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Chapter 4

CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

IN THE EARLY CHURCH

"BUT WHEN THE FULLNESS OF THE time came, God sent forth His Son" Jesus into the world ( Gal. 4:4 ). Although this passage speaks of the opportune time for Mary to deliver her new son Jesus into the world, it also has another dimension because God seemingly had prepared more than Mary for the coming of the Savior into the world. God had also been preparing the world itself for the coming of His Son.

THE CONTEXT OF EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

Upon the conquest of Macedonia in 146 B.c., Greece became a province of the Roman political state, but in many respects Rome had been captured by Greek culture and intellect. Scarcely did any great Roman leader between Cato and Augustus Caesar ascend to the throne who was not heavily influ- enced by Greek teachers through the important role they played in prepar- ing him for leadership in Roman affairs. Crassus, Pompey, Mark Antony, Cicero, Julius Caesar, and Octavius (who later became known as Augustus Caesar) all continued in the educational centers of the East the Hellenistic Latin studies that they had begun in Rome. Of these men, none held greater influence in Roman life than Cicero. He held that a Greek literary and philosophical education was useful and necessary in the basic educational curriculum of every Roman citizen if he were to become a contributing

Anthony, Michael J., and Warren S. Benson. Exploring the History and Philosophy of Christian Education : Principles for the 21st Century, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/amridge/detail.action?docID=6339650. Created from amridge on 2022-01-20 15:20:36.

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member of society.1 Thus, many Roman citizens who were learned could understand both classical Greek and Latin. The acquisition of the Greek language was by no means a small factor. "With the Greek language a whole world of concepts, categories of thought, inherited metaphors, and subtle connotations of meaning enters Christian thought." 2 Those who lived during the time of Christ and His immediate followers were well versed in Greek philosophic thought, yet they preferred the more pragmatic emphasis of Roman education. Theirs was a fine blending of both educational systems.

What contributed to the collapse of the mighty Roman Empire has been the focus of debate for countless centuries. Of what we are sure, the aristoc- racy voted themselves out of the tax system and granted to many new citi- zens a reduced levy as well. Consequently, the finances required to maintain the vast empire fell to the commoners and the working class who did not hold Roman citizenship. Accommodation and compromise were essential for lasting harmony, and the Romans recognized this fact by initiating two- fold categories of laws, the ius civile, which applied to Roman citizens, and the ius gentium, which applied to all other people. 3 Eventually, the financial hardships required of the masses to fund Rome's military conquests and building campaigns went beyond that which they could bear. Simultaneous with these internal pressures were the border disputes with the Celts and the Germanic tribes in the west and the warring countries from the east. The empire had become too vast to manage, and eventually it lost control. In 476, Germanic tribes handed Romulus Augustus a rousing military defeat, and most historians view this defeat as the end of the empire.

The contribution of the great Roman Empire to the beginnings of Chris- tianity cannot be overstated. The Son of God was born into a world that valued learning. The Hebrews had contributed an emphasis upon monothe- ism and family-life education; the Greeks had provided an emphasis upon philosophic thought united under a common language; and the Romans gave the world a strong civil government with secure borders, commerce, communication, and stable means of transportation. Together, these national

1. Edward H. Reisner, Historical Foundations of Modern Education (New York: Macmillan, 1928), 113-20.

2. Werner Jaeger, Early Christianity and Greek Paideia ( Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1961), 6.

3. E. H. Gwynne-Thomas, A Concise History of Education to 1900 a.d. (Kansas City: University of Missouri, 1981), 31.

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and cultural contributions laid the foundation for early Christian church education.

When considering the educational changes that occurred between the Roman Empire and the Christian church, one must follow two distinct lines of development. The imperial schools provided their students with one type of training and the Christian schools provided another type. As the centuries progressed, the number and influence of the pagan schools diminished while those established by the church slowly grew to dominate European educa- tion. The latter schools will be the focus of this chapter's investigation. 4

JESUS AS THE MASTER TEACHER

Jesus had humble human origins. Born into a small town far removed from the political leadership of Rome and the mighty learning centers of Athens and Corinth, Jesus came into the world as the son of a commoner. God could have chosen the lineage of a Greek aristocrat or a Roman politi- cian of His day. Instead, much to the dismay of both aristocrats and politi- cians, Jesus' entry into the world was witnessed by simple shepherds. He spent most of his life surrounded by those who had little power or influence. He chose to associate with the weak, the disenfranchised, and the lowly of society. He never studied in any of the great universities of His day and was trained in neither Greek rhetoric nor Roman military planning. Yet, He has become the leading force in politics, religion, science, economics, and phi- losophy since His days on earth. Jesus rarely called Himself a teacher, yet that role seems to be the one that others most often ascribed to Him. He was indeed the great Master Teacher.

The Gospels provide a glimpse into the early years of Jesus, but they focus more on His adult life and teachings. Because Jesus was not born into an economically affluent or socially prominent family, He most likely would not have had the luxury of higher education. His instruction, like that of other people of His socioeconomic background, would have comprised basic synagogue school after His bar mitzvah at the age of thirteen. In addition to this formal instruction, He would have been exposed to Jewish cultural and religious influences while observing the religious festivals and by participating in the temple sacrifices while He was visiting Jerusalem. During His young

4. Luella Cole, A History of Education: Socrates to Montessori (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962), 72.

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adult years, He would also have become an apprentice in the trade of His earthly father Joseph until the age of thirty, at which time He obviously chose a different career path and became a teacher of some national renown.

Jesus was a skillful educator. Although He was not a formal teacher per se, such as the Greek philosophers or the Roman orators who were paid for their services, He was dedicated and committed to the task of instructing His learn- ers in the knowledge of spiritual truth. He was viewed differently than the rabbis of His day because He was perceived as one who taught with authority (Matt. 7:29). Although He was unlearned in the science of educational instruc- tion, He nevertheless possessed a vast repertoire of instructional methodolo- gies. For example, He often spoke in parables (see Matt. 25:1-30; Mark 4:2-20; Luke 10:25-37), which created a degree of intellectual disequilibrium in his learners. He also used parables because they required higher levels of critical thinking (i.e., more than the simple acquisition of facts) from His disciples and those who came to challenge Him. Parables revealed biblical truths and values through the medium of stories. These stories remained fixed in the mind of the listener and were more easily recalled.

Jesus also taught through proclamation. This form of instruction engaged both the mind and the heart of the learner. Jesus' statements of "You have heard it said ... but I say to you" (see Matt. 5:21-22, 27-28, 33-34) chal- lenged the learner to encounter and assimilate new forms of meaning and purpose into otherwise old forms of knowledge. We see frequent opportuni- ties of Jesus to lecture to the masses through His sermons on the mountain (Matt. 5-7), on the plain (Luke 15), and in synagogues (Matt. 4:23; Luke 4). Because Jesus' followers were not highly educated, He often adjusted his instructional methodologies such as to relate His message to their worldview.

Jesus taught through simple object lessons. Jesus revealed some of His most profound symbols by this method (Matt. 13). For example,Jesus used water to communicate the nature and purpose of biblical worship to a Sa- maritan woman at a roadside well (John 4). He used old wineskins to speak of Old Testament curriculum and the need for new paradigms of thinking (Matt. 9:17). He used children as an object lesson to point people to the true nature of kingdom living (Matt. 19:13-15), a lost coin to reveal God's quest for the misplaced soul (Mark 12:13-17), and a ripened field to portray the spiritual harvest that is available to those who serve as ministers of the gos- pel (John 4:35). Perhaps the most profound object lesson was the one that He gave to His disciples during their last meal together. Taking the loaf of

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bread and the cup of wine, He revealed a new spiritual meaning by stating, "This is My body ... this is My blood of the covenant" (Mark 14:22, 24). The use of object lessons helped the listeners bring new spiritual meaning and insights to otherwise common elements of their world.

Jesus taught using various methods of speech as well. He used similes in which two different objects are brought together to reveal explicit compari- sons. For example, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed, which a man took and sowed in his field; and this is smaller than all other seeds, but when it is full grown, it is larger than the garden plants" (Matt. 13:31). He also used metaphors in which an implicit comparison is made between two objects. For example, "I am the vine, you are the branches" Qohn 15:5), and "I am the good shepherd" Qohn 10:11).

Jesus also used poetry in His teaching. The ancient Greeks used this ap- proach frequently as it became a standard element of their curriculum. Speak- ing of this method as employed by Jesus, Prevost and Reed write, "Jewish poetry in Jesus' day was not based on rhyme but on rhythm and parallelism. The educational effectiveness of ancient poetry lies in its repetitive nature and repetition of the rhythmic beat or of parallel thoughts." 5 Examples of such parallelism used by Jesus include, "Do not judge, and you will not be judged; and do not condemn, and you will not be condemned" (Luke 6:37).

Another figure of speech that Jesus used in His teaching is hyperbole. Hyperbole is a controversial method because of the methods of hermeneu- tics employed to interpret the passage and make relevant application of the instruction. The difficulty lies in trying to sort through the difference be- tween what is said and what is meant. How literally does Jesus expect us to take Him? An example of this method is found in His admonition to pluck out your eye or cut off your hand if it causes you to sin (Matt. 5:29-30). Perhaps a more controversial example would be the extent to which a Chris- tian is suppose to avoid physical confrontation when Jesus commands us, "Do not resist an evil person; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other to him also" (Matt. 5:39). A literal interpretation of the latter example would certainly preclude one from service in either the military or any law enforcement agencies. Although Jesus often overstated certain com- mands, a good deal of cross-referencing is needed to bring a balanced per- spective to bear on His message.

5. James E. Reed and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Education (Nash- ville: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 66.

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Jesus was a master of varied methods as well. At times, He taught in a

small village hamlet, whereas at other times He purposefully approached the

synagogue that was filled to capacity. At times, He pulled away from the

crowds to reveal II is teachings to a smaller audience, whereas at other times

He taught at the doorstep of the temple while the city was swollen with the

multitudes. At times, He addressed the religious leaders with a fiery message

filled with passion and conviction; at other times, Ile spoke with the gentle-

ness and grace of a father to his young child. He revealed an expertise that

was anything but expected from such a formally unlearned man. In some

ways, this paradox was what attracted to His teaching those who knew the

difference between the sophists and the commoners. The Pharisees and

other religious leaders of His day knew that Jesus was something beyond

ordinary. Many people feared Hirn and were threatened hy His succes~.

They knew that something about His ways was supernatural; indeed, His

ability to perform miracles added a great deal of authenticity to His mes-

sage. Regardless of hmv the world might have understood His message,

however, there was no mistaking His unique ability to communicate biblical

truth such as to captivate and convict the multitude.

CHRISTIAN EoucATION IN THE ArosTouc AcE

It did not take long for the impassioned followers of Christ to get about the

task of communicating the gospel to the lost and needy world around them. The

apostles began to spread the good news of the gospel message to those with

whom they made contact during the daily occurrenu:s of life. After healing a

lame man who was sitting at the cntrance of the temple, Peter and John boldly

preached a message that resulted in the salvation of five thousand men. The next

day, the religious rulers, elders, and scribes assembled in the temple courtyard to

challenge these two apostles. Even the high priest Caiaphas and several others of

high-priestly descent had gathered for the occasion. It wasn't often that the high

priest entered into public debate to defend Judaism, so undoubtedly the crowd

was enormous. It was an unfortunate day indeed for Caiaphas because he was

about to be publicly humiliated by an unlearned fisherman and the Holy Spirit

of God. So impressive was Peter's eloquence that at the debate the multitude

began asking themselves how such an unlearned man could speak with such

persuasive power and conviction: "they were amazed, and began to recognize

them as having been with Jesus" (Acts 4:13).

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Recognizing that the unlearned disciples of Jesus had begun speaking and teaching with a boldness to which the rabbis and the sophists of their day were unaccustomed, the Jewish authorities sought quickly to extinguish the influence of these seemingly academically untrained commoners. While they were meeting to discuss how to rid themselves of such intellectually ignorant men, the acclaimed Jewish scholar Gamaliel warned the Jewish council of elders that had assembled to be cautious. He stated,

Men of Israel, take care what you propose to do with these men. For some time ago Theudas rose up, claiming to be somebody, and a group of about four hundred men joined up with him. But he was killed, and all who followed him were dispersed and came to noth- ing. After this man, Judas of Galilee rose up in the days of the census and drew away some people after him; he too perished, and all those who followed him were scattered. So in the present case, I say to you, stay away from these men and let them alone, for if this plan or action is of men, it will be overthrown; but if it is of God, you will not to able to overthrow them; or else you may even be found fight- ing against God. (Acts 5:35-39)

What is significant about this passage is that the council of the elders flogged Peter and John for what they were teaching, and the response of the disciples was that "they went on their way from the presence of the Council, rejoicing that they had been considered worthy to suffer shame for His name" (v. 41). Such was the effectiveness of being under the tutelage of the Master Teacher for three years of in-depth studies.

In spite of the resulting persecution, the apostles continued to teach and preach the Scriptures to those who would listen. Acts 5 concludes with this summary statement: "And every day, in the temple and from house to house, they kept right on teaching and preaching Jesus as the Christ" (v. 42). The obvious result is that the Jerusalem church continued to grow numerically and spiritually.

Those of Jewish descent were learning for the first time the true meaning of the Old Testament prophecies concerning the coming Messiah. Those who knew the scriptural predictions were comparing current events with biblical references. Many of them were becoming convinced that Jesus was the Messiah and that His death on the Cross and His subsequent resurrection

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provided mankind with the hope for which they had been waiting so many years. Having accepted the message of the apostles' teachings and become partakers of the new covenant, these new Jewish converts began meeting together in small fellowships to study the Scriptures in more detail and provide needed encouragement to one another.

The structure and forms of worship in the Jerusalem church would have looked very Jewish at first. They continued to meet at the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:20), met for worship on the Sabbath (1:12), observed daily prayers (3:1), kept the Jewish dietary laws (10:14), read from the Old Testament Scriptures (2:17-21, 25-28; 6:4), and maintained the practice of circumcision. To the outside observer, Christianity would have looked like a mild revision of Juda- ism. But for a few differences, such as assembling for worship on the first day of the week instead of the Sabbath, meeting in homes for small group fellowship, and structuring the church according to one's giftedness (as op- posed to being born into the priestly tribe), the church would have looked much like a Jewish community of believers. In a short time, however, this situation would all change.

The religious leaders in Jerusalem did not take lightly to seeing their Jew- ish faith compromised by such apostasy. The only reasonable response was to put an end to such cultic practices. Persecution began to spread through the region (Acts 8:2). Those who had come to faith in Christ had to weigh their decision in light of the possibility of facing economic, social, and per- haps even physical consequences. Jewish merchants who had converted to Christianity found that they were unable to buy and sell their products in the marketplace. Members of their own family and community shunned these new believers. Some of them were put on trial and mocked in front of their peers. When that failed to stem the tide, physical retaliation became a rea- sonable option. Many Jewish converts to Christ were put in prison, and some of them were put to death. The result was surprising to those who had planned these events. Rather than eliminating Christianity, such harsh means only resulted in a purification of the faith and a resolve not to bow to such pressure. Enduring under the hardships of persecution gave these new be- lievers a sense of satisfaction that somehow they had been found worthy to share in the suffering and identification with Christ. Jesus had told them before departing not to give up on the city of Jerusalem but to remain there and establish a foothold for the new faith (Acts 1:4, 8). The apostles re- mained firm to their commission and taught the Scriptures to these new

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converts daily. Converts who were not of Jewish descent simply decided to return to their homelands, where the pressure would be inconsequential.

The book of Acts records that many tradesmen and merchants from dis- tant lands were present in Jerusalem during the Passover celebration when Christ was put to death. Many of these individuals remained in Jerusalem an additional fifty days so they could continue their business of selling and trading (Acts 2:6-11, 41). They also witnessed the events of Pentecost and were amazed at what they had seen and heard with their own eyes and ears. Armed with the conviction that they had just witnessed the dramatic hand of God, many of these individuals also became believers. With Passover and Pentecost over, they returned home to resupply their goods and share with their family and friends what they had just experienced. No doubt, many of them were now living radically transformed lives, and the evidence that some- thing profound had taken place was hard to deny. The result was that small fellowships of this new religion began to develop outside the confines of Israel's borders.

The Jewish religious leaders were concerned about these new pockets of resistance and commissioned a zealous young man with impeccable creden- tials to see what could be done to rid the land of these cultic followers. The Jerusalem council of elders sent Saul with the express purpose of exterminat- ing Christians wherever he could find them. Along the way, on his way to persecute Christians in the city of Damascus, Syria, he had an unexpected encounter with the resurrected Christ Himself (Acts 9). The resulting con- version of Saul was miraculous given the extent of his success as a religious bounty hunter. His reputation preceded him, so it is not surprising to dis- cover that the apostles at the Jerusalem church were somewhat skeptical of him once he returned (v. 26).

Simultaneous with these events, new churches were being founded in villages, towns, and cities all along the Mediterranean coast. One such city was Antioch to the north. No one knows for sure who brought the gospel message to this bustling city, but we do know that it was not one of the apostles (Acts 8:1). Perhaps one of the merchants discussed earlier brought the good news to them (11:19-22). At any rate, the church in Antioch took root and began to flourish, and it soon garnered the attention of the apostles in Jerusalem. Because it had not been founded by one of the apostles, and neither had any of the apostles been present to teach them the Scriptures, they agreed that an envoy from the Jerusalem church should be sent to

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examine the legitimacy of what was happening (v. 23). They decided to send Barnabas, who in turn invited Saul (now renamed Paul) to join him. At

Antioch, Barnabas discipled Paul for about a year while providing him with the direction he needed to serve as a church leader (vv. 25-26).

From this point, with the notable exception of Acts 15, the prominence of the apostles' ministry diminished while the service of Paul increased sub- stantially. Paul embarked on three missionary journeys with the intent of

taking the gospel message to Jews and Gentiles throughout the European region. No other man is as deserving of our adulation and respect as Paul for his many sacrifices and service to our Lord. He established new churches;

mentored and trained church leaders; provided necessary discipline like a father to his children; chronicled his teaching and instruction, which have remained for our benefit; and eventually laid down his life for the cause of

world evangelism and discipleship.

6. Robert W. Pazmino, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael]. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Teachings of Paul."

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Tradition tells us that the other apostles spread throughout the other

countries of the known world, conducting similar church planting enter-

prises. As they journeyed, they wrote letters that remain to this day as

books in our New Testament. Tradition tells us that they also developed a

church manual for the training of new believers. This sixteen-chapter book,

called the Didache, instructs the new convert in matters pertaining to prop- erly living the Christian life ( chaps. 1-6); teachings regarding baptism, com- munion, and fasting (chaps. 7-10); distinguishing between false teachers

and godly prophets; qualifications for church leaders (chaps. 11-15); and

living a godly lifestyle in light of the imminent return ofJesus Christ (chap. 16).

In partnership with the Holy Spirit, the apostles established the founda-

tion for the church that remains throughout the world to this day. Although

they were relatively unlearned men by the world's standards, they were faith-

ful servants to a living God. They established churches and schools where

the teachings of Christ would prevail.

CATECHUMENAL INSTRUCTION

The apostles' teachings continued to establish and strengthen the church

body. As new believers were added to the church, some systematic form of

instruction was necessary to ensure authenticity of faith and consistency in

practice. People with the gift of teaching and shepherding took the lead in providing this training.

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The words catechism and catechumen are derived from the Greek word that is translated "instruct." They occur in the New Testament seven times (Luke 1:4; Acts 18:25; 21:21, 24; Rom. 2:18; 1 Cor. 14:19; Gal. 6:6). These passages reveal the systematic nature of the instruction that was provided as preparation for accepting the new convert into fellowship. The period of preparation lasted two to three years and was comprised of three distinct levels. Those in the first level were called hearers because they were allowed to listen to the reading of the Scriptures and to sermons in the church ser- vice. They also received instruction in the basic tenets of the faith. Those at the second level were referred to as kneelers because they remained for corporate prayer after the hearers were dismissed from class. They received more detailed instruction in matters pertaining to living the Christian life. Finally, the chosen were people who received intensive training in doctrines and church liturgy and were prepared to receive baptism. 8

7. Ronald T. Habermas, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony ( Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Catechism."

8. Charles B. Eavey, History of Christian Education (Chicago: Moody, 1964), 84.

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This form of Christian education reached its peak of popularlty around A.D. 325-450. It declined in effectiveness once it became expected of chil- dren to be baptized and when pagans, lacking genuine motivation for joining the faith, were commanded by law to attend church. The early church fa- thers Origen (A.D. 185-255) and Cyril of Jerusalem (A.D. 310-86) warned catechumens not to take lightly the teachings of Christ. 10

CATECHETICAL AND CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS

Many of the new converts to Christianity came from the lower class. It took time for the gospel to spread across the Mediterranean to Athens and Rome, which were considered the seats of higher learning. The Jews had given little attention to studying classical Greek philosophers and poets. Neither

9. J. E. Harvey Martin, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Catechumenate."

10. Werner C. Graendorf, ed., Introduction to Biblical Christian Education (Chi- cago: Moody, 1981), 40.

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did they hold the Roman system of education in high esteem because the Jews had been the recipient of the Romans' harsh control. Jews were hesi- tant to send their children to formal schools where their children would receive instruction in the secular Greek or Roman curriculum.

Eventually, a learned generation of believers recognized the value of edu- cating their children. Heretical philosophies of Greek and Roman origin began to creep into the church and required an educated and rational re- sponse. Scholarly preparation in the literature and the philosophical teach- ings of ancient Greece and Rome put one at par in a rhetorical debate. Soon, believers began attending schools where they could be taught sound biblical doctrine integrated with the seven liberal arts. The result was a powerful defense of the faith among the learned class.

The educational institutions that prepared these learned Christian lead- ers were known as catechetical schools. Chief among these schools was one located in Alexandria, Egypt. The city was established by Alexander the Great three hundred years before Christ. There scholars translated the Old Testament into Greek. This translation was known as the Septuagint. Tradition says that Mark planted the church in Alexandria and no doubt began the basic catechetical school there to help strengthen the new con- verts. In 179, Pantaenus, a converted Stoic philosopher, became the direc- tor of the school. By 185, it was a recognized catechetical institution. He expanded the curriculum to include an integration of biblical doctrines with discussions in classical philosophy. Clement, viewed as the first Chris- tian scholar, succeeded Pantaenus, and with him came an ever more ex- panded curriculum that included instruction in Greek literature, science, dialectic, physics, geometry, astronomy, logic, and history. 11 Later, Clem- ent fled from Alexandria, and his young student Origen became the new director. Viewed as one of the finest Christian institutions of higher learn- ing in its day, it earned a reputation as a premier place of Christian schol- arship. The conservative church, however, viewed it with some skepticism because no topic was forbidden and heresies were often given ample dis- cussion among formative minds.

The educators in Alexandria were anxious to develop a theology that used Greek philosophy and yet would give a systematic explanation of Christian- ity. Because the faculty had been trained in the Scriptures and Greek philoso-

11. Frederick Eby and Charles F. Arrowood, The History and Philosophy of Educa- tion: Ancient and Medieval (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1940), 611.

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phy, they were confident that they could integrate the two subjects. In time, however, under Origen, it was anything but positive; instead of emphasizing the historical-grammatical interpretation of the Scriptures, they preferred a more confusing mix of philosophical allegory. This latter approach was based upon the assumption that Scripture has several meanings. Using the analogy of a man's body, soul, and spirit, they argued that the Scriptures possessed a literal and historical interpretation that corresponded to the physical body; a hidden moral meaning that corresponded to the soul; and a much deeper, underlying spiritual meaning that only the most spiritually astute Christian leader could comprehend. This approach grew from a desire to link Judaism and Greek philosophy by finding a hidden meaning in the language of the Old Testament that could be associated with Greek philosophy. Rather than trying to determine the meaning of the passage as it related to the particular people to whom it was written in its historical context and perhaps an appli- cation for present believers, the Alexandrian scholars were fixated on trying to find hidden and coded meanings. Eventually, absurd and aberrant theo- logical teachings spread throughout the church. 12 The result was a destruc- tive sense that Scripture had lost its ability to impact people's lives. It had become simply another textbook added to the curriculum of study.

Although Alexandria was seen as the most prominent of the catechetical schools, others also developed in Jerusalem, Antioch, Edessa, Nisibis, and Constantinople. Origen also founded one in Caesarea after he departed Alexandria to avoid persecution. These schools supplied the early church with some of its greatest minds and able apologists. 13

As Christianity spread, it was incumbent upon the leadership to appoint able men who could administrate the affairs of several churches within a particular geographical region. These leaders, known as bishops, soon became a powerful force in the development of the church. The political power they wielded over their churches was extensive, and few people could challenge their authority. The finest church among those that they supervised was usually the one over which the bishop presided. The church building was known as a cathedral, and the asssociated school was referred to as an episcopal, or cathedral, school. They were highly structured and administered with detailed supervision. Unfortunately, in time, the bishop became

12. Earle E. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries: A History of the Christian Church, 3d ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 108.

13. Eavey, History of Christian Education, 88.

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preoccupied with maintaining political and economic control over his region and often lost his spiritual vibrancy. These cathedral schools slowly drifted away from their original purpose of training an educated clergy and created instead a new sense of superiority among those who attended. 14

EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATORS: CHURCH FATHERS,

APOLOGISTS, AND POLEMICS

During the second and third centuries, the church continued to suffer persecution at the hands of the Jews. However, in addition to the Jewish opposition, they also faced confrontation from Roman authorities. Roman politicians were bent on the wholesale destruction of the Christian faith. During this time, the church needed encouragement from its leaders. In addition, church leaders needed to provide an apology (defense) of their faith. Also, in those days sharp heresies arose that threatened to divide the church. The church needed leaders who could refute the false teachings that had entered the church. Each of these unique needs required a distinct type of scholar or orator to face the challenge. The church fathers wrote letters to and on behalf of Christians to encourage their endurance under persecution. Apologists provided a detailed defense of their faith before governmental leaders in an effort to provide a rational defense for the Christian faith. Finally, a third type of Christian educator known as a polemic wrote in an effort to maintain purity within the church and to dispel the false doctrines of misguided teachers. We will summarize the work of several Christian educators from each of these three categories.

Justin Martyr (A.D. 100-165)

Justin Martyr was born into a pagan family near the biblical town of Shechem. At an early age, he explored the various philosophical presupposi- tions of Plato, Aristotle, and Pythagoras. He started a school in Ephesus to expound on Stoicism and Platonism, although neither of them met the deep needs of his soul. One day, while walking along the coast, an old man shared with him the gospel message of salvation in Christ. He became a Christian and sought to find ways to integrate Greek philosophies with the tenets of

14. Ibid., 89.

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Christianity. He established a new Christian school for this purpose in Rome. 15

Perhaps the most famous of the second-century apologists, he wrote several books to provide a defense of the faith.

Around 150, he wrote his First Apology to Emperor Antonius Pius to examine the accusations against the Christians living in Rome ( chaps. 1-3) and to challenge him to free them if they were found innocent of the charges. He provided a convincing defense that Christians were neither atheists, idola- ters, nor a threat to the state ( chaps. 4-13 ). A substantial portion of his address presents the moral and spiritual teachings of Christianity ( chaps. 14- 60 ). He sought to prove that Christ's superior teachings as demonstrated by His lifestyle and character had been declared prophetically in the Old Testa- ment and that Rome had nothing to fear from those who further the teach- ings of ethical living and respect of authority ( chaps. 61-67). Once having determined that Christians were not a threat to the state, they should be released and allowed to live life free from the coercive constraints of the empire. His Second Apology is similar in tone to his First Apology. He also wrote an extensive apology to the Jews titled Dialogues with Trypho in which he sought to demonstrate to the Jews that Christ was the Messiah who had been foretold in the Old Testament Scriptures. 16 He was beheaded in 166.

Clement of Alexandria (150-215)

Probably born in Athens, Clement received a superior education in the classic disciplines of Greek learning. He followed his mentor Panteus as director of the catechetical school in Alexandria. As was mentioned earlier in this chapter, this school attempted to integrate Greek philosophy, primarily the ethical base of Plato, with Christian theology. Clement was a winsome apologist for Christianity although he thought that Greek culture was as sacred to God as Hebrew culture and that Hellenistic philosophy and ethics could live harmoniously with Christian theology and practice. He left Alexandria in 202.17

15. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries, 104. 16. Ibid. 17. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 612.

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Tertullian (A.D. 150-230)

An apologist from the Western church, Tertullian wrote in defense of the Christians who were being persecuted back in Rome. Trained as an attorney,

he spoke with legal eloquence and often used legal arguments to put forth

his claims. In his book titled On Schoolmasters and Their Difficulties, Tertullian revealed his lack of patience for those who sought to integrate

Greek philosophy with Christianity. From his perspective, it was a vain pur-

suit, and he believed that efforts would be better spent trying to find ways

better to live the Christian life within society. His other book, titled

Apologeticus, provided a defense for those whom the Roman authorities were persecuting.

Origen (A.D. 185-254)

Clement's successor at the school in Alexandria, Origen, was one of the

most complex thinkers of the Greek church fathers. Both of his parents were

Christians. His father was a teacher of rhetoric, and Origen assisted his

father by serving as an instructor at the young age of sixteen. His father died

the next year, and Origen was appointed chief catechist of the Christian

school. Just one year later, he was appointed director, a position that he held

for the next thirty years. 18 A voluminous writer, he devoted himself so whole-

heartedly to the reconciliation of pagan and Christian writings that some

people thought him to be a heretic. In his efforts to unify the two views, he

was not opposed to setting aside the teachings of Christianity if he thought

that they were incompatible with logic and reason. 19

Obviously suffering from a conflicted mind, he applied the teachings of

Matthew 19: 12 literally and underwent castration. He preferred the ascetic

lifestyle and frequently visited the desert with his books for extended study.

One of the most prolific church fathers, Origen wrote extensively on matters

related to exegesis, textual criticism, and systematic theology. He espoused the

allegorical approach to biblical interpretation characteristic of his Alexandrian

school; therefore, his views were often suspect. "Origen quoted Scripture ex-

tensively yet embarked on speculations for which only minimal support was

available. He produced the Hexapla, the finest piece of biblical scholarship in

18. Ibid. 19. Eavey, History of Christian Education, 92.

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the early church. His major work in theology, First Principles, introduced basic Christian doctrines in a systematic manner." 20 One of the most noted and acclaimed apologists and theologians among the early church fathers, Origen is highly respected for his keen mind and Christian scholarship.

Cyril of Jerusalem (A.D. 330-379)

As bishop of the church in Jerusalem, Cyril understood the significance of his position. Realizing that his church had been the birthplace of Christian- ity, he desired to maintain a pure faith among his followers. His twenty-four catechetical lectures instructs catechumens in the basic doctrines of the Chris- tian faith. They are seen as the foundational tenets of the early church creeds.

Basil the Great (A.D. 331-396)

Born into a wealthy family, he was educated in Constantinople and Ath- ens. After his conversion to Christianity, he became a teacher. At a young age, he developed a friendship with the pagan Sophist Libanius. He often referred students to Libanius' s school, and the two men remained good friends for many years. He retired from the field of education and sought a monastic lifestyle. In 370, he became the bishop of Caesarea. Writing to Libanius at an old age, he testified of his love for the Scriptures and their superiority over Greek literature: "I am now spending my time with Moses and Elias, and saints like them, who tell me their stories in a barbarous tongue .... If ever I learned anything from you, I have forgotten it."21 He developed Greek monasticism and sought to live an ascetic lifestyle of self- denial and simplicity. More will be said about monasticism in the next chap- ter on Christian education in the Middle Ages.

Jerome (A.D. 340-399)

At a young age, Jerome was brought to study in Rome where he fell in love with the works of Cicero, Horace, Virgil, and others. He later studied

20. Kenneth 0. Gangel and Warren S. Benson, Christian Education: Its History and Philosophy (Chicago: Moody, 1983), 88.

21. A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (New York: Christian Literature, 1895), 8:322.

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at the famous catechetical school in Antioch, where he mastered the Greek language.

While exploring the life of an ascetic in the Chalcis desert, he learned Hebrew with great effort. His academic training was eclectic to be sure, but it brought him little peace of mind because he could not reconcile classical literature with the Scriptures. 22 "What communion does light have with dark- ness?" He could not fathom what connection could exist between Horace and the apostle Paul, between the teachings of Homer and Peter. The two could not be harmonized without significantly compromising the latter. He related a dream that he had had when he was quite sick with a fever:

Suddenly I was caught up in the spirit and dragged before the judge's judgment seat; and here the light was so dazzling and the brightness shining from those who stood by so radiant that I flung myself upon the ground and did not dare to look up. I was asked to state my condition and replied that I was a Christian. But he who presided said, 'Thou liest; Thou art a Ciceronian, not a Christian. For where thy treasure is, there will thy heart be also.' Straightway I became dumb. 23

From that point, Jerome forsook his previous passion of classical litera- ture and sought to maintain a disciplined study of the Scriptures. He was not always successful in his resolve, however, because his love for Greek and Latin classics was well engrained. 24

Because of Jerome's expertise in the original languages of the Bible, Pope Damasus compelled him to revise the old Latin texts of the Gospel accounts of Christ in 383. Of all of the classical Latin authors of the early church, Jerome is most known for his translation of the Bible, the Latin Vulgate.

John Chrysotom (A.D. 345-407)

John received his education in the finest public schools of Antioch under the supervision of Libanius, a noted professor of rhetoric. His mother led him

22. N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Ox- ford: Clarendon, 1970), 563.

23. F. A. Wright, trans., Select Letters of Saint Jerome (Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb Classical Library, 1933), 127.

24. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 596.

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to the Lord; consequently, he abandoned his pursuit of secular studies to become the director of a catechetical school. He was one of the first Christian educators to look seriously at the education of children. In his work Concern- ing the Education of Children, he spoke of the need to blend a child's love for storytelling with the scope and sequence of the early childhood education curriculum. He clearly understood the limitations of a child's concrete-based reasoning ability and sought to take complex Old Testament stories and put them into concepts and vocabulary that a child could understand. 25

As an acclaimed church father, his school in Antioch rivaled the school in Alexandria. The Antioch school became a seminary dedicated to the training and instruction of the clergy. Unlike the school in Alexandria, Chrysotom did not hold to the more liberal approach of taking an allegorical interpreta- tion of Scripture and preferred the more conservative historical-grammatical approach to Scriptural interpretation. 26

Augustine (A.D. 354-430)

Born in Thagaste, North Africa, in 354, Augustine was educated in Latin grammar and rhetoric. The son of a Christian mother, Monica, he preferred the works of the great Latin authors over those written by the Greeks. He taught rhetoric at Carthage, Rome, and Milan. At the age of nineteen, he read Cicero's Hortensius and became captivated by the study of philosophy. He subsequently converted to Manichaeism, a gnostic sect that promised great wisdom to its followers, and in 386 to a Christianized neo-Platonism patronized by St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan. 27 "He went through a period of deep trauma and came to faith in Christ in a dramatic encounter in which Romans 13: 13-14 provided solace as he wrestled with his immoral past. This took place in August, A.D. 386, and the following Easter he was baptized. On arriving back in Africa, he spent three years in solitude and study."28 He later became bishop of Hippo, a city in Africa not far from his birthplace.

One of the leading Western church fathers, Augustine was viewed as the most learned, noble, and acclaimed leaders of the early church. He wrote several highly acclaimed books. Confessions is a book that is autobiographical

25. Eavey, History of Christian Education, 92. 26. Eby and Arrowood, History and Philosophy of Education, 614. 27. Hammond and Scullard, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 148. 28. Gangel and Benson, Christian Education, 100.

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in nature and speaks of the profound grace of God and its benefit to the new believer. In his work The City of God, Augustine developed the distinct differences between the earthly kingdom and our future heavenly kingdom.

Augustine has much to offer the twenty-first-century Christian educator. His discussions regarding the grace of God represent a message that is des- perately needed today as well. His instructions to teachers to provide com- fort to their students and to treat them with respect is admirable. Regarding the significant contributions made by this early church father, Davies writes,

Augustine's philosophical and educational writings make significant contributions to Christian education. For the western church, he was able to successfully fuse Neoplatonic philosophy with Pauline Christianity. He believed that the universe is an ordered structure in which the degrees of being are at the same time degrees of value. This universal order requires the subordination of what is lower on the scale of being to what is higher-body is subject to spirit, and spirit to God. Philosophically he maintained wherever one may find truth, in the final analysis it has come from God. The individual thinker does not make truth, he finds it; he is able to do so because Christ, the revealing Word of God, is the magister interior, the "in- ward teacher," who enables him to see the truth as she listens to it. As an educational thinker, Augustine transcendended his generation. He combined deep respect for the cultivation of reason with a pas- sionate concern for heart feelings stirred by God. A human being's ability to reason was what set him apart from other animals. But sensitivity to "the light within" was necessary for true wisdom. 29

Many of these early church fathers, apologists, and polemics were what we would call today authentic Christian leaders. They struggled with the same issues that we face. A number of these leaders faced battles between the desires of the flesh and the desire to serve Christ with wholesale aban- don. One should demonstrate caution, however, in placing these men on so high a pedestal that we fail to see the manifestation of God's grace in their daily lives. Although they were significant Christian educators of the first few

29. James A. Davies, The Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), s.v. "Augustine."

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centuries of the Christian church, they also understood what it meant to live

in a fallen world. Yet, in spite of these human limitations, these early church

leaders dedicated themselves to providing the church with resources, either

through their own leadership or through written letters and books, that were

needed to take the young church to her next level of spiritual maturity.

To understand the circumstances under which these church leaders lived

and ministered, it is important to remember the condition of learning as a

whole during these four centuries of Greek and Roman education. It was profoundly Hellenistic and pagan. It was an education that emphasized

human existence over the supernatural and was in many respects in direct

opposition to the biblical truths espoused by many of the leaders whom

we have surveyed in this chapter. Pagan literature was filled with references

to polytheism, and for Christians who desired to provide a rational defense

of the Christian faith, it was imperative that they subject themselves to the

ungodly instruction of many Greek and Latin professors. Only as these and

other church leaders grappled with the professed enlightenment of Greek

and Latin literature were they able to point others to a better way in

Christianity. These church fathers were responsible for shepherding churches through

turbulent times. Upon their shoulders rested the future of the Christian

faith. They attempted to make the message of the gospel consistent with the

Greek and Latin philosophical teachings of their day. Although their motives

might have been admirable at the time, the consequences of their actions

have had a lasting effect on the church. In spite of efforts to eradicate the

church of such humanistic philosophies through edicts such as that issued by

the Council of Carthage in 401, it is abundantly clear to us (through the

advantage of hindsight) that men have continued ever since this attempt to

humanize the gospel message. 30

PHILOSOPHICAL HERESIES IN THE EARLY CHURCH

During the first few centuries after the birth of the church, society as a

whole grew more secular and pagan. In an effort to accommodate the many

cultures that were captured during the Roman military campaigns, it became

apparent that a high level of give-and-take would be needed for peaceful

30. Eavey, History of Christian Education, 96-98.

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coexistence. As a result, polytheism was characteristic of most religious be-

liefs, and moral relativism permeated the legal and ethical systems across the

empire. Philosophers traveled the land espousing new ways of reasoning.

Church leaders grew to despise these "men of learning." That their teachings

contradicted the Scriptures was quickly apparent. Tertullian wrote of the

special satisfaction he would receive on the day he saw these vain philoso-

phers thrown into the fires of hell. He writes,

How vast the spectacle that day, how wide! What sight shall wake my wonder, what my laughter, my joy, my exaltation as I see . . .

those sages the philosophers blushing before their disciples as they blaze together, the disciples whom they taught that God was con-

cerned with nothing, that men have no souls at all, or what souls they have shall never return to their former bodies! And then the poets, trembling before the judgment seat, not of Rhadamanthus,

not of Minos, but of Christ whom they never looked to see!31

With no morals and ethical absolutes with which to govern civil affairs

and personal decision making, the Roman Empire became a breeding ground

for heretical philosophies such as Gnosticism, Docetism, Manichaeism, Neo-

Platonism, Marcionism, and Arianism. Each of these damaging philosophies

had an impact on the church.

Gnosticism

Chief among the aberrant teachings that came into the church at this time

was a philosophy known as Gnosticism. By now, the majority of the new

believers being added to the church were coming from backgrounds of Greek

and Roman culture. They brought with them their perspectives about life

and sought to find ways of integrating Greek philosophy into Christianity.

Gnosticism had its roots in a platonic dualism that held that physical matter

was evil and the realm of the spirit was superior. Anything associated with the

creation of matter, such as the biblical creation account, simply added support

to their belief that Jehovah depicted in the Old Testament was a secondary,

31. Tertullian De Spectaculis 30; quoted in William Barclay, Educational Ideals in the Ancient World (Grand Rapids, Baker, 1959), 202-3.

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perhaps inferior, manifestation of a lesser created being, or demiurge. He certainly could not be God Himself. The gnostics developed a system by which God as a spirit could be disassociated from material substance.

This philosophical reasoning had profound implications for discussing the deity of Christ; how could a pure god inhabit a physical body when to do so would be to participate in evil? To the gnostic, the idea that God would clothe Himself in human form as described in the Gospel accounts was absurd. The apostle Paul countered this teaching in his address to the church in Philippi: ''Jesus, ... who, although He existed in the very form of God, did not regard equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied Him- self, taking the form of a bondservant, and being made in the likeness of men" (Phil. 2:5-7).

The Gnostics, like the Greeks of the first two chapters of 1 Corinthians, sought by human wisdom to understand the ways of God with man and to avoid what seemed to them to be the stigma of the cross. If the Gnostics had succeeded, Christianity would have simply become another philosophical religion of the ancient world. 32

In addition to the letter addressed to the church in Philippi, Paul also confronted gnostic heresy in his writings to the church in Corinth and espe- cially Colossae. Colossians 2:8-15, 20-23; 3:1-11 take a firm stand against the influences of Gnosticism in the church. The apostle John in his first epistle also seems to address this issue directly (see 1 John 1:1-3).

Docetism

Docetism was a variation of Gnosticism in that it held that Christ, being a purer form of god, could not associate with evil physical matter such as a human body. Therefore, Jesus must simply have been a phantom image of a man and not a real human being at all. They believed that Christ came into the body of Jesus for the brief time between His baptism and when He appeared on the Cross. Once on the Cross,Jesus was left to His own demise. According to Gnosticism and Docetism, God would neither create a material world, live in it, nor allow Himself to become subject to its constraints.

32. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries, 96.

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Manichaeism

Manichaeism was similar to Gnosticism in that it held to a dualistic view of man. It was founded by Mani, also known as Manichaeus (216-77) of Mesopotamia. He developed his peculiar philosophical framework around the middle of the third century. Convinced through a series of dreams that he was the Paraclete promised by Jesus, his concept of salvation was de- picted in a struggle between the forces of light and the forces of darkness. A precosmic invasion of the realm of light by the forces of darkness resulted in the present intermingling of good and evil on earth. In essence, divine mat- ter was imprisoned in our physical bodies and the latter needed to be held under subjection. 33

Salvation was achieved by releasing the light from the constraints of its physical boundaries. As a result, the body was subjected to harsh isolation and given as few liberties as possible, resulting in an ascetic lifestyle of absti- nence from any form of human pleasure. Food and water were provided only out of necessity for survival, but other forms of pleasure gained through participation in the fine arts, physical activity, or sexuality were absolutely forbidden. Those who held to these strict standards rose in ranks to the priestly sect. Those who were still in process were called hearers and pro- vided the monetary means to enable the priests to continue their spiritual ascent. Augustine sought to refute this philosophical teaching in his book Against Manichaeans.

33. Hammond and Scullard, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 643.

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