history

The Revolutions of 1848—The Springtime of

the People

This is an enormously complex subject.

Ideological tensions, especially between liberals and radicals on one

hand, and conservatives on the other reached a climax in the years

1848-1849.

Reading: textbook, Chapter 24, pp. 690-701.

“If I can’t dance, I don’t want to be part

of your revolution”—Emma Goldman

“Society was cut in two: those who had nothing united

in common envy, and those who had anything united

in common terror."[ --Alexis de Toqueville

The General Situation in Europe in the later1840s:

1. Economic problems, political discontent

a. Dislocation from industrialization—industrial stagnation, inflation,

and massive unemployment

b. The Hungry Forties—especially, the Irish potato famine

(1845-1852), which claimed 750,00-1,000,000 victims

c. Disenchantment with the political status quo

d. Nationalism—especially on the Italian peninsula and in central

Europe (the Austrian Empire and the German states)

In France—the traditional homeland of revolution—in late February,

1848

Louis Philippe was widely blamed for France’s economic

problems as well as for political corruption.

Opponents of Louis Philippe erected barricades in Paris.

Soon, the “Citizen King” abdicated

The Second French Republic was proclaimed and

a Provisional (temporary) Government was established

There were problems from the outset:

1. Continuation of the economic problems that had led to

the revolution

2. Political divisions between moderates (liberals) and radicals

(republicans, democrats, and socialists)

3. Significant sympathy, particularly outside of Paris, for monarchy

Major initiatives:

1. National workshops were crewated to provide work for

the unemployed (e.g., half of the Parisian work force)—

but well-off people and peasants grumbled about the

increase in taxes to pay for the workshops.

2. Elections for a National Constituent Assembly took place in

April.

The climax:

1.Conservatives won 800 of 900 seats in the National Assembly,

a huge defeat for progressive forces;

2. Mid-May: an attempted insurrection against the assembly was

suppressed by the National Guard;

3. June 23: National Workshops were abolished—“go to hell” workers;

4. Followed by “June Days”—another insurrection, mostly by

journeymen; brutally suppressed by General Louis Cavaignac;

5. Soon, Cavaignac, the "Butcher of June," became the provisional

(temporary) chief executive of the republic.

General Louis-Eugène Cavaignac

The Butcher of June

The Outcome:

A new constitution was promulgated in November.

Presidential elections were held in December .

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (the famous Napoleon’s nephew)

won in a landslide victory.

Louis Napoleon

Bonaparte III

Napoleon became the executioner of the revolution.

He used his support in the Assembly to crack down on freedoms

and limit political activity.

On Dec. 2, 1851, the anniversary of Austerlitz and Napoleon's

coronation as emperor, Louis Napoleon dissolved the Assembly in

a coup d' etat.

A plebiscite (election) soon approved Louis's coup by better than a

10-1 margin.

On Dec. 2, 1852, Louis became Napoleon III, emperor of the French

In fact, he had established a military dictatorship and a prototype

for the police states of the 20th century.

The Revolutions of 1848, part 2

Revolutions spread like wildfire across Europe after the revolution

began in France. Chief areas of revolution included the German

states, Central Europe, and the Italian states.

Barricades went up in major cities.

Most of the barricades were erected by workers and students;

middle class liberals tried to use the insurrections to wring

concessions from monarchs and princes.

Nationalism was a powerful influence on the insurgents

Major problems for the insurgents:

1. they weren't always on the same page

2. the liberal strategy involved cooperation with

national governments, a strategy that was suspect

in the eyes of radicals

3. nationalism provided motivation for insurgents, but

also created problems

Ultimately, the liberals were satisfied with concessions

that would aid the middle class

The radicals and nationalists had larger goals, considered

unrealistic or repellant by the liberals

Something like a "red scare" ultimately sealed the defeat of

the revolutions

.*. Lack of consensus among insurgents was the chief reason

for the failure of the revolutions

The basic template for revolution:

In most states, monarchs and princes made concessions to

the insurgents

1. “March” governments were set up

2. liberals were appointed to ministerial positions,

replacing conservatives (e.g., Metternich was fired and chased

to London)

3. Promises, promises by governments—e.g., to ease censorship,

expand rights (especially the franchise), and grant a constitution

In the German states of central Europe, the big issue was unification.

The Frankfurt Parliament (a liberal body with over 800 members) was

organized by liberals.

It issued the “Basic Rights of the German People” (December, 1848)

and announced Constitution for a united Germany (April, 1849)

A huge problem to unification: disagreement between advocates for a

“greater German” (basically, to include German-speaking Austria)

solution and advocates for a “little German” (without Austria) one.

Keep in mind: Austria had a large empire, with lots of national

minorities.

Points:

Nationalism was potentially a unifying force in

German-speaking parts of Central Europe and in Italy.

In the Austrian Empire, nationalism was a divisive force,

because of the presence of a large number of different ethnic

and language groups: Italians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Magyars,

and Serbs, to name the most prominent, living within three major

geographical areas: Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia.

The situation in Prussia:

The problem was not only demonstrations, typically followed by

clashes with troops, leading to barricades, but protest and

violence by workers in industrial zones, and peasant uprisings

in the countryside motivated by the aim to eradicate feudal

obligations to nobles.

Prussia’s King Frederick William IV responded to demonstrations

in Berlin by offering concessions and promising a constitution.

He also said he would lead the campaign for German unification.

This was a ploy. Frederick William and other rulers of German states

tried to ride out the dangerous storm by making concessions and

waiting for an opportunity to restore order.

Frederick William IV of Prussia, 1840-1861

Frederick William IV did, in fact successfully ride out the storm.

He eventually said that he "would not accept a crown

(as king of a united Germany) from the gutter."

He also called it a "dog collar" offered by "bakers and butchers and

reeking with the stench of revolution." The Frankfurt delegates,

thoroughly dejected, finally closed up shop and went home.

In the end, though, it was the Junker-led Prussian army

that was the deciding factor; backed by the army, in April 1849,

the king dissolved the Prussian parliament and scattered

the liberal legislators.