HHS 435 Cont Issues, Trends, Health Law Ethics in H & HS-5

Chapter 2 HISTORICAL ROOTS OF HUMAN SERVICES

JOEL F. DIAMBRA

Writing from Knoxville, Tennessee, home of the late Alex Haley, author of the epic novel and made-for-television mini-series, Roots, it seems only appropriate to begin this book by reviewing our professional roots. Indeed, it is prudent and necessary to review the recent history of human service work prior to propelling ourselves into prophetic speculation and prognostications of times to come. History and future are juxtaposed with the forever-fleeting present, sharing an ever-present boundary that quickly vanishes into the past. This makes the past and future unusual relatives: two stepsisters, both twins to a third sister, the present. Confounding and more dynamic than sisters, one becomes the other as cyclical time passes: future becomes present, present becomes past, and the past predicts the future. This chapter will review the twentieth-century historical roots of human services. The focus is a macro rather than micro review, enabling the reader to place into historical perspective the contents of the upcoming chapters.

The history of human services struggles to clearly identify a “big-bang” origin. Its inception is subject to more than one interpretation. However, human service history is clearly developmental in nature, with evolutionary roots. From inauspicious beginnings to its professionally tailored and internationally collaborating present, recent developments in human services will be briefly reviewed in this chapter.

So why does a book entitled Human Services: Contemporary Issues and Trends, which is clearly focused on present and future events in human services, include a chapter dedicated to a recent historical review? Students often complain and express their dislike of history. The traditional excuse that it has no relevance on the events of today may be heard echoing through the cinderblock halls of public and private institutions of higher learning. In these same halls, the vernacular may be more commonly stated as “Let’s get on with it.” You, too, may be internally voicing like sentiments.

But before you dive into the following chapters, remember that many of the upcoming projections for the field of human services will someday be historical events. They will not simply be bygone events to be quickly dismissed and discounted, but events that have shaped tomorrow’s future of human service delivery—so read with renewed interest and appreciation. Accurate predictions will become the future, the future will become today, and today will become a past full of rich stories and events that once predicted and defined human services for tomorrow.

Before beginning to retrace the recent historical path of human services, an operational definition is required. Harris and Maloney (1996) broadly defined human services as “a process of negotiating social systems to respond in the best interest of people in need” (p. 13). Burger and Youkeles (2000) identified the common denominator of all human services as meeting people’s needs. Specific to the human service worker, Woodside and McClam (1998) defined the professional as a generalist able to work side-by-side with a variety of other professionals. Neukrug (2000) points out that human service professionals must be skillful at wearing many professional hats as they play a number of roles to encourage client growth and change. Simply put, human services is about facilitating clients’ efforts to grow and change while also effectively negotiating the service system in order to meet their needs.

A BLEND OF PROFESSIONS

Human services, as a bona fide profession with a defining mission and distinctive history, emerged from a blend of disciplines. The fields of social services, psychology, and counseling have provided the preeminent material to form a new hybrid species: human services. It may be more accurate to say that the human service profession borrowed from many of its sister professions and eclectically broadened its perspective by inclusion rather than exclusion. Social services provided a sense of mission and genuine compassion from its earliest roots. Furthermore, contemporary policy has been strongly influenced by social services. The disciplines of psychology and mental health contributed a theoretical and scientific component to the profession. Later, vocational and school counseling furnished human services with a contemporary perspective full of practical tools and helping strategies. Let us review these perspectives to see specifically how each influenced the development of human services as we know it today.

Social Service Roots

The human service literature is replete with historical accounts written from a social service perspective. A few significant historical events pertinent to social services highlight the genuinely humane response to the plight of others displayed by early social service workers.

The 1890s brought a more devastating depression than that felt during the 1870s. Social unrest caused by unemployment and racial tensions stimulated the need for social services. These early social and human service workers, through exposure to the conditions of their “clients,” began to understand that poverty was a complex problem and more difficult to resolve than they had been led to believe. Effective assistance required dedicated, paid professionals trained to remain objective and perform a variety of skills in systematic fashion.

One of the most significant developments of this period was the settlement house movement. Settlement social workers, out of their genuine concern and compassion, saw themselves more as neighbors than as professionals. This posture allowed them to empathize with the daily struggles of the people to whom they provided assistance. The English and American settlement house movements had many similarities, but they had a few distinct traits as well. American social workers’ religious orientation was subtler than that of their British counterparts, and the British movement had more men involved than did the American movement. Women, usually young, college-aged women, were predominant figures in the settlement house movement within the United States. Two of these remarkable young women, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr, started the most famous American settlement house: Chicago’s Hull House. Prejudice was also a typical profile common to both sets of social workers. Driven by a strong desire to help others, many remained ignorant of their own personal biases and consequently accepted popular stereotypes.

Forced by overwhelming client needs, social workers began to look beyond themselves and their immediate neighborhoods. Determined to create a more efficient and effective organizational system, social workers initiated a plan to improve the lives of women and children on a broader level. These efforts resulted in a national Children’s Bureau headed by Julia Lathrop from Chicago’s Hull House in 1912 (Council on Social Work Education, 2000). Influenced by the Children’s Bureau research efforts, the “Widow’s Pension” was a proposal recommending that children be supported in their natural homes rather than institutional settings.

Beyond the scope of the settlement house movement, social work stretched its wings and entered into a number of fields new to social services: medical social work, psychiatric social work, school social work, occupational social work, and family social work. Professional schools of social work, guided by the Association of Professional Schools of Social Work (APSSW), emerged. In the 1930s, the APSSW adopted increasingly stringent curriculum guidelines and accreditation requirements. Social work has clearly identified itself as a unique entity and field with dual approaches, commonly referred to as micro (clinical) and macro (administrative) foci. Today, the field embraces service provision focused on encouraging individual change in concert with bringing about social reform and systemic intervention.

Compassionate and genuinely concerned for the welfare of others, early social service workers paved the way for human services by constructively exercising compassion for their fellow human beings, creating practical services to meet client needs, developing organized programs, and instigating and lobbying for social policy reform.

Psychology and Mental Health Roots

As professions, psychology and mental health have contributed greatly to the human service profession by providing workers with a host of theories to better understand the human condition and practice skills to intervene when challenges arise. A cursory review of these two fields is provided.

Clifford Beers first entered the mental health field as a patient. He used his unique experience as a patient and later as a professional helper to shape the human service profession. Beers’s most enduring legacy may be his advocacy of the principle that people are to be treated humanely, regardless of their condition or circumstances. After suffering a mental breakdown, he was confined to an asylum for three years where he received harsh treatment. After his recovery, Beers published his autobiography, based on his experience in American psychiatric institutions, in 1908. His account aroused public concern about the care of people with mental illness. Beers continued his campaign by founding the Connecticut Society for Mental Hygiene, the National Committee for Mental Hygiene (later becoming the National Association for Mental Health and known today as the Mental Health Association), and, years later, the International Foundation for Mental Health Hygiene. Human service educators strive to instill Beers’s message that people with mental illness are to be treated with respect and dignity, regardless of their circumstances.

The fields of psychiatry and psychology emerged at about the same time. There are so many prominent early figures that it is not possible to describe them all within this context. Two familiar key figures include Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). Of the two, Freud enjoyed the widest acceptance for his psychoanalytic theory focused on the dynamics of the inner person and the resulting human behavior. His influence is still felt today within human services, psychological treatment, and counseling. Wundt is best known for his establishment during the late 1870s of the first experimental psychological laboratory in Germany (Capuzzi and Gross, 1997). Wundt focused on researching how the mind is structured and did so by asking clients to self-reflect aloud. William James (1842–1910) adapted Wundt’s approach and focused on the functions of the mind. His work in the United States attracted a great deal of attention, and he and his followers were labeled as “functionalists.” G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) is considered the “father of American psychology” by many and is credited with organizing the American Psychological Association (APA). Hall believed that the means of resolving social problems could best be discovered via empirical research. He collected information on children.

and their mental characteristics. Hall established the first psychological laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins University in 1883.

Significant contributions to the development of mental health counseling were also made by founding behaviorists such as Edward Thorn-dike (1874–1949), John Watson (1878–1958), and B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Thorndike studied educational psychology and the psychology of animal learning. Thorndike is remembered for his stimulus response “laws” of effect, readiness, and exercise. Watson established an animal research laboratory where he became known for his behaviorist approach. He later applied his work on animals to human behavior and is well remembered for his classical conditioning of Albert by associating a loud noise with the presence of a white rat. Watson helped us to understand how conditioning may affect fears, phobias, and prejudice. He also coined the term “behaviorism.” B. F. Skinner is perhaps the most influential learning theorist. Using basic principles of reinforcement, Skinner’s operant conditioning theory is found in a wide array of successful human service interventions (token economies, programmed instruction, behavior modification, etc.) and is used with a variety of human service clientele (adolescent offenders, chronically mentally ill, mentally retarded, etc.).

Human service professionals use principles of educational psychology and learning theory to help clients change maladaptive behaviors, identify compensatory strategies, cope with the daily stresses of life, and function in our cyber-paced world. Behavioral theory is highly regarded in the human service arena today because of its emphasis on measurable outcomes and interactional strategies. Many interventions used in modern-day human service programs can trace their ancestry to behaviorally based theory and practice.

Historical events also influenced the development of the fields of psychology and mental health. War played a large part in advancing both of these fields. The U.S. armed forces used standardized assessment to place servicemen and women in military and industrial positions before and during World War II. Uncle Sam used psychologists and counselors to select and train military personnel for special assignments (Capuzzi and Gross, 1997). Mental health services were also needed to deal with the mental anguish soldiers were experiencing from battle and to help those who returned to their homes in need of vocational guidance. Picchioni and Bonk (1983) credited the government for inviting the counseling profession into the community by noting that a government official indicated that counseling is counseling, whether it is conducted in homes, schools, business or industrial settings, or churches. Human service professionals who provide services across these environments and more are still celebrating this induction today.

Following World War II, the National Institute for Mental Health was established in 1946, authorizing monies for research and demonstration focused on assisting persons with mental illness in the areas of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. A series of political steps involving psychology and mental health followed, influencing the human service profession. The Mental Health Study Act (1955) initiated the existence of the Joint Commission on Mental Illness and Health. Also, a 1963 landmark decision led to passage of the Community Mental Health Centers Act (CMHCA). This legislation had a considerable impact on the expansion of the human service profession by mandating that outreach, counseling, and service coordination be offered in the community through more than 2,000 newly created mental health centers (Capuzzi and Gross, 1997). Human service professionals are contemporary front-line workers who are still implementing the services inspired 37 years ago through the CMHCA.

The list of key people and critical events from the psychological and mental health arena that influenced human services is too lengthy to cover within the confines of this chapter. These disciplines have advanced our understanding of human behavior and developed health services within communities. Human services, based on the work conducted in the mental health centers, have capitalized on the fruits of their labor by using theoretical approaches and adopting strategies for helping people. Suffice it to say that human service professionals attempt to help the client reflect inward to self and outward toward the environment to identify areas needing adjustment or change. Theoretical constructs provided by psychology and mental health leaders have provided an eclectic foundation from which human service professionals are able to draw in their work with a variety of people. This foundation has provided an integral understanding of client behavior in a multitude of settings.

Vocational and School Counseling Roots

Human service professionals can be found assisting school-aged clients and those transitioning from school to school, school to work, or job to job. School and work are two primary aspects of client life and often provide the opportunity to change current living conditions and address the associated challenges. Therefore, human service workers rely on the learning and practices that resulted from the fields of vocational and school guidance. Whether it be assessing client aptitude and vocational skills through rehabilitation case management, building client skills in vocational readiness workshops, job coaching in competitive employment settings, or assisting students of all ages to seek out appropriate educational experiences, human service professionals have benefited from vocational and school policy and research.

In 1881, Lysander S. Richards published Vocophy, a slim text that described a system whereby individuals could identify a vocational calling best suited to their abilities (Capuzzi and Gross, 1997). The profession of guidance was on the map. Frank Parsons, considered the “father of guidance,” shared similar views. Parsons was active in social reform and focused his efforts toward assisting people to make good occupational choices.

Later, Jesse Davis was credited with bringing vocational guidance into schools. After being extensively questioned by one of his Cornell University professors regarding his career plans, Davis realized that others were in need of this same guidance. Over his career, he introduced his developing guidance plans to schools in Detroit and Grand Rapids, Michigan. Using Social Darwinism as a foundation, two other individuals influenced the guidance movement from opposite coasts. In New York, Eli Weaver realized that the students with whom he worked were in need of vocational guidance. Even without additional monies, Weaver began recruiting teachers to spend time with students and help them identify their own skills and abilities and match them to the needs of the current job market. In Seattle, Anna Reed took a more commercial route toward guidance, urging that the world of business be used as a model and goal for upcoming students. She believed that students ought to focus their energies on making money. Reed also felt schools should direct young people to enter vocations whereby they could earn money.

Due to the increasing interest in vocational guidance, in 1906 the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education (NSPIE) was established. At the third national convention in 1913, the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) was founded. Two more recent events that greatly influenced vocational services include the creation of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, first published in 1946, and the Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1954), which recognized persons with disabilities as having unique needs for specialized services.

Sputnik is a familiar term to those who have studied vocational and school guidance history. In the 1950s, the Russians successfully launched Sputnik, the first artificial Earth satellite, into orbit. Fearing that the United States would be left behind in the race to space, the U.S. government mobilized. The goal was to identify promising young people who could be guided into studying mathematics and the sciences in preparation for careers that would develop the space program. The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) is considered a landmark in terms of establishing vocational and school guidance programs. Capuzzi and Gross (1997) recount that NDEA appropriated monies to pay for primary- and secondary-level school counselors and developed training programs to produce qualified public school counselors. Over the years, guidance has established itself as a profession and offers training programs within most universities. The field has adopted ethical guidelines, written professional competencies, and published a number of journals dedicated to the profession. Although professional organizations at the national level have split and changed names numerous times and school guidance programs have been under fire on occasion, the effects of NDEA are still evident today.

Human service professionals work alongside school guidance counselors in full-service schools, as tutors and counselors within Upward Bound programs, in residential settings with on-campus schools, and as colleagues when representing community agencies working with troubled youth. On the vocational track, human service professionals are employed as vocational rehabilitation case managers (with master of arts or master of science degrees), employment specialists, and in work-related capacities. Understanding school and work environments, negotiating steps to successfully transition within and across these domains, and being familiar with the tools of the trade (e.g., Occupational Outlook Handbook, Dictionary of Occupational Titles, and computer-based interest and aptitude assessment programs) are within the human service professional’s capacity. Human service professionals offer kudos to early vocational theorists and school practitioners for clearing the vocational and school guidance forest to create the path evident today.

The combined fields of social services, psychology, mental health, and school and vocational guidance have contributed greatly to the development of human services. Compassion for the human condition, theoretical constructs, practical interventions, and assessment practices are some of the benefits human services have received from these sister vocations. After reviewing the roots of human services, it is important to look at contemporary perspectives.

CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN SERVICE HISTORY

The human service movement began when the Mental Health Study Act was passed and a shortage of qualified human service workers emerged in the 1960s. This shortage prompted an increase in training programs for generalist human service workers at two- and four-year colleges (Burger and Youkeles, 2000). An increased emphasis on mental health care, proliferation of social service agencies, an ongoing shift to community-based services, and greater demand for more highly trained professionals, coupled with the social strife evident in the 1960s, all had a part in the emergence of the human service field. During this period, Harold McPheeters received a National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) grant to support his proposal to develop a human service curriculum at the community college level, culminating in an associate’s degree. Neukrug (2000) recounts that because of McPheeters’s initiating efforts, he is often regarded as the “founder” of the contemporary human service field. Added to McPheeters’s efforts is the timing and direction taken by the sister fields of psychology, counseling, and social work. While these already-established disciplines began to focus their attention on graduate-level training, the need for qualified entry-level human service professionals continued to grow. And, while these sister disciplines became more specialized and arguably more exclusive, human services remained broad-based and inclusive.

As we look into the programs that are in this organization (NOHSE), we will see an extremely wide variety of different orientations, professions. Not just social work, psychology or sociology, but also nursing; education; corrections; drug, alcohol, and substance abuse programs; gerontology; health sciences; allied health professional sciences; etc. (Maloney, personal interview, October 28, 1999).

Human services filled a niche that had been created by a variety of circumstances and has continued to the present day.

Two legislative acts spurred the development of the new field of human services. The 1964 Economic Opportunity Act and the 1966 Schneuer Sub-professional Career Act provided federal funds to recruit and train entry-level human service workers. These changes were necessary due to the predicted shortfall of qualified human service workers resulting from the deinstitutionalization and decentralization movements that began in the 1950s. Neukrug (2000) recounts that McPheeters, supported by an NIMH grant, began developing human service training programs at the associate level. Around this same time, four-year baccalaureate degree programs began emerging. During formal training, students learned the skills necessary to work with a variety of clients and other health professionals. Many of the routine and time-intensive duties that kept more highly trained practitioners from diagnosing and treating clients were perfectly matched to the skills of the newly trained human service workers. The involvement of human service workers helped to broaden the treatment focus from the individual client to include systems or forces surrounding the client. Systems included the client’s family, environmental factors such as living conditions and work, larger systems such as community supports, and ultimately, societal constraints or supports. Human service workers observed and interviewed clients, making initial assessments. Gathering individual and family histories, directly observing clients, connecting individuals and families to community resources, working with other professional helpers and community groups, and developing resources when they did not already exist were some of the tasks undertaken by the first human service workers. Maloney (Maloney, personal interview, October 28, 1999) asserted, “They [human service programs] can specialize and attract students to given areas within the field, namely drug and alcohol, for instance, and working with [persons] with mental retardation or the mentally ill.” However, initially, human service workers are most aptly considered generalists who may go on to specialize in a specific genre of human service work once they enter the field.

After McPheeters’s grant from the NIMH identified the need to train mental health workers, institutes of higher education responded. Purdue University created the first associate’s degree program in 1965. By 1975, 174 associate and baccalaureate programs had been started, and by 1991, the Council for Standards in Human Service Education (2000) directory included 614 human service programs.

As more human service graduates joined community efforts, more highly trained professionals from sister fields began to question the competency of the less-trained human service workers. Likewise, competent human service workers confirmed their own ability to effectively accomplish tasks traditionally completed by their more highly educated counterparts. Tension and controversy ensued and continues to exist today, with education requirements, competency criteria, job titles, and delineation of professional tasks and responsibilities still unsettled.

The legitimacy of human services as a profession has been debated. This discussion has provided some of the impetus behind important aspects of the contemporary history of human services: professional identity, organization, and representation.

PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY

Human services’ historical professional amalgam provides wonderful strength to the profession, yet this interfusion has also made it difficult to delineate a clear professional identity. Revisiting client needs by analyzing the responses to strategic research questions in the late 1960s, the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) identified thirteen roles for the human service professional:

1. Administrator

2. Advocate

3. Assistant to specialist

4. Behavior changer

5. Broker

6. Caregiver

7. Community planner

8. Consultant

9. Data manager

10. Evaluator

11. Mobilizer

12. Outreach worker

13. Teacher/educator

Within these generalist roles, human service professionals must adhere to an acceptable standard of practice guided by a set of essential skills defined by competencies.

In addition to competencies, in the early 1980s, the two leading organizations in human service education determined that a set of ethical standards unique to human services needed to be developed for guidance and accountability purposes. On the basis of research followed by a committee process, ethical standards for the human service professions were written, revised, and adopted and are known today as the Ethical Standards of Human Service Professionals.

With professional roles defined and a standard of conduct tailored to the human service profession, a measure of competence remained undetermined. Taylor, Bradley, and Warren (1996) provided competencies extracted through job analysis research efforts. They found that human service professionals must be able to perform skills in the following twelve broadly defined competency areas, listed alphabetically:

1. advocacy

2. assessment

3. communication

4. community and service networking

5. community living skills and supports

6. crisis intervention

7. documentation

8. education, training, and self-development

9. facilitation of services

10. organizational participation

11. participant empowerment

12. vocational educational and career support

Through much effort, human services has emerged as a respected and unique profession. Human service professionals have positioned themselves as generalists performing numerous skills in frequently changing roles while serving a variety of population groups with different problems and in diverse settings. This generalist title encompasses many similarities and some differences of opinion.

Three leaders in the human service field—two past presidents and the then-current president of NOHSE—were interviewed in October 1999 during the NOHSE and CSHSE conference held in Baltimore, Maryland: David Maloney, Frank-lyn Rother, and Lynn McKinney, respectively. Maloney differentiated the field of human services from one of its sister professions by stating, “It is separate and different from social work in....that our (human service) students are generalists and can face the demands and challenges of a much wider variety of human service work.” Rother pointed out that human services has maintained a strong integrity to the concept of empowerment as one of its main components. McKinney added that human service professionals are practitioners and that human service education programs have a heavier emphasis on field internships than many of their counterparts, especially at the associate’s and bachelor’s degree levels (Diambra, 2000).

To further establish the professional identity of human service workers, a collaborative national effort between two- and four-year educational programs is needed to provide a smooth continuum of educating and training students and practitioners desiring to further develop their skills (Diambra, 2000). Building a strong aggregate of human service professionals through existing national organizations ensures that the issue of professional identity will be successfully resolved.

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

As credentialing standards and accountability become paramount in newly established programs and professions, a national body that would identify these standards soon became necessary. In the mid-1970s, the National Organization for Human Service Education (NOHSE) was formed shortly after degree programs were offered. Soon afterward, the Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE) was established. While the mission of NOHSE was to provide students and human service workers with a national organization for continued education through the unity of regional groups, CSHSE acted primarily as a standard-setting, program-credentialing, and competency-establishing body (Clubok, 1990). However, it is important to note that regional human service organizations were being established separate from one another around the same time that the national organization effort was initiated.

Since their early formation and initial growing pains, CSHSE and NOHSE have blossomed into full-fledged sister organizations working side-by-side, providing continued education, standards for practice, program-development guidelines, workshops and annual conferences across the country, together with a code of ethics to which all human service workers and educators can refer (Neukrug, 2000).

NOHSE

The National Organization for Human Service Education was founded at the Fifth Annual Faculty Development Conference of the Southern Regional Education Board in St. Louis, Missouri, in August 1975. Its mission was to draw together all interested parties and establish an ongoing dialogue to promote best practices for preparing human service workers.

NOHSE has identified for itself four main purposes:

1. Ensure a medium is available for collaboration and cooperation among students, practitioners and their agencies, and faculty.

2. Improve the education of human service students and professionals by cultivating exemplary teaching and research practices and by curriculum development.

3. Abet and provide assistance to other human service organizations at local, state, and national levels.

4. Champion creative means to improve human service education and delivery through conferences, institutes, publications, and symposia (National Organization for Human Service Education, 2000).

NOHSE is made up of six regional organizations: New England (founded just prior to NOHSE in the spring of 1975), Mid-Atlantic, Southern, Midwest, Northwest, and West. Each regional organization defines its own mission and agenda. The interdisciplinary makeup of NOHSE and regional membership reflects the multidimensional needs found within the human condition. Members are direct-care professionals, students, educators, administrators, agencies and institutions, and supervisors.

CSHSE

The Council for Standards in Human Service Education was established in 1979 via impetus from the National Institute for Mental Health grant. Three years earlier, the Southern Regional Education Board did a national survey of 300-plus training programs in human services. The purpose was to identify baseline data on program content and characteristics from which informed decisions and planning would occur in order to determine program standards (Council for Standards in Human Service Education, 2000). It was discovered that training programs had a number of overlapping variables: training aimed at generic skills for working in human services, faculty from a variety of disciplines within one program, common program policies, and student field (i.e., internship or practicum) experience requirements. A task force used these commonalities to create format and content area recommendations for accrediting human service education programs. Human service faculty, graduates, and providers were surveyed to ensure acceptability and appropriateness of each standard.

CSHSE lists five functions:

1. Applying national standards for training programs at the associate’s and baccalaureate degree levels.

2. Reviewing and recognizing programs that meet established standards.

3. Sponsoring faculty development workshops in curriculum design, program policymaking, resource development, program evaluation, and other areas.

4. Offering vital technical and informational assistance to programs seeking to improve the quality and relevance of their training.

5. Publishing a quarterly bulletin to keep programs informed of Council activities, training information and resources, and issues and trends in human service education (Council for Standards in Human Service Education, 2000).

CONCLUSION

Today, the profession of human services continues its historical tradition of integrating knowledge, skills, and values from varied sources. This integration provides human services with a rich and diverse legacy upon which to build. The profession’s development has been influenced by contributions from many disciplines, enactment of federal legislation, and the growth and activity of current professional organizations. As stated at the beginning of the chapter, today’s human services contribute to tomorrow’s profession. The sections that follow discuss present-day human services and indicate what we can anticipate for the future.

REFERENCES

Burger, W. R., and M. Youkeles (2000). Human Services in Contemporary America, 5th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Capuzzi, D., and D. R. Gross (1997). Introduction to the Counseling Profession, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Clubok, M. (1990). “Development of Professional Organization for Human Service Educators and Workers.” In S. Fullerton and D. Osher, eds., History of the Human Services Movement (pp. 71–83). Council for Standards in Human Service Education, Monograph Series, No. 7.

Council for Standards in Human Service Education. (2000). Council for Standards for Human Service Educators. [On-line]. Available:

http://www.cshse.com/

Council on Social Work Education. (2000). The Social Work History Station. [On-line]. Available: http://www.boisestate.edu/socwork/dhuff/xx.htm

Diambra, J. F. (2000). “Human Services: A Bona Fide Profession in the Twenty-First Century.” Human Service Education, 20, 3–8.

Harris, H. S., and D. C. Maloney (1996). Human Services: Contemporary Issues and Trends. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

National Organization for Human Service Education. (2000). Purposes of the National Organization for Human Service Education. [On-line]. Available: http://www.nohse.com/index.html

Neukrug, E. (2000). Theory, Practice, and Trends in Human Services: An Introduction to an Emerging Profession, 2nd ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Picchioni, A. P., and E. C. Bonk (1983). A Comprehensive History of Guidance in the United States. Austin: Texas Personnel and Guidance Association.

Taylor, M., V. Bradley, and R. Warren (1996). The Community Support Skill Standards. Washington, DC: Human Service Research Institute.

Woodside, M., and T. McClam (1998). An Introduction to Human Services, 3rd ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.