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Chapter 6

CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

IN THE RENAISSANCE

(1350- 1500)

As THE MIDDLE AGES BEGAN TO DRAW to a close, a number of learned scholars and philosophers began to stir up the hearts and minds of their students. The university was becoming a safe haven where the free exchange of ideas could take place without the threat of reprisal. For obvious reasons, the church felt threatened by this new academic freedom and was not always resolved to allow the resident scholars to express their minds as freely as they would have liked. In time, however, civil governments wrestled control of these prominent cathedral schools away from the church, and they became sanctuaries of free- dom for the pursuit of new ideas and philosophical inquiry.

This resurgence of life was like a breath of fresh air to those who had been held under the repressive control of the church. Soon, new philoso- phers, artists, scientists, and literary scholars would spread their wings and explore this forgotten horizon of inquiry. Unfortunately, not all of them were greeted with welcome arms.

Unlike the Middle Ages, which we discussed in the preceding chapter, the period known as the Renaissance is easier to delineate. It generally extends from the fourteenth century to the sixteenth century. This period is charac- terized by a shift from the stifling control of the church over the affairs of mankind to a general sense of freedom for man to control his own destiny.

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Anthony, Michael J., and Warren S. Benson. Exploring the History and Philosophy of Christian Education : Principles for the 21st Century, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6339650. Created from amridge on 2022-01-20 15:31:07.

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THE CULTURAL CONTEXT OF THE RENAISSANCE

The term renaissance means literally "rebirth." It was the rebirth of the ancient Greek and Roman classical cultures in the modern age. Art, litera- ture, and architecture would revisit the wondrous days of their former glory. The fields of science, philosophy, and education would also discover new horizons of inquiry. Each area had experienced a virtual stagnation during the Middle Ages and was anxious to begin with fresh new opportu- nities. "In these intervening centuries, the thirteenth to the fifteenth inclu- sive, there existed a place in social organization for an intellectual life, exerting profound influence, permitting much freedom, having definite character, possessing peculiar merits, and developing an appropriate edu- cational system." 1

Renaissance Literature

In an effort to explain both his own unique personage and the historical and cultural contexts of his writings, Dante Alighieri (1263-1321) provided in The Banquet (It Convito) an expose of the ideas, the intellectual life, and the overall meaning of educational life throughout the period known as the Middle Ages. It was a type of literary bridge between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was not intended to provide so much a chro- nology of activity as one author's penetrating interpretation of the spiritual dimension of life. It is unique in that it established a credible defense for the use of the vernacular in his works, an approach that was seldom prac- ticed in his day. 2

The work of this period that received the most acclaim throughout the years, however, was Dante's Divine Comedy, in which he takes the reader on a pilgrimage through the afterlife. Among the figures in the story are classical personalities such as Homer, Plato, Socrates, and Caesar. He admits into purgatory a number of these classical personalities and a few distin- guished pagans and reveals his central belief that the supreme purpose of man is to live in this finite world, where all natural phenomena have their

1. Paul Monroe, A Textbook in the History of Education (London: Macmillan, 1915), 327.

2. Ibid., 341-42.

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meaning in a quest for peace and justice on earth and salvation in the life thereafter. Interestingly, he placed a number of prominent popes in hell.3

In a literal sense the Commedia is a presentation of the rewards and punishments, the destiny of man in the hereafter; allegorically, it is a presentation of the virtues and vices of the human soul as illustrated in concrete examples and in the details of the plan; morally, it has as its social, political, and ethical purposes, the making of worthier citizens, better neighbors, nobler men; mystically, it typifies the struggle of the human soul to become free, its growth through sin to holi- ness, its progress from the finite to the divine.4

To state his commitment to making a contribution to the lives of the commoner, Dante wrote his work in the vernacular of Tuscany rather than in the more respectable Latin. Ever the quintessential Renaissance poet, Dante will forever be remembered as the man who lived with one foot firmly planted in the Middle Ages and the other in the Renaissance.

A second Renaissance poet who personified the essence of the period was Francesco Petrarca, or simply Petrarch (1304-74). Commonly known as the father of Italian Renaissance literature, he, like Dante, wrote in the Tuscan dialect. Although he wrote a number of works that were well re- ceived, his best known work is Sonnets, which he wrote to his beloved Laura in the chivalrous style of love poetry associated with troubadours. Unfortunately, his life's true love died during the Black Death when it swept across Europe.

Petrarch exemplified the humanistic thought that sought to form a literary bridge between the classical authors of the Graeco-Roman age and the works of Augustine and other more contemporary Christian authors of his day. He is dearly loved among those who look back at Renaissance literature and acclaim him as "the first modern man."

A third and final Renaissance poet worth mentioning is a famous Florentine named Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-75). Although he never rose in prominence to the master Dante or his mentor Petrarch, he still managed to make a name for himself through his use of Italian prose. In Decameron,

3. Edward McNall Burns, Western Civilizations: Their History and Their Culture (New York: Norton, 1949), 309.

4. Monroe, Textbook in the History of Education, 342.

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he reveals the worldly side of Renaissance life during this transitional time in history.

Renaissance Art

The Renaissance period brought a fresh new approach to the fine arts. Before the thirteenth century, Byzantine conventions dominated most art forms. Even before serious dialogue about bringing back art forms from classical antiquity occurred, Giotto ( 1266-1336) introduced a new natural- ism into painting. For example, when most artists painted a picture of the Madonna, she was always surrounded by angels and a host of other saints, perhaps even Greek nymphs to emphasize her role as the mother of God and to establish a strong religious theme in the painting. However, when Giotto painted a picture that included a Madonna, he portrayed her as a lady of feeling and true virtue. She was revealed as an individual with great depth of spiritual passion. He sought to portray Christ as being real and approach- able, full of love and compassion. His pictures were anything but stiff and stylized icons that were characteristic of the Byzantine era. 5 Giotto's work marked the turning point of a fresh new awakening of the soul. It invited the heart of the painter into the piece itself to reveal the inner beauty of the person being depicted on the canvas or the chapel wall.

Because we look through the hindsight of many years, it might be difficult for us to imagine that the great Renaissance painters were actually consid- ered lower middle-class laborers. But as men who worked with their hands, they were not held in particularly high esteem by society. Once an artist was invited to paint a piece by a wealthy merchant or nobleman, his art became officially commissioned. As such, the artist was employed for as long as it took to complete the work. These patrons of the arts held great sway over the artists' livelihoods but were essential to the artist's survival.

Renaissance artists and sculptors such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), Sandro Botticelli ( 1444-1510 ), Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520), and Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) came to their trade at a time of significant transition. The church often commissioned these particular artists, and others like them, to paint or sculpt pieces of art that

5. Lewis W. Spitz, The Renaissance and Reformation Movements ( Chicago: Rand McNally, 1971), 193.

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would reveal the Christian faith through a new lens, now marked by deep feelings and passion.

Leonardo da Vinci was the son of a Florentine lawyer named Piero and was from the city of Vinci, a small hillside village outside Florence. After receiving his apprenticeship under Verrocchio, he left for Milan, where the patrons of that city commissioned his work. There he painted The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper, the latter being a fresco in the refrectory of the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie. The Last Supper characterizes the Renaissance period with its classic symmetrical pattern (e.g., four groups of three disciples). Leonardo left Milan and went to live in Rome, where Pope Leo X commissioned his work. In his final years, he served in the court of King Francis I in France, bringing with him three paintings: John the Baptist; Anne, Mary, and the Christ Child; and, presumably, the Mona Lisa.6

No discussion of Renaissance art would be complete without a brief ref- erence to one of the greatest artists of this period, the venerable Michelangelo. His accomplishments in painting, sculpture, architecture, drawing, and lyric poetry have long exemplified the fine arts of this period.

Like many of the other Renaissance artists of his day, Michelangelo used allegory in his art as a means of expressing himself beyond the brush. Two of his pieces reveal not only his unqualified expertise as an artist but also his penchant for allegorical expression. He did not originally want to be com- missioned to paint the ceiling of the Sistine chapel; however, after repeated appeals by Pope Julius II, Michelangelo relented. The panels depict a neoplatonic theory of the ascent of man and his conquest over the forces of darkness. Likewise, in the painting The Last Judgment on the front wall of the Sistine chapel, Michelangelo-who often sought refuge from his troubled spirit by escaping into the writings of his favorite author, Dante-chose to express through allegory the struggle of man in the battle between good and evil, in relationship with a God of mercy and wrath, and in the afterlife. These themes were evident in Dante's writings and in the prominent neoplatonic philosophy of his day.

Michelangelo was also a gifted sketch artist. He knew that a relationship existed between the eye and the mind. His detailed drawings reveal a keen sense of awareness that more was being depicted in the tablet than the mere physical representation of the object itself. "The mind and the eye are not

6. Ibid., 216.

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antithetical, for intelligent vision is informed vision. In a way, we think be- cause we see and see because we think. It is thus no exaggeration to say that Renaissance painters taught men so to look at the world about them that a detailed knowledge of the structure and function of the things natural be- came possible." 7 Renaissance artists expressed their philosophy and theol- ogy through their art forms, whether it be painting or sculpting; the artists moved beyond the darkness of traditional Gothic art forms into a new light of meaningful and passionate expression.

Renaissance Architecture

In architecture, the Gothic style that had developed during the twelfth century formed the basis for all development in Northern Europe. Almost all of the Gothic cathedrals and other building enterprises reflected the tastes of the great nobles who had come to dominate the politics of the age. They were traditional in nature with characteristically large stained-glass win- dows. Gothic architecture was dark and foreboding. Renaissance architec- ture, however, was based on precise calculations and mathematical principles of linear perspective. These principles allowed architects to revolutionize the structural composition of Europe's cathedrals. Such was certainly the case with the design of both the dome on the Florence cathedral by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and the dome of St. Peter's cathedral in Rome by Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564). 8

Expressing the allegorical and neoplatonic philosophy of the architects themselves, cathedrals were built that put man in a different focal point. Now, man entering the cathedral was drawn to the heart of the building as though by an unseen force. The architect's desire for man to be drawn into a restorative relationship with his Creator in the final victory in the battle of good versus evil was expressed as the penitent' s sense came alive as he was caught up in the grandeur of God's majesty and approachability. Renais- sance architecture made a statement about God's desire for relationship with mankind.

7. Joseph Anthony Mazzeo, Renaissance and Revolution: The Remaking of Euro- pean Thought (New York: Pantheon Books, 1965), 177-78.

8. Charles G. Nauert, The Age of Renaissance and Reformation (New York: Uni- versity Press of America, 1981), 100-101.

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Renaissance Science

The Renaissance marked a turning point in the field of scientific inquiry. During the Middle Ages traditional methods of instruction in the universi- ties consisted in doing little more than reading the manuscript while the professor made incidental comments. The traditional central doctrine in philosophic speculation was the relation of particular objects to general types, or the study of universals. Great quarrels broke out in lecture halls across Europe in an attempt to settle the argument. As a result, two streams of philosophic reasoning emerged. Nominalism held that only the particular object was real, whereas realism insisted that only the type was real. The result of this debate was a barrenness in university studies. 9

An English Franciscan friar and Oxford professor named Roger Bacon (1214-94) shook the hallowed presuppositions about the world and man's relationship to it. He was not satisfied with the system of inquiry established by St. Thomas Aquinas. He thought that the Thomist views regarding univer- sal authority and absolutes could no longer go unchallenged. Instead, he provoked those who had developed an unhealthy reliance upon Aristotle for authority in scientific matters. 10 He believed that truths must be discovered and that the means by which they could be known was through what has come to be known as the scientific method. This process allowed one to develop a hypothesis about the natural world and then seek to verify that hypothesis through controlled experimentation. What could not be explored or open for scientific inquiry was suspect.

Bacon's most significant writing was Opus maius, in which he pointed out the need for studying nature and science within the curriculum. As a devout believer, he believed that science should enhance the study of theology, which he viewed as the queen of the sciences. His writings on optics remained authorita- tive for many years, and his discoveries related to magnifying lenses might have led him to create the first microscope. He was not only the best geographer of his day but also one of the first scientists to perceive the inadequacies of the Julian calendar and to advocate the need to correct its deficiencies. 11

9. Henry S. Lucas, The Renaissance and the Reformation (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1934), 133.

10. R. Freeman Butts, A Cultural History of Education: Reassessing Our Educa- tional Traditions (New York: McGraw Hill, 1947), 156-57.

11. Burns, Western Civilizations, 303.

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Classical humanists contributed little to the new discoveries of science

because they preferred in their methodology to examine the classical au-

thors rather than to explore the possibility that old paradigms might be

perceived incorrectly. This was not the case for a new breed of Renais-

sance thinkers who were in stark contrast to the educational humanists.

Renaissance contributions to the field of science include the new paradig-

matic views of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who had decided that Ptolemy was wrong about the earth's being at the center of the universe.

This provided the groundwork for Galileo (1564-1642) to espouse his he- liocentric theory of the universe. In the same way, Andreas Vesalius (1514- 64) laid the foundation for the modern science of anatomy, Ambroise Pare (1517-90) became known as the father of modern surgery, Bernard Palissy

(1510-99) provided new insights into the natural sciences from his post in Paris, and Rodolphus Agricola (1443-85) promoted the scientific study of

mining. New ways of thinking and exploring the natural world were com-

ing of age. Change was not radical at this point, but it was the beginning of

a movement that would sweep across Europe and influence science for

centuries to come. 12

Renaissance Education

The traditional influence on education during the Renaissance was educa-

tional humanism. Because so much should be said about this topic, a sepa-

rate section will be devoted to its discussion later in the chapter. However,

educational humanism was not the only driving force in the field of educa-

tion during this period. In addition to educational humanism was the influ-

ence upon character building. The central purpose of education was more

than merely to instill information into the mind of the learner; something

more lasting was necessary. An emphasis on behavioral change might bring

about different actions, but because it did not touch the heart of the learner,

no guarantee of sustainable change was possible; a redirection toward heart

change was necessary. The Renaissance educator emphasized the value of moral considerations

and sought to replicate the virtuous acts of the great Greeks and Romans

who had come before them. He also paid careful attention to religious train-

12. Butts, Cultural History of Education, 214.

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ing because it reinforced the tenets of moral instruction. Last, because the

educational system was geared toward those of noble heritage who could

afford formal instruction and who were destined for military or political

leadership, educational theory and praxis emphasized the importance of

physical training and even military exercises. 13

Renaissance Philosophy

Little was added to the landscape of philosophy during the period of the

Renaissance because of the overpowering efforts of the humanists, who

were more concerned with literature and style than with philosophy itself. In

the field of logic, attacks were made on Aristotelianism, but these were

brought more by the naturalists and scientists than by the philosophers them-

selves. About the only organized effort by humanists to probe the depths of

philosophic thought during this period was brought about by the establish-

ment of the Platonic Academy in Italy during the fourteenth century. There

they sought to revel in the contemplative life, relying on allegory to explain

religion and trying to integrate philosophy, religion, and science into one

cohesive unit. 14

PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF THE RENAISSANCE

During this period, the philosophical threads of mysticism began to spread

across the land. Roman Catholic dogma had fostered a harsh form of legal-

ism that valued a strict adherence to church laws and doctrinal teachings.

Over time, the motivation of understanding why these rules and teachings

were important began to diminish; in its place came an emphasis more upon

the practice of overt behaviors (attending church, paying one's absolutions,

cooperating with the priest's social and political agenda, etc.) rather on the

condition of a believer's heart toward God. Turning the hearts of a believing

society back toward God would not be easy because even many of the clergy

were against such a move; they feared the loss of their prestige, power, and influence.

Mysticism was an effort on the part of some ministry leaders to sensitize

13. Nauert, Age of Renaissance and Reformation, 102. 14. Butts, Cultural History of Education, 213.

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their hearts toward the Spirit's moving in their lives. "The mystical move- ment, the classical form of Roman Catholic piety, developed as a reaction against formal and mechanical sacerdotal ritual and dry Scholasticism in the church of the day. It reflected the perennial tendency toward the subjective aspect of Christianity, which always occurs when too much emphasis is laid on outward acts in Christian worship." 15

Mysticism was concerned with trying to engage the heart of the worshiper as well as his mind. The emphasis, however, was clearly more on the former than on the latter. This, in turn, led to a danger of placing more emphasis upon the subjective nature of one's faith than on the truths of Scripture. Hermeneutical interpretation was subject to the whims of feeling rather than being based on the more solid foundation of historical-grammatical interpretation. It did, however, begin to stir the hearts of people toward considering God in a different, more caring light. The veil was lifted, and it revealed a more sensitive and compassionate God who was deeply concerned about the issues of helpless man. God became more than a judge to be feared and a deity always in need of our financial resources; the mystical movement revealed a God of grace and mercy.

Whereas scholasticism emphasized the reasoning side of man at the ex- pense of man's feelings and subjective nature, mysticism sought to return to a more balanced state of being. One of the most prominent leaders of mys- ticism was a woman named Catherine of Siena, who claimed that God often spoke to her. She sought to turn the heart of Pope Gregory XI to a closer walk with Christ. She denounced sin wherever she encountered it and tried desperately to turn the heart of her Catholic clergy associates back toward a genuine faith in Christ.

In Germany, the mystical movement centered in the Dominican order. Under the leadership of Meister Eckhart (1260-1327), mysticism in Ger- many developed a firm philosophical foundation. Eckhart differentiated be- tween the Godhead, which, to him, represented God as the philosophical unity behind the universe, and God, who was the Creator and the caretaker of the universe itself. His ultimate aim in preaching was to return man's soul to union with his Creator. He is reputed to have said, "God must become I, and I God." His beliefs bordered on a neoplatonistic form of pantheism, and for this reason the pope held him in contempt. A papal bull was issued

15. Earle E. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries: A History of the Christian Church, 3d ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 244.

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against him after his death. His followers, known as the Friends of God, sought to keep the spirit of his teachings alive and in so doing emphasized

the importance of an individual's personal relationship with Christ as op- posed to mere adherence to external ceremonies and traditions. 16

THE BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE

Continuing this emphasis upon personal intimacy with God was a move- ment in the Netherlands known as Devotio Moderna, or the Brethren of the Common Life. Influenced by John of Ruysbroeck (1293-1381), the father of

practical mysticism, this movement emphasized applied Christian service yet was able to steer clear of the negative aspects of pantheism. A friend of John of Ruysbroeck was able to blend the positive elements of mysticism with

solid biblical instruction. It was the best of both worlds with a perfect com- bination of a reasoning mind guided by the teachings of the New Testament and the stirring of the heart impassioned by the leading of the Holy Spirit.

With this combination of heart and mind, the movement spread across the Netherlands, Europe, and eventually to North America itself.

16. Ibid., 243.

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The Brethren took no vows and placed no emphasis upon rules and regula- tions. They recognized that such an emphasis could lead to a modern pharisa- ical adherence to Christianity. Instead, the Brethren organized into homes in which believers lived in community with all represented levels of society- nobles, priests, scholars, peasants, artisans, students, etc. Together, members of this common life worked hard and shared their resources with the poor and needy. They lived a rather primitive and simple existence with an emphasis upon living the Christian life as the New Testament taught it. One book that has survived, the Imitation of Christ, attributed to Thomas a Kempis, reveals the heart of the movement. It held firmly to the dogmas of the Catholic Church but also encouraged believers to move beyond ritual practice to genu- ine spiritual sensitivity to the work of God in an individual's life.18

The Brethren of the Common Life never intended their community to become a reformation movement per se. They sought to influence the church and society as a whole through their unique curriculum and instructional methodologies. Their curriculum emphasized Bible study in the vernacular so people could form their own understanding of a passage's meanings and applications. "The burden of their teaching (and preaching) was more purity, more charity, more tolerance, more enlightenment, and more respect for human faculties. Their concern for the common man was behind their use of the vernacular-even to the point of translating the Bible into Dutch, a move that was attacked by the Roman Catholic church." 19

17. Ibid., 95. 18. Charles B. Eavey, History of Christian Education (Chicago: Moody, 1964), 130. 19. Julia Henkel, "Gerte Groote," in A History of Religious Educators, ed. Elmer

Towns (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1975), 72; as cited in Kenneth 0. Gangel and Warren S. Benson, Christian Education: Its History and Philosophy ( Chicago: Moody, 1983), 132.

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The Brethren of the Common Life were unique in their educational practice because rather than managing their classes with strict punishment for those who were not able to learn their lessons properly, they provided generous praise and rewards for those who were able to master the neces- sary material. They taught the trivium and the quadrivium but also in- cluded studies in Greek, Hebrew, and Latin. They initiated a different means of dividing the class. The grade plan taught students in smaller groups according to the students' levels of progress. These and other inno- vations were responsible for radical educational reforms in schools across Europe. A number of significant leaders came up through the ranks of schools sponsored by the Brethren of the Common Life, including Martin Luther (1483-1546), Martin Bucer (1491-1551), John Calvin (1509-64), and Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531). 20

HUMANISM AND THE RENAISSANCE

Chief among the ideologies of the Renaissance was the concept that man should be in control of his destiny rather than the church or the state. In reality, this was not such a new concept but was taken from Aristotle and other Greek philosophers of his day. Renaissance humanism had its origins in the writings of Aristotle and Plato. Chief among its beliefs was the idea that the educational curriculum should be comprised of certain core sub- jects, including the seven liberal arts (i.e., grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arith- metic, geometry, music, and astronomy), the classic Greek authors (Aristotle, Plato, Homer, etc.), Roman authors (Cicero, Ovid, Virgil, Horace, etc.), the early church fathers (e.g., Basil, Chrysostom, and Augustine, etc.), and the Bible. This body of literature comprised the essence of what has come to be known as the humanities. The one who had disciplined himself in their academic studies and was able to grasp the full scope of this literature was referred to as a humanitus, or humanist.

Many of these subjects were taught in their original languages; therefore, the humanist was one who had learned both classical Greek and Latin as well as his own vernacular. In 1459, an Italian Greek scholar named Guarino Guarini (1374-1460) espoused that the Greek language be an essential

20. Julia Henkle-Hobbs, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Brethren of the Com- mon Life."

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component of an educated man. He declared, "I have said that the ability to write Latin verse is one of the most essential marks of an educated person. I wish now to indicate a second which is of at least equal importance, namely, familiarity with the language and literature of Greece. The time has come when we must speak with no uncertain voice upon this vital requirement of scholarship." 21 Therefore, a humanist was one who had a well rounded education in all of the various fields of study that pertained to making a fruitful contribution to one's world.

The first humanist educator, and by far the most successful schoolmaster of the Renaissance, was Vittorino Rambaldoni, also known as Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446). He entered the university at Padua at the age of eighteen and upon graduation accepted their invitation to remain as their Latin pro- fessor; he taught there for more than twenty years. He left to establish a school in Venice, but that venture was short-lived, and he returned to the University of Padua.

In 1423, he received an invitation from the Marquis of Mantua to estab- lish a private school for his children. "The master here gave the Greek idea of a liberal education its first embodiment, and taught to the youth for the first time the literature, history, and civilization of the Romans instead of the mere form of their language." 22 His popularity grew, and soon children of other nobility desired to attend. In time, he allowed these children to join his instruction and his school soon filled the entire palace. His desire was for the educational setting to be such an enjoyable experience that his school was named "The Pleasant House." He integrated sports with the seven lib- eral arts although literature was the dominant field of study. This new direc- tion represented his desire to move beyond mere rote memorization of the curriculum to include a moral component as well. His school also included a unique system of self-governance for the boys, a dependence upon the natural desires and interests of the students, and a component whereby the boys worked during part of the day.23

Perhaps no individual so personified Renaissance humanism as much as

21. W. H. Woodward, Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators ( Cam- bridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1905), 166; as cited in Fredrick Eby and Charles Flinn Arrowood, The History and Philosophy of Education: An- cient and Medieval (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1940), 908.

22. Monroe, Textbook in the History of Education, 376. 23. Ibid., 377.

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the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536). Born in Rotterdam, in the Netherlands, he is alleged to have been the illegitimate son of Geradus Gerardi, a priest, and Margaret Rogerius, who was under Gerardi's employ as his housekeeper. In an effort to conceal his illegitimacy, he avoided using his last name. In 1497, he added the name Desiderius and later adopted the name of the city of his birth. 24

Erasmus's early training was in the school of the Brethren of the Common Life at the famous church school at Deventer. There he was influenced by the dynamic teaching of Hegius and Agricola. Upon the death of his par- ents, his guardians placed him in an Augustinian monastery. There he mas- tered Greek and Latin and became proficient in reading the classical works in their original languages. He had a rich background in a broad range of subjects, including the liberal arts, biblical studies, and contemporary litera- ture. He was, for all intents and purpose, the ultimate Renaissance man. He became an itinerate teacher of private students as he traveled throughout Europe. He was a prolific author, and few scholars saw their work dissemi- nated during their lifetime as much as did Erasmus. 25

Referred to as the "prince of humanists," this leading educator of his day held a disdain for the intrusion of the state into the affairs of mankind. In the most famous of his pointed discourses, The Colloquies, he details the abusive nature of the Catholic Church, the state government, monastic life (which he had rejected), and the university system. He was a forerunner of the great German reformer, Martin Luther.

While a professor at Cambridge, Erasmus continued research and writing into areas in which he specialized: the teaching of classical languages and biblical scholarship. In 1512, he published de Copia, a compendium of Latin words, phrases, and idioms designed to aid students in enlarging their vocabularies. Four years later, he com- pleted his Greek version of the New Testament. 26

24. Albert Hyma, The Youth of Erasmus (New York: Russell & Russell, 1968), 51- 53, 55-56, 59; as cited in Gerald Gutek, Historical and Philosophical Founda- tions of Education: A Biographical Introduction (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill Prentice-Hall, 2001), 75.

25. Monroe, Textbook in the History of Education, 380. 26. Gutek, Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education, 77.

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"Erasmus emphasized studying the nature of children, the importance of games in education, praise and rewards instead of discipline, helping stu- dents, and providing more education for women. Moreover, he was one of the first people to champion systematic teacher training." 27 Erasmus lived in Basel, Switzerland, and Freiburg im Bresigau. He died in 1536. His unfaltering career in defense of scholarship, exemplary standards of literary taste, and a life of reason won him the acclaim of scholars worldwide. He has been referred to as the most civilized man of his age. 28

Unfortunately, much of what we have come to know as humanism in the twenty-first century has become synonymous with atheism and naturalism. It would be many years later, however, before the naturalistic philosophy of Darwin and others would have a determining influence on humanistic edu- cation. Indeed, twenty-first-century Christian educators could agree, in terms of scope and practice, with much about humanism as it originally came to us during the Renaissance. Although running the risk of being misunderstood or taken out of context, given the essential teachings of Renaissance human- ism, one could easily declare that Jesus Christ was a humanistic teacher as well. To illustrate this assertion, perhaps a summary of humanism as applied to an educational context would be beneficial. The summary that follows 29 is a composite of the more narrowly defined Renaissance humanism and input from those who have built upon its foundation since its inception. As ap- plied to education, humanism encompasses a variety of assumptions about the teacher, the learner, the curriculum, and the context of learning.

This man-centered approach to education that came to prominence in Italy influenced educational theory and practice all across Europe. In other countries, humanist educators made significant changes in the educational structure of their schools. Curriculum was restructured to provide students with instruction in the classical writings of Greek and Latin scholars, detailed study of the Scriptures, the writings of the church fathers, and a comprehensive examination of the liberal arts. These curricula became the standard for educational centers all across Europe. This humanistic approach to learning

27. Lin Johnson, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael]. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Desiderius Erasmus."

28. Burns, Western Civilizations, 345. 29. For a more exhaustive description and discussion, see my article in The Evan-

gelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony ( Grand Rap- ids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Christian Humanism."

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30. George R. Knight, Philosophy and Education (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews University Press, 1980), 105.

31. R. F. Biehler and]. Snowman, Psychology Applied to Teaching (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 399.

32. Ibid. 33. D. L. Bayer, "The Effects of Two Methods of Affective Education on Self-

Concept in Seventh-Grade Students," The School Counselor (November 1986): 130-31.

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was at the heart of a new awakening among people throughout the continent. Education was more than mere adherence to a harsh and seemingly ruthless set of disciplinary standards of conduct. Teachers took the time to explore the meaning of their instruction to ensure that their students were capable of explaining the concepts rather than merely repeating them on an exam.

Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), a German who studied in Italy, returned to his homeland, where he devoted himself to the study of the Old Testament and published the first Hebrew grammar in northern Europe. In France, Jacques LeFever d' Etaples (1455-1536) was a dedicated believer and New Testament scholar. In Great Britain, John Colet (1467-1519) served as the dean of St. Paul's Cathedral, where he was instrumental in the administra- tion of one of England's finest schools of higher education. 35 His friend and colleague Thomas More ( 1478-1535) published in 1516 a groundbreaking manuscript titled Utopia, in which he details an ideal society on an imagi- nary island. He portrays civilization as tolerating different opinions and abol- ishing war and monasticism forever. Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626), also from Great Britain, made a monumental contribution to humanist thought through his glorification of the inductive method of inquiry. 36 Many of these humanistic educators had a deep respect for Christian education, and their desire was to further the cause of Christ by making educational contribu- tions to the church.

34. Ibid., 400. 35. Kenneth 0. Gangel and Warren S. Benson, Christian Education: Its History

and Philosophy ( Chicago: Moody, 1983 ), 130. 36. Burns, Western Civilizations, 352.

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FORERUNNERS OF THE REFORMATION

One of the most profound influences that preceded the Reformation was the spiritual awakening led by John Wycliffe (c. 1330-84) in England. Much like Groote and his followers in the Brethren of the Common Life, Wycliffe did not start out to reform the Catholic Church. His intention was to bring a renewed awareness of the need for the clergy to sustain a vibrant and dynamic personal spiritual life. Disillusioned by the excesses of the priests, he sought to reform the church from within. Once he realized that the church authority did not recognize their need for reform, he broke ranks and began to denounce what he saw as the unbiblical abuse of ecclesiastical power and control. In 1378, he took a stand against the church and preached the pri- mary authority of the Scriptures for everything pertaining to spiritual forma- tion. He recognized the pope as the leader of the Catholic Church but could find no biblical basis for his prominence in the universal church. He rejected wholeheartedly the Catholic Church's claim that it was the sole reflection of Christ's rule on the earth. To add further contempt for the role of the Catholic Church, he translated the Bible into English so that the commoner could see for himself that the clergy had misrepresented the teachings of Christ to the masses.

By 1380, Wycliffe reached the conclusion that the pope is the Anti- christ, since his deeds opposed those of Christ. In his later writings, he advocated the abolition of the papacy. The conclusion, regarded as most heretical by his contemporaries, was Wycliffe's denial of the doctrine of transubstantiation. He also condemned monasticism and taught that all authority, ecclesiastical and secular, is derived from God and is forfeited by one who lives in mortal sin. So great was his influence in the direction of revolt that he has been called "The Morning Star of the Reformation." 37

John Wycliffe was a professor of theology and philosophy at Oxford Univer- sity. From this prestigious position of authority, Wycliffe was unrelenting in his desire to see the Catholic Church become more relevant and meaningful to the masses. His appeals would fall on deaf ears in Rome, so he called for

37. Eavey, History of Christian Education, 132.

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England to establish a new state church, one that would view the Scriptures as the sole basis of church authority and in which the priests would dem- onstrate through their own lifestyles the teachings of Christ. This early at-

tempt to reform the church, although inadequate to effect change in his lifetime, represented a foreshadow of what was to come. A summary of his most important positions on religious reform includes the following.

1. Because each person is a direct vassal of God and holds his posses- sions by grace, he should enjoy them only on condition that he render service and loyalty to God.

2. The terms by which we enjoy these possessions are set forth in the

Bible; therefore, everyone should have access to the Scriptures to know these terms.

3. The duty of the clergy is to be pious, to live modest lives, and to give

up worldly concerns. If the clergy fail in these respects, it is the duty of the state to reform the church. 38

After Wycliffe's quiet death in 1384, his disciples, known as Lollards, continued to spread throughout England his message of necessary reform.

The Catholic Church did not take kindly to such talk and unleashed a wave of persecution against the Lollards. As a movement without a persuasive leader, however, it did not last long into the sixteenth century.

Simultaneous with the preaching of Wycliffe in England, another reformer

named Jan Hus (1373-1415) living in Bohemia was also trying to instigate change in the Catholic Church. Like Wycliffe in England, this Czech reli- gious vanguard condemned the amount of power and control that the pope

had over believers. Hus searched the Scriptures and could find no evidence of such authority. Instead, he believed that the Scriptures were the only true source of authority that should govern the affairs of individual believers and

the church (corporate believers). As a result of his views about papal author- ity and the church, he was arrested, tried, and condemned as a heretic at the Council of Constance. He was burned at the stake on July 6, 1415. Although the church had killed him, they could not stop his teachings from influenc-

ing those who followed in his steps. The Hussites, as they were known, fervently defended their doctrinal distinctives. This position forced the pope to launch a crusade into the Czech homeland in an effort to force their

38. Butts, Cultural History of Education, 204.

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obedience. The move backfired, however, and only strengthened the resolve of the Czech nation to stand against the coercive influence of the church.

John Wycliffe and Jan Hus were viewed as heretics for their efforts to bring about church reform in England and Bohemia, respectively. In Florence, Italy, Girolamo Savonarola (1452-98) focused his efforts on both state and church reform. He became a Dominican monk in 1475 and was committed to furthering the cause of Christ regardless of personal sacrifice or discomfort. When his passion for personal holiness put him at odds with the lifestyle of the pope, it signaled the beginning of his end. His preaching against the evil lifestyle of the pope did not endear him to the entrenched church leadership, and it resulted in his execution in 1498.39

Calls for church reform were being voiced from multiple venues. Reform- ing councils were formed to try to bring stability and clarity to the situation. These councils were comprised of national representatives of the church, and their focus of attention was reform. This need became even clearer when, in 1378, Urban VI and Clement VII each claimed to be the rightful successor of the apostle Peter. Because this situation required the various countries across Europe to decide whom they would follow and acknowl- edge as their ecclesiastical authority, the Great Schism of the church oc- curred as each country chose sides in the argument of papal succession. To try to bring about a peaceful resolution, the Council of Pisa met in the spring of 1409. It deposed Benedict XIII (who was in control of Avignon) and Gregory XII ( who was in control of Rome) and chose rather to elect Alexander V as the rightful pope. But the other two popes would not abdicate so the church now had to deal with three popes, each of whom was claiming to have power and authority as God's chosen messenger for the church. A final Council of Constance was called to end the Great Schism, end heresy, and bring about internal and external reform. As a result, Gregory XII resigned and after a great deal of negotiation, both Benedict XIII and John XXIII were deposed by 1415. The council went on to condemn the teachings of John Wycliffe and order the execution of John Huss. 40 Over the years, such councils would continue to meet and discuss the ongoing problems associ- ated with reform, heresy entering the church, and the residual effects of the Great Schism.

39. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries, 247. 40. Ibid., 249-50.

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THE INQUISITION

Long divided by cultural and religious differencies, Spain needed to find a way to bring together the various factions that had divided it for generations. The two central sources of power were Ferdinand, king of Aragon (1452- 1516) and Isabella, queen of Castile (1451-1504). Each ruled a significant piece of territory but sought a way to bring together their two parts into a national whole. Neither was strong enough to secure domination over the other, so they decided to form a partnership sealed in marriage. As husband and wife, they would bring their forces together and forge a union that would be a dominant force in Europe. Having joined their efforts, they began ridding their nation of influences that sought to divide them, chief among which were the Muslim and Jewish landowners and merchants. The creative solution to their problem was getting each of these religious minori- ties to renounce their faith and convert to Catholicism.

Because the church would also benefit from this consolidation of power (and commerce), the Spanish Inquisition was unleashed among those mem- bers of the Spanish populace who opposed the new king and queen. Unlike the French Inquisition, which occurred at the hands of Louis VIII during the thirteenth century to rid his country of the Albigensian heresies, the Spanish Inquisition was an effort on the part of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to consolidate their political and geographical power across Spain. It had little to do with preserving orthodox theology or maintaining a more vibrant personal faith. Simply stated, the church was used as a front to exploit and dominate people of differing religious persuasions. In 1492, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella seized the last fragment of Muslim-occupied Spain while Columbus was launching a new Spanish conquest on the shores of North America. 41

The Renaissance was one of history's most significant transitional peri- ods. Moving from the somewhat dark and depressive atmosphere that char- acterized the Middle Ages, the Renaissance was a time of rebirth. At the heart of the Renaissance were renewed patterns of thinking about life, death, the struggle between good and evil, and God Himself. Great men took advantage of an increased freedom and allowed themselves to dream big

41. Crane Brinton,John B. Christopher, and Robert L. Wolff,A History of Civiliza- tion (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 398-99.

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dreams about the natural world and man's relationship to his Creator. Some of this new thinking influenced various art forms, especially painting and sculpture. It was also seen in the architecture of the "modern" cathedrals. It permeated the minds of those who wrote some of the greatest literature of the day. "The Renaissance was, among other things, a revival of secular learning, another instance of man's endless search for true knowledge. In many ways this revival was a radical departure from medieval views of the world, of life, and of culture-views developed under domination of the church."42 No longer bound by archaic and untrustworthy ways of thinking, man had unshackled himself from the narrowly defined parameters of the church and had begun to taste freedom of thought and mobility. The world would never be the same; there would be no turning back.

42. Gutek, Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education, 133.

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