing with their intimate embrace the closeness of their marital bond. (Photograph © 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.)

The Founding of Rome

Real founders of Rome were a tribe called the Latins—descendants of Indo-European-speakers who entered Italy during the second millennium B.C.E.

Rome’s position on the Tiber River:

trading ships could only navigate the river as far as the city

commercial port but was not threatened by attack from the sea

located at the first good ford across the Tiber—a major crossroads

Seven hills offered strategic advantages. Eventually, Rome’s central marketplace—the forum—would become the heart of the city with approximately a million people crowded into an area of five square

Latium—a broad, flat plain with few natural obstacles—very early Rome negotiated with Latins and offered them the Latin Right (intermarriage, immigration)

Recent archaeological research: origins of the city back to at least the tenth century—much earlier than the date which the Romans had calculated for their founding: 753 B.C.E.

Early Government

The Romans’ early government: monarchy, with a king who exercised power that was checked only by a the Senate (Council of Elders)

Seven kings, including Romulus, are said to have ruled Rome. The last, was Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Arrogant)

an Etruscan who expanded Rome by dominating Latium and the agriculturally wealthy Campania to the south

but his power jeopardized Roman freedom and dignity— his son raped a virtuous Roman wife, Lucretia, around 510 B.C.E.

When she committed suicide to avoid dishonor, the Romans—led by Brutus— rebelled, overthrew the Etruscan dynasty, and rejected monarchy.

Hereafter, and the word rex (“king”) was a term of insult. The Brutus who helped assassinate Julius Caesar nearly five centuries later, descended from the same Brutus who expelled the Tarquin kings.

The Territorial Expansion of Rome

The early Roman republic was marked by almost constant warfare, By 300 B.C.E., Romans had absorbed or allied themselves with all of central Italy and had begun to look south, to the wealthy Greek colonies of Sicily.

Secret for Roman success:

Romans did not impose taxation and tribute on the settlements they conquered

they demanded only that their allies contribute soldiers to the Roman army

Rome extended the Latin Right to many of these conquered territories, giving them an interest in political and military expansion

The basic combat unit was the maniple, a group of about 120 infantrymen who trained together and who often performed specialized tasks or used special weaponry.

Early Rome = farmer-soldiers; new lands + new colonies of Roman farmer-soldiers

Rome gained a nearly inexhaustible reserve of fighting men, numbering near 300,000 by 250 B.C.E. Romans borrowed the phalanx from the Greeks and but split it into more flexible divisions. Major unit of the Roman army: the legion (5,000 men)

Roman Expansion in Italy, 485 to 265 B.C.E.

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

ROMAN EXPANSION IN ITALY, 485–218 b.c.e. This map illustrates early Roman expansion in the peninsula. ■ What is the geographical

relationship between Roman and Etruscan territory? ■ What seem to have been the most attractive avenues for Roman expansion? ■ What powers might have threatened Rome after its transformation into the dominant power on the peninsula after 265 b.c.e.?

L.Q. Cincinnatus

The paragon of Roman heroism was Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (519–c. 430 B.C.E.)

According to legend:

he was plowing his fields when a delegation of senators arrived to bring him to Rome

he found that he had been named dictator—a position of power to which the Romans elected one man during times of crisis.

Cincinnatus dutifully led Rome in its wars with hostile neighbors—and then went back to his farm.

Lucretia—Roman epitome of matronly fortitude

Cincinnatus—paradigm of manly virtue: willing to aid the state in a crisis but ultimately a farmer. George Washington was frequently compared with him.

Cincinnatus the State’s Man-Farmer

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

CINCINNATUS THE STATESMAN-FARMER. This bronze statue of Cincinnatus is prominent in Cincinnati, Ohio, which was named after the Roman hero (and in honor of George Washington) in 1790. In his right hand he holds the fasces, symbolizing his powers as dictator. In his left, he grasps the handle of a plow. ■ Why would this figure have fired the imagination of Americans during their War of Independence?

The Constitution of the Early Republic

In theory two consuls chosen by all citizens—the Roman assembly at this time voted in blocks with the wealthiest voting first—majority attainable before the poorer groups voted.

Consuls—members of patrician families—traced descent from a famous “father” (pater).

term of office: one year

dealt justice, made law, commanded the army (former duties of king)

had the right to veto the actions of his co-consul; the Senate would have to arbitrate

In times of emergency (like Cincinnatus’s election), a dictator might be appointed for a term not longer than six months.

Patrician dominance of the government to be challenged by the plebs (“people”). First stage in the Struggle of the Orders.

The plebeian class made up nearly 98 percent of the Roman population and was a diverse group.

Overthrown monarchy replaced by republic headed by two elected consuls.

Plebeians

some had grown wealthy through trade or agriculture

most were smallholding farmers, artisans, or the urban poor

Grievances:

forced to serve in the army but excluded from holding office

victims of discriminatory decisions in civil trials, which were judged by patricians

did not even know what legal rights they had since Rome only had unwritten customs and practices which patricians interpreted

threatened with debt slavery

Rebellion, secession, and victory

Tribunes or judicial watchdogs who were sacrosanct

codification of the Law of the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.E.

In 287 B.C.E. the plebeians passed a law that made decisions enacted in their own assembly—the concilium plebis—binding on the Roman government—whether the Senate approved them or not

Plebeian Victory

Consequences:

Successful plebeians could now work their way into the upper reaches of Roman society

Patrician families no longer monopolized power

Laws preventing wealth from becoming a controlling factor in Roman politics barred

senators from engaging in commerce. This restriction created a new social order:

the equestrians (“horsemen” or knights)

men who chose a life of business rather than politics

whose wealth made it possible for them to own and equip warhorses and thus to provide Rome’s cavalry.

The oligarchy of Roman republic expanded. Praised by the Greek historian Polybius, since it combined elements of a monarchy (consuls), an aristocracy (the Senate),and a polity (the people’s assembly and the tribunes). Model helped inspire the U.S. Constitution.

The Essence of Roman Identity

Prevailing principle behind Roman was the mos maiorum “the code of the elders”

unwritten code was sacrosanct and essential to Roman identity

accounts for the remarkable coherence of Roman culture, religion, and law, all of which rested on ancestor worship

explains why Romans continued to identify so strongly with their homeland and its customs.

patria potestas in The Twelve Tables

A Roman father had absolute authority within his household, including the power of life and death.

If too poor to raise a child, he could expose it or sell it into slavery

If his wife or child dishonored him, he could kill with impunity

A Roman Patrician of the first century B.C.E.

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

A ROMAN PATRICIAN OF THE FIRST CENTURY b.c.e. This man, who wears the toga of an aristocrat, displays his piety by holding the busts of his ancestors. Busts, like the funerary masks described by Polybius (see page 155), commemorated the dead and were the focus for family worship in household shrines. ■ How does the Roman attitude toward age and death differ from that of the Greeks (see the image on page 82)? ■ What do these differences suggest about the broader values of these two societies?

Roman religion

Rome’s public religion resembled that of the Greeks:

Jupiter corresponded to Zeus as god of the skies

Neptune = Poseidon as god of the seas

Venus = Aphrodite as goddess of beauty and sexuality

Roman state could flourish only if these father- and mother-gods lent their continuing and active support to its enterprises.

Committees of priests functioned as branches of the government and tended to the worship of the city’s temples—Roman priests were prominent men who rotated in and out of office while serving as leaders of the Senate.

Roman man’s primary duty: to honor his ancestors. This bolstered the prestige of the army, since soldiers were supposed to sacrifice themselves for the public good and to fear disgrace above all things.

The entire pantheon functioned as family gods of the Roman state; many senators traced their ancestry back to the gods.

The sense of duty to honor one’s ancestors is reflected in Roman names (Julius).

From Republic to Empire

For more than two centuries after the founding of the republic, the chief occupations of Romans: warfare and agriculture.

No standard system of coinage until 289 B.C.E.—commerce insignificant

In 265 B.C.E., Rome absorbed Etruscan territory and could claim to control most of the peninsula. One year later, embroiled in a war overseas.

Historiographical question:

Did Rome seek to extend its rule as a matter of policy, to feed a collective appetite for warfare and plunder?

Or was it an accidental empire, built up in a series of reactions to changing pressures at home as well as in response to threats from abroad?

No consensus

The Punic Wars, 264 to 146 B.C.E.

Carthage: Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, along the northern coast of Africa from modern-day Tunisia through the Straits of Gibraltar and into modern Spain.

independent and powerful

largest and most effective navy of its day

commanded the vast resources of commercial networks

but had no standing army—relied on mercenaries

First Punic war 264—241 B.C.E.

Rome sent a garrison to occupy the independent city of Messina (former Greek colony)

Carthage sent warships against perceived Roman aggression

Romans built their own navy

Carthage was beaten down and forced to cede all of its Sicilian lands to Rome and to pay a large indemnity. Later Rome took Corsica and Sardinia

Second Punic War

Second Punic War (218-201B.C.E.)

Carthaginian commander Hannibal (247–183 B.C.E.)—nearly defeated Romans in Italy

raised an army in Spain, heavily manned by cavalry

led this entire force across the Pyrenees into Gaul and then over the Alps into Italy

he harried Roman forces in Italy for nearly sixteen years

but hostile terrain, many of Rome’s allies remained loyal, and received no reinforcements

Undefeated in Italy, but forced to withdraw to Africa when Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded Carthaginian territory.

Battle of Zama 201 B.C.E. Scipio defeats Hannibal and receives the name “Africanus,” in honor of his conquest.

Carthage forced to abandon almost all of its territory and pay a crushing indemnity.

After the First Punic War, Carthage attempted to expand its presence in Spain—leaders of the Senate interpreted this as a threat to Roman interests and declared a new war

Third Punic War

Roman suspicion of Carthage remained obsessive and warmongers in the Senate wanted war.

Most vocal: Marcus Porcius Cato

famous for his obedience to Roman custom and xenophobia.

ended every speech he gave with the words: “And furthermore, I strongly advise that Carthage be destroyed.”

Eventually, the Senate was persuaded. In 149 B.C.E., it seized on a minor pretext to demand that the Carthaginians abandon their city and settle at least ten miles in the interior.

Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.E.)

Romans breached the walls and butchered the population

those who survived were sold into slavery

city was razed

The Further Expansion of Rome, 264 to 44 B.C.E.

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

THE FURTHER EXPANSION OF ROME, 264–44 b.c.e. The rapid increase of Rome’s territories opened up new opportunities and challenges. ■ Examine the phases of expansion on this map. In what directions did Roman dominion move? ■ Why was this the case? ■ What particular problems might have been created by the eventual extension of Roman rule into Gaul, well beyond the “Roman lake” of the Mediterranean?

Roman Control of the Hellenistic World

Conflict with eastern Mediterranean

During the Second Punic War, Philip V of Macedonia had entered an alliance with Carthage and later invaded Greece had designs on Egypt.

Rome sent an army to stop him and later foiled the plans of the Achaean League (with Polybius sent to Rome as a hostage)

Rome also thwarted similar attempt of the Seleucids to operate in Greece in Egypt.

It did not set out to conquer the eastern Mediterranean on purpose.

by 146 B.C.E., both Greece and Macedonia had become Roman provinces

Seleucid Asia had lost most of its territories

Ptolemaic Egypt had largely become a pawn of Roman commercial and political interests

Rome’s victories over Carthage enormously increased its territory with the addition of Spain and north Africa and their grain and silver. Rome now the major power in the Mediterranean world.

Economic Change and Social Upheaval

Huge influx of slaves

in 146 B.C.E., 55,000 Carthaginians were enslaved

not long before, 150,000 enslaved Greek war prisoners

by the end of the second century B.C.E., there were a million slaves in Italy

aristocrats bought up the holdings of peasant farmers

soldiers required to serve for years on foreign campaigns could not maintain their lands and moved to the city

abundant, cheap slaves now did all the rough work

Problem: in the city—where free men had no way to sustain themselves except through trade or violence. By the first century B.C.E., a third of Rome’s one million inhabitants were receiving free grain from the state: to keep them quiet and alive.

The majority of Roman slaves worked as agricultural laborers on the vast estates of the Roman aristocracy

Winners and Losers

Beneficiaries: equestrian class.

as overseas merchants, they profited handsomely from Rome’s demand for foreign luxury goods

as representatives of the Roman government in the provinces, they operated mines, built roads, and collected taxes

also the principal moneylenders to the Roman state; when the state could not pay its bills, the moneylenders often allowed to repay themselves by exploiting the populations of the provinces

Losers:

commoners who lost their lands

slaves, often who were worked until death or freed in old age (Cato the Elder’s recommendation)

Rome’s eastern conquests brought it fully into the sophisticated commercial sphere of the Hellenistic world.

New Money, New Values

Previously Roman men had nearly absolute powers over their individual households.

During the second century B.C.E., two innovations altered this pattern.

one was the introduction of new laws that allowed married women to manage their own property; if she died, her possessions would then revert to her father or his heirs if she had no children

another was a new law came more liberal laws that allowed women to initiate divorce proceedings

Changes intended to safeguard family wealth but eventually resulted in greater independence for women

Growth of Rome’s slave system gave women greater freedom since slaves took over the traditional work of child rearing, household maintenance, and spinning and weaving.

Women could now engage in range of social, intellectual, and artistic activities and women were among the chief consumers of the new Hellenistic fashions, commodities, and ideas.

Roman Culture and Hellenization

Romans began to cultivate Hellenistic habits

bilingualism became increasingly common

Greek literature became the standard against which Roman authors measured themselves

Latin was not yet a literary language

Well-educated Greek slaves were therefore at a premium: acted as secretaries and personal assistants, and tutored Roman children.

Conservative politicians tried to pass laws that would limit Hellenization, but these measures were ineffectual. Rome was becoming a complex metropolitan empire.

New Latin plays based on Greek comedies: Plautus (257?–184 B.C.E.) and Terence (195/185–159 B.C.E.). Many Romans had an inferiority complex with respect to Greek culture; others (including Cato) regarded these foreign influences with disgust.

Philosophy and Spirituality in the Late Republic

Cicero based his ethical teachings on the Stoic premises that virtue is happiness and tranquility of mind the highest good—but disagreed with the Stoics in his approval of the active, political life.

became an advocate for the revival of Roman tradition through service to the state

his elegant prose style also advanced the use of Latin as a language of eloquence and became the model for Latin composition

The religious practices of Rome also changed markedly in this era. New mystery cults:

From Egypt came the cults of Isis and Osiris, while from Asia came the worship of the Great Mother.

Romans continued to honor their traditional gods alongside these new deities.

Epicureanism was popularized by Lucretius (98–55 B.C.E.), the author of a book-length philosophical poem On the Nature of Things.

Stoicism more common and had attracted powerful public figures, such as the orator and statesman Cicero (106–43 B.C.E.)

Restoring the Republic

The period from the end of the Third Punic War in 146 to about 30 B.C.E. was one of turbulence

Politically motivated murders

bloody competition among rival dictators

wars and insurrections

Slave revolts

In 134 B.C.E., some 70,000 slaves defeated a Roman army in Sicily before being put down by emergency reinforcements

Slaves ravaged Sicily again in 104 B.C.E.

Slave revolt of Spartacus, a Thracian captive who was being trained as a gladiator. From 73 to 71 B.C.E., his slave army defeated trained Roman forces of as many as 10,000 men and overran southern Italy before Spartacus himself was killed.

The Senate ordered 6,000 of the captured slaves to be crucified along the length of the road from Capua to Rome (about 150 miles) as a warning to future insurgents.

The Reforming Efforts of the Gracchi

In 133 B.C.E Tiberius Gracchus was elected a tribune of the people. He proposed to remedy the rift between rich and poor Romans by redistributing property.

Small farmers were losing lands to patricians and equestrians; Gracchus invoked older laws that had limited the amount of land a single individual could own.

Motives:

Roman army forced to expand its presence abroad and needed more manpower

but a man had to meet property qualifications to serve in the army and the available pool of citizen soldiers was shrinking

army could be strengthened if more of Rome’s inhabitants could qualify for military service

With the support of his brother Gaius, Tiberius Gracchus accordingly proposed that estates be no larger than 300 acres per citizen, plus 150 acres for each child.

Many aristocratic estates exceeded these measures and senators attempted to quash it.

The Gracchi

Senators ensured that Gracchus’ co-tribunes would veto this legislation

Gracchus retaliated, arguing that tribunes who opposed the people’s interests were betraying their office

planned to stand for reelection when his term expired

Conservatives alleged that he was attempting a dictatorship and murdered him and his supporters.

Ten years later, Gaius Gracchus renewed his older brother’s struggle after being elected to the same office.

Reforms: land distribution, stabilizing the price of grain in Rome, checking the abuses of the senatorial class by giving the equestrians greater powers. He imposed controls on provincial governors suspected of exploiting their subjects for personal gain and proposed to extend full Roman citizenship to all the allied states of Italy.

Senate had Gaius Gracchus proclaimed an outlaw. He and several thousand of his supporters were executed.

Rivalry among Rome’s Generals

Gaius Marius

a soldier from an obscure provincial family

fought a successful campaign in north Africa

elected consul in 107 B.C.E.

elected to the office of consul six more times

Lesson: a man with no family connections or political experience could override opposition from older political elites if he had the support of the army.

Marius abolished the property qualification that had limited military service

pool of soldiers now included the urban poor and landless peasants

career as a Roman legionnaire became an end in itself

but was soldier’s loyalty to his commander?

Popularity of the Gracchi among the plebs suggested a new path to power for men willing to court the favor of the people. Most of these men were former army commanders who traded on their military victories and the wealth

Marius and Sulla

Occurred with Marius—Lucius Cornelius Sulla had fought during the Social War of 91–88, which resulted in the extension of Roman citizenship throughout the peninsula.

Sulla attempted to lead the army to war in Anatolia

Marius forced the Senate to deny Sulla’s claim

Sulla’s responded by marching on Rome with the legions that had fought under his command

the Senate awarded him the army command— but Marius defied the Senate and seized control of the city with his own legions

Conservative backlash:

Sulla appointed dictator with no term limit

used his powers to exterminate his opponents and pack the Senate with men loyal to himself

he curtailed the authority of the peoples’ tribunes

After three years of autocratic rule, Sulla retired.

Factional fighting among political rivals could lead to full-blown civil war

Bust of Julius Caesar

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

BUST OF JULIUS CAESAR. Caesar’s nickname meant “hairy,” but it has come to be synonymous with imperial rule. It was the title preferred by the German kings of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, who called themselves kaisers, and by the tsars of Russia. In classical Latin, the “C” sound is hard, which means that the pronunciations of caesar, kaiser, and tsar are very similar.

Pompey and Caesar

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106–48 B.C.E.) and Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C.E.). Initially cooperated in a plot to gain control of the government and forged an alliance with a third general Marcus Junius known as a triumvirate.

But the Triumvirate dissolved into open rivalry.

Pompey had won fame as the conqueror of Syria and Palestine

Caesar conquered Gaul and promoted his conquests in his work On the War in Gaul.

But Pompey in Rome while Caesar was away. He was elected sole consul and declared that Caesar was an enemy of the republic. Result: deadly civil war.

In 49 B.C.E., Caesar took up Pompey’s challenge and crossed the Rubicon River

Pompey fled to the east and was defeated by Caesar at Pharsalus in 48 B.C.E.

Pompey fled to Egypt and was assassinated by an agent of Ptolemy XIII

Sulla’s dictatorship empowered the aristocracy and weakened the power of the plebs, but new leaders emerged to espouse the people’s cause, using the army as a tool.

Caesar and Cleopatra

Ptolemy XIII was engaged in a civil war with his elder sister Cleopatra VII (69–30 B.C.E.) Caesar supported Cleopatra:

their son Caesarion (“Little Caesar”) was born nine months later

Ptolemy was defeated and mysteriously drowned in the Nile

Cleopatra took as consort an even younger brother, known as Ptolemy XIV, but she ruled as pharaoh of Egypt in her own right

Caesar returned to Rome in triumph and in 46 B.C.E. he was named dictator for ten years—two years later a lifetime appointment to that position

obtained from the Senate full authority to make war and peace and to control the revenues of the state

revised the calendar to make a 365-day year with an extra day added every fourth year

conferred citizenship on residents of Spain and Gaul

settled veterans and urban poor on newly-conquered lands

Senators afraid that he would restore the monarchy assassinated him in March 44 B.C.E.

Cleopatra VII as Egyptian Pharaoh and Hellenistic Ruler

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

CLEOPATRA VII AS EGYPTIAN PHARAOH AND HELLENISTIC RULER. Like her ancestor Ptolemy I, Cleopatra represented herself as both enlightened Greek monarch and pharaoh. It was perhaps owing to her example that Julius Caesar was the first Roman leader to issue coins impressed with his own image. ■ How does Cleopatra’s self-representation compare to that of Hatshepsut (see page 44) or Ptolemy (see page 129)?

Ides of March Coin

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

IDES OF MARCH COIN. This coin celebrates the assassination of Julius Caesar by Marcus Junius Brutus, who is shown on the face; on the reverse, a cap of liberty (customarily worn by freed slaves) is flanked by two daggers, and below it is the legend EID-MAR, the Latin abbreviation for “Ides of March.” ■ Given that Caesar drew criticism for depicting himself on Roman coinage, what do you think is the significance of Brutus’s image being shown in this way?

Second Triumvirate

In his will, Caesar had adopted his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (or Octavian; 63 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) He returned to Rome, renamed himself Gaius Julius Caesar the Younger and soon found that he had rivals, most notably Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony; 83–30 B.C.E.)

In 43 B.C.E., Antony and Octavian reconciled and formed an alliance with senator Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to make a second triumvirate.

prominent members of the opposition killed and their property confiscated (e.g., Cicero)

masterminds of Caesar’s assassination defeated at Philippi in 42 B.C.E.

There were several tensions. Octavian had reestablished himself in Rome and Anthony went to Egypt for ten years. He fathered three of Cleopatra’s children and made plans for annexing Rome’s eastern provinces. Octavian, claiming that he had seen a copy of Antony’s will, alleged that Antony had transferred his allegiance to Egypt and was a traitor to Rome.

Octavian

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

OCTAVIAN. Caesar’s adopted heir was later granted the title augustus (“worthy of honor”) by the Senate and was also known as princeps (“first man”). He was worshiped as a god in Rome’s provinces, and idealized statues like this one were erected in temples and public places throughout the empire.

The Government of Augustus

In 31 B.C.E., Octavian’s superior forces defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Actium—soon afterwards, they both committed suicide. Egypt falls to Rome. Only claimant left was Octavian

For four years, he ruled as sole consul, and then adopted the titles of imperator (“victorious commander”) and augustus (“worthy of honor”).

Rome now had a single emperor, but historians refer to the Principate, from the title Augustus preferred: princeps or “first man.”

Reforms:

left Rome’s republican institutions in place—but gradually emptied them of power

controlled the army, the city,and its government.

was an able ruler and introduced a range of public services: a police force, fire brigade, a new system of coinage and a salaried bureaucracy

moral legislation as a defender of the mos maiorum

His generals advanced into modern-day Switzerland, Austria, and Bulgaria. Only in Germania at Teutoburg Forest in 9 C.E. did Romans meet defeat.

The Legacy of Augustus

Titles passed on to Octavian’s successors, as was the system of government he had devised. Nearly two centuries of peace, prosperity, and stability = Pax Romana

The transition of power between Augustan emperors was usually peaceful and the growing imperial bureaucracy could manage affairs when emperors could not (i.e. Caligula)

But state had become more autocratic

Tiberius (14–37 C.E.) good administrator, but faulted for sexual vices

Caligula (37–41 C.E.) notorious and ineffectual

Claudius (41–54 C.E.) good administrator but portrayed as an idiot

Nero (54–68 C.E.) hated by the aristocracy but popular among the Roman people

Brief civil war followed Nero’s reign in 68 C.E.

When Octavian died in 14 C.E., he was not only caesar, imperator, augustus, pontifex maximus (“high priest”) and pater patriae (“father of the fatherland”). Deified by the Senate, which likewise deified Julius Caesar.

Hadrian’s Wall

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

HADRIAN’S WALL. Stretching 73.5 miles across northern England, this fortification (begun in 122 c.e.) marked the frontier of the Roman province of Britannia as established by the emperor Hadrian. (A later wall, built farther north by Antoninus Pius in 142 c.e., was quickly abandoned.) Long stretches of the wall still exist, as do many of the forts built along it. The tree in this photograph stands on the site of a “mile castle,” one of the smaller watchtowers built at intervals of a Roman mile and garrisoned by sentries.

The Five Good Emperors

The height of the Augustan system is generally considered to be the era between 96 and 180 C.E., often known as the reign of the “Five Good Emperors”:

Nerva (96–98 C.E.),

Trajan (98–117 C.E.)

Hadrian (117–138 C.E.)

Antoninus Pius (138–161 C.E.)

Marcus Aurelius (161–180 C.E.).

All were capable politicians, and since none but the last had a son that survived him, each adopted a worthy successor.

The Mediterranean was under the control of a single power for the first (and only) time in history.

Roman officials ruled from Britain to Persia.

Roman Urban Planning

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

A. Imperial Rome

B. Roman settlement in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem) after 135 c.e.

The Roman Empire at its Greatest Extent, 97 to 117 C.E.

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT, 97–117 c.e. ■ How much farther north and west does the empire now reach, compared with its earlier extent (see map on page 158)? ■ How did geography influence the process of expansion? ■ How did it dictate the limits of expansion? ■ For example, what role do major river systems seem to play?

Making the World Roman

In Britannia, revolt of Celtic warrior queen Boudica (d. 60/61 C.E.)

First Jewish revolt resulted in the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem in 70 C.E.

Second Jewish Revolt completed the destruction of Jerusalem In 135 C.E.

Such rebellions uncommon and Rome encouraged assimilation

Local elites encouraged to adopt Roman modes of education, behavior, and dress in order to gain access to political

Local gods became Roman gods and were adopted into the Roman pantheon of divinities

Tens of thousands of army veterans settled in the provinces, marrying local women, and putting down local roots

Rights of citizenship were also extended, and able provincials could rise far in the imperial government (Trajan and Hadrian were Spaniards)

Even the empire’s “borders” were permeable zones of intensive interaction with non-Romans.

Imperial Infrastructure and the Environment

Augustus—found Rome a city of clay and left it a city of marble. Ambitious public works projects under the Principate

marble panels or ornaments for facades of buildings made out of concrete

use of concrete allowed them to build massive structures such as the Colosseum— could accommodate 50,000 spectators at gladiatorial combat

excelled in the building of roads and bridges

Roman cities also enjoyed the benefits of a public water supply

In Rome, eleven aqueducts brought water into Rome and provided the city with 300 million gallons per day—for drinking, bathing and for flushing a sewage system.

Homes of the wealthy had indoor plumbing and central heating

Roman cities: public baths and fountains, amphitheaters, and paved roads.

Roman urban planners: drained swamps felled forests, leveled mountains, filled in valleys and altered the environment

Roman Aqueduct in southern Gaul (Provence)

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

ROMAN AQUEDUCT IN SOUTHERN GAUL (PROVENCE). The massive arches shown here were originally part of a thirty-one-mile-long complex that supplied water to the city of Nemausus (Nîmes). It is now known as the Pont du Gard (Bridge of the Gardon), reflecting the use to which it was put after the aqueduct ceased to function, some eight centuries after its construction in the first century c.e. Some Roman aqueducts remained operational into the modern era: the one at Segovia, Spain, was still in use at the end of the twentieth century. ■ What does the magnitude and longevity of such projects tell us about Roman power and technology?

Imperial Entertainments

During the Principate, Latin began to replace Greek as a language of learning and poetry.

Golden Age (Augustus)

Publius Virgilius Maro (Virgil; 70–19 B.C.E.)

Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace; 65–8 B.C.E.) a master of the lovely, short lyric

Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid; 43 B.C.E.–17 C.E.) — major source for Greek mythology Metamorphoses (“Transformations”)—but also a satirist

Silver Age (first and second centuries C.E.)

tales of Petronius and Apuleius describe the more bizarre and sometimes sordid aspects of Roman life

Satirist Juvenal (60?–140 C.E.) wrote about the moral degeneracy he saw in his contemporaries

Historian Tacitus (55?–117? C.E.) His Annals offers a devastating portrait of the political system constructed by Augustus and his heirs; his Germania contrasts the virtues of barbarians with the vices of decadent fellow Romans.

THE COLOSSEUM

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

THE COLOSSEUM. Constructed between 75 and 80 c.e., this was the first amphitheater in Rome purposely built to showcase gladiatorial combats. Prior to this, gladiators would often fight in improvised arenas in the Forum or other public places. ■ How does the fact of the Colosseum’s relatively late construction change your perception of Roman history?

Gladiatorial Contests

Everyone attended these events, and they became increasingly bloody and brutal as people demanded more and more innovative violence.

individual gladiators fought to the death with swords or the exotic weapons of their homelands.

teams of gladiators fought pitched battles, often reenacting historic Roman victories.

arena could be filled with water to stage a naval battle

hundreds of animals imported from Africa, India, or of Germania would tear each other (or human victims) apart

One feature of the Principate was its spectacular cruelty, exhibited in the public arenas amphitheaters erected in every Roman town.

A Roman Floor Mosaic

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture, 19th Edition

A ROMAN FLOOR MOSAIC. This fine mosaic from the Roman city of Londinium (London) shows Bacchus (Dionysus), the god of wine and revelry, mounted on a tiger. Tigers, native to India, were prized by animal collectors and were also imported for gladiatorial shows.

Roman Visual Arts

Roman art assumed a distinctive character during the Principate. Before this time most artworks in Roman homes and public places were imported from Hellenistic capitals.

Conquering armies brought back wagonloads of statues, reliefs, and marble columns as plunder from Greece, Egypt, and western Asia. Roman artists then made hundreds of copies of the originals.

Encouraged by the patronage of Augustus and his successors, artists began to experiment with more distinctively Roman styles and subjects.

The Romans excelled at painting and mosaic using vibrant colors.

Those who could afford it could now surround themselves with brilliant wall paintings and mosaics—made of tiny fragments of glass and stone—and set into the floors of houses and public baths—very common in villas.

The Reach of Roman Law

The legal code of the Twelve Tables was largely replaced by a series of new precedents and principles. Most sweeping changes occurred during the Principate.

the reach of Roman law had to match the reach of the empire,

Augustus and his successors appointed a small number of eminent jurists to deliver opinions on the issues raised by cases under trial in the courts

Five most prominent of these jurists flourished in the second century C.E.: Gaius, Domitius Ulpianus (Ulpian), Modestinus, Aemelianus Papinianus (Papinian), and Paulus. They gained their reputations primarily as lawyers and commentators and constitute the first philosophy of law.

Roman law comprised three great branches or divisions- civil law was the law of Rome and its citizens. Law of nations was not specific to Rome, but extended to all people of the world regardless of their ethnicity (early international law). Natural law was nature itself, which is rationally ordered and that careful study will reveal the laws by which the natural world operates.

This concludes the Lecture Slide Set for Chapter 5

Western Civilizations Their History & Their Culture

NINETEENTH EDITION

http://wwnorton.com/college/history/western-civilization19/

Joshua Cole

Carol Symes