HHS 320 Cultural Awareness in the Human Services

6 Family, Culture, and Self-Concept Development A common characteristic among different societies and cultural groups is that children are born into families. Barring tragic circumstances, a newborn’s family usually consists of at least a birth mother. Often, families include other relatives such as fathers, possibly siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, and others. Cultural variation influences family structure across the globe, but a child’s entry into this world assuredly includes membership and involvement with some identified group. As Baldwin (1993) noted, “Even the most incorrigible maverick has to be born somewhere. He may leave the group that produced him—he may be forced to—but nothing will efface his origins, the marks of which he carries with him everywhere” (p. 10). Each society and culture places particular importance and significance on unique family beliefs and traditions. Variation in family structure and traditional roles of mothers and fathers, as well as roles of extended family members, are as numerous as world cultures themselves. For example, the United States prides itself on “family values.” Yet, when compared with global cultures these values are often juxtaposed to other commonly held worldviews. As one example, Walsh (2003) explained, “In many cultures, it is still expected that a brother will marry the widow of a deceased husband” to carry on the family name and heritage (p. 11). Differences in aspects of childrearing also exist. Helms and Cook (1999) observed that psychodynamic theories of development used by professional counselors and other therapists rely on mostly individualistic views and “an invariant age-appropriate sequence of development” (p. 142). Furthermore, they noted that research across global cultures indicates many cultures “do not traverse the lifespan in the same manner” suggested by psychodynamic views and stage theories (p. 142). Two examples cited by Helms and Cook (1999) are reports from Chinese and West Indian graduate students that toilet training of children is not a major developmental issue as it sometimes appears in American culture, as well as information that some African newborns are weaned from breast feeding three months earlier than observed in typical Anglo-American families (Triandis, 1994). Consequently, what many Americans often perceive as “normal” in their view of family structure and function is different from what other cultures and societies might accept. Likewise, what other cultures accept as normal in family descriptions and processes vary as much as the number of cultures observed across the globe. Exercise 6.1 Searching for Families Instructions: Review the list of group structures and mark those you believe constitute a family. Be prepared to give your rationale for including or excluding particular structures. Group Family (Yes or No) Unrelated teenage boys living in a group home with a house parent _______________ A gay couple and the son of one partner _______________ Children living in an orphanage _______________ Orphaned sisters and brothers living in the same house without older _______________ adult supervision _______________ Orphaned sisters and brothers living in different houses _______________ A runaway teenage girl living with two lesbians _______________ A grandmother and two of her grandchildren with other unrelated _______________ children in the home _______________ Two elderly unmarried people living together _______________ Cultural and ethnic beliefs are influential factors in family processes and subsequently in a person’s self-concept development. These beliefs provide congruency of social order. Families communicate these values, passing them down to each new member throughout the history of the society, culture, and ethnic group to which the family belongs and associates. At the same time, cultural and ethnic groups affirm certain values about families, thus reinforcing what families teach. In McGoldrick’s (2003) words, “Ethnicity refers to a group’s common ancestry through which its individuals have evolved shared values and customs. It is deeply tied to the family through which its is transmitted over generations, and it is reinforced—and at times invalidated—by the surrounding community” (p. 236). Exercise 6.1 presents several group structures to consider and decide whether they meet your definition of family. Appreciating and knowing your cultural values regarding family structure, beliefs, and traditions are significant to understanding your self-concept development. By the same token, knowledge and understanding of dissimilar cultural beliefs about family structure and function provide a starting point to learn about the diverse views various clients might bring to counseling and other helping relationships. This chapter explores family structure and function as social and cultural foundations of self-development and ultimately of counseling and human services. As with earlier chapters, this chapter examines family as a foundational influence within the context of culture and self-concept theory. We begin with a discussion of family structure. Family Structure When we consider family structure, cultural influence plays an important role in deciding what is typical or normal. Often, the standard used in the United States and other Western cultures is a traditional description of mother and father as authority figures who guide their children by setting appropriate example regarding gender roles, sexual relationships, work ethic, religious practice, and other behavior. This yardstick for measuring family structure, however, does not hold up across global cultures. As Helms and Cook (1999) indicated, a single standard no longer satisfies the complexity and variance of family structures in the United States. For example, they pointed to earlier authors, such as Tafoya (1989) and Boyd-Franklin (1989), who highlighted aspects of Native American, African American, and West Indian families that differ from what some people mistakenly refer to as traditional family structure and values. As such, multigenerational families, non-kin boarders, children living with relatives outside their birth family, and other facets of family structure exist in various cultures around the world as well as within the United States and other Western societies. In attempting to convey what is typical or normal family structure, Walsh (2003) noted, “definitions of normality are socially constructed, influenced by subjective worldviews and by the larger culture” (p. 4). Therefore, acceptable family features, as with other social and cultural factors that influence self-concept development, are largely determined by cultures, particularly by dominant groups within societies. Consequently, as individuals within cultures develop self-views and incorporate them into a broader worldview, they accept the notion of a “normal family structure” based on a conceptualization of family rooted in their social and personal belief systems. What do we know about family structure, particularly in the United States? Review of literature and research indicates a variety of family structures comprised of different factors (Gladding, 2002; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002; Midgley & Hughes, 1997; Papalia & Olds, 1992; Reynolds, 2005; Robinson, 2005; Walsh, 2003). In addition, data about other social trends indicate ongoing change related to family structure. The following is a sample of findings: • In twenty-first century United States, dual earners comprise over two-thirds of all two-parent families. Less than 20 percent of U.S. families fit the traditional image of husband as the sole wage earner. • During the past 20 years, the number of single adults has nearly doubled. In the mid-1990s, over 24 million people in the United States lived alone, and the forecast is for that number to increase to more than 30 million by the end of this decade. • Single-parent families are more common today. The divorce rate escalated in the 1970s with about 50 percent of marriages breaking up. Although that rate shows some signs of stabilizing, single parents manage approximately one-third of the households in the United States. • Although research findings are inconsistent, it appears that an overwhelming majority of children from divorced families do fairly well in their development. • Single mothers lead 25 percent of all U.S. households, with over half of African American families headed by single mothers. • Remarried families, including stepfamilies, merged families, blended families, and other forms of remarriages, have become the “norm” in U.S. society. Three out of four people who divorce eventually will remarry. • Today’s young couples are postponing marriage and childrearing. Cohabitation among young couples before they marry exists more than 50 percent of the time. Yet, such couples are more likely to divorce than couples that do not cohabitate before marriage. • Although the United States remains a leader in teenage pregnancy, the rate has declined in recent years. A disproportionate number of pregnant teens comes from disenfranchised, impoverished, and minority populations. About 90 percent of pregnant teenagers initially choose to keep their babies. Yet, the demands of parenting and harsh economic realities often prove so pressing that these young parents often are overwhelmed, and the child eventually enters a state’s foster care system. • Adoptive families are on the rise as are same-sex families. Data suggest that gay and lesbian partners have more education and higher income than heterosexual couples. • Grandparents are frequently the primary caregivers for young children. • No shortage of myths exists about the ideal family life or the best family structure. • In family counseling and therapy, the terms functional and dysfunctional have replaced normal and abnormal to describe family structure and relationships. • Socioeconomic factors continue to have tremendous impact on diverse cultures and family structure. Economically impoverished families tend to be larger, maternally led, and rely on assistance from relatives. In contrast, affluent families tend to be smaller, are led by educated and/or professional parents, and frequently rely on hired help to care for children and manage the home. The factors listed above are a few examples of the conditions and characteristics that affect family structure and function. To appreciate how these factors influence family life and individual self-development, it may be helpful to examine your own family structure. Exercise 6.2 asks a series of questions. Answer them as honestly as you are able, and if comfortable, share your responses with a classmate. Exercise 6.2 My Family Instructions: Respond to as many questions as you are able to answer. When finished, share and compare your responses with a classmate. In the larger group, discuss the different structures and their impact on self-development that emerged from this exercise. 1. When you were born, who was already in your family? 2. How old were your parents when you were born? 3. If you have siblings, where is your position among them? 4. When you were born, had either of your parents been married before? Do you have half- or step-siblings? 5. Did any changes in family structure occur after you were born? If so, what and when? 6. Who was (were) the wage earner(s) in your family? 7. When you were born, what was the physical and emotional health of your parents? 8. What role does religion or spirituality play in your family? 9. Name at least three values/beliefs that you hold today and can attribute to your family. 10. Growing up, what do you recall about the wealth and comfort of your family? Numerous cultural values such as time orientation, relationship with the environment, personal relationships, views about the nature of humankind, and preferred modes of functioning are essential values for counselors and other professional helpers to consider and understand about themselves and families who seek services. The next section summarizes some familiar differences across cultural and ethnic groups. Family and Culture According to Steigerwald (2003), “The family is the vehicle that both carries culture forward to the next generation and teaches values, prejudices, worldviews, and cultural identity” (p. 213). Therefore, a person’s consideration of many of the identity variables presented thus far in this text is greatly influenced by family attitudes, beliefs, and biases. As people perceive events, experience circumstances, and screen these experiences in forming conclusions about their self-view and worldview, family influence acts as an important filter in the screening process. The degree to which a person accepts or rejects the influence of family contributes to the harmony or tension with family life and to the ease with which a person moves through developmental processes. Diverse clients as well as clients from the dominant culture deal with the reality of family influence. The United States consists of seemingly countless cultural groups, each of which has differences in family structure and/or functioning. This section attempts to provide a brief summary of differences noted in the literature about various family groups. When considering racial, gender, or ethnic differences reported in the literature, counselors, human service professionals, and other helpers are cautious not to generalize findings too precisely for particular clients simply because they come from certain cultural or ethnic groups. These summaries offer a general understanding of how family structure and function might vary across diverse populations. Individual clients who have a particular national, cultural, or ethnic heritage may or may not reflect these generalized findings. The cultures highlighted here do not give just coverage to the diverse global cultures and families that exist throughout the United States and world. Variations found among European American families, for example, such as those with Italian, Greek, German, Spanish, Norwegian, Hungarian, Polish, or other heritage, could not be given fair treatment in this brief summary. Similarly, Asian American families include a wide variance of nationalities and cultures such as Cambodian, Chinese, Japanese, Asian Indian, Korean, Vietnamese, and Pacific Islander. In addition, the family differences found within identified cultural groups may be as significant, if not more so, than differences between groups. We cannot overemphasize this point. Generalization across cultural groups is risky and, at best, only provides a starting point to ask clients to disclose perceptions about their heritage, background, and family life. With this caveat in mind, the following sections briefly consider the following family groups: African American, Arab American, Asian American, European American, Jewish American, Latino/Hispanic American, and Native American families. African American Families Diversity of structure, customs, and traditions within African American families is probably as great as any common thread we might find among them. Nevertheless, one similarity that many African American families continue to share is the heritage of slavery that brought their ancestors to the United States by force, and a dark skin tone that differentiates them from the dominant White society (Gladding, 2002). These two factors have contributed to historic racial discrimination faced by most if not all Black families and to related social and economic disadvantages placed on them. A common characteristic of African American families reported in the literature is frequent occurrence of female-led households (Wilson, Kohn, & Lee, 2000). Also, multigenerational families are common and often a response to economic challenges. Multilayered families frequently include members who are not necessarily blood relatives, but they offer extended family structures that permit “an elastic kinship-based exchange network that may last a lifetime” (Robinson, 2005, p. 240). This type of extended family structure reflects in some ways the slave heritage of establishing networks of support to survive, communicate, educate, and nurture related and unrelated members of the community. Social and economic changes have had a profound effect on the African American family. On one hand, the success of the civil rights movement of the 1960s led to educational and employment opportunities for some, which provided increased choices in housing and other opportunities for upward social mobility. On the other hand, however, a large segment of the African American community continues to face oppressive poverty and continuing racism that inhibit them from taking advantage of these new-found opportunities (Gladding, 2002). High birth rates among single women, a large number of failed marriages, exposure to violent crimes, particularly physical assaults and male homicides, are other factors that have a negative impact on African American families (Robinson, 2005; Wilson, Kohn, & Lee, 2000). Still, countless accounts exist of African American families that have survived and flourished despite oppressive circumstances. As one example, Muhyiddin Shakoor, a counselor educator and family therapist, revealed in his biographical summary, “My sister, brother, and I always stood out because of how we were raised. We were poor in terms of dollars, rich inside ourselves. We were always clean and cared for and told that any one of us could be the pride of the entire nation of black people or even the entire human race” (DeLucia-Waack & Donigian, 2004, p. 80). Strengths of African American families begin with the kinship bonds of sisterhood and brotherhood that include, as noted earlier, both unrelated and related members. Spirituality and strong religious affiliation and participation are also important characteristics. African American families look toward their churches for social resources and support as well as spiritual guidance. Another legacy of slavery in African American families is their adaptability across different roles without regard to traditional gender roles embraced by the dominant culture. In addition, cooperation and collaboration, motivation to achieve, work orientation, and attitudes about nurturing children are other strengths noted in the research of African American families (Gladding, 2002). Arab American Families Families of Arab heritage migrate to the United States from many parts of the world and represent a multiracial and multiethnic group with some common cultural identities and similar language. As Erickson and Al-Timimi (2004) observed, “Arab countries are those that share a common culture and speak Arabic as a primary language” (p. 235). These countries occupy areas referred to as the Arabian peninsula, the Middle East, and Maghreb (or Magrib) (Hejleh, 2003). Erickson and Al-Timimi (2004) noted three separate waves of Arab migration to the United States, each having its own distinct characteristics, and reflecting particular cultural experiences. From the late 1800s to the beginning of World War I, Arab immigrants came from the areas now known as the countries of Syria and Lebanon. Consisting of mostly Christians who were merchants and farmers, these people moved to cities in the Northeastern and Midwestern areas of the United States After the state of Israel formed in 1948, another movement found many Palestinian refugees and other Arab immigrants also coming to urban areas of this country. A third wave began after the Arab-Israeli war ended in 1967 and it continues to the present day. This movement includes more Muslim people who have migrated across the United States settling into towns and cities from coast to coast. According to Erickson and Al-Timimi (2004), “Immigrants in the third wave have experienced a more negative reception and have assimilated into mainstream society less than those of the previous waves” (p. 235). Although the heterogeneity of Arab Americans is understood from their broad regional representation, some common family values exist. As in other cultures, the family is central to a person’s development, with honor and respect holding high value. Putting family welfare over individual interests is expected, and work, educational achievement, frugality, and conservative values reflect positively on the family. Extended family structure is an important aspect of Arab cultures and family influence on individual members is lifelong (Abraham, 1995). Financial and moral support for the eldest child is common through school and into the start of a career. Afterward, the eldest child supports the next sibling, and this process of one helping the next continues through the youngest in the family. Grown children have responsibility for caring for their parents and elderly relatives (Abudabbeh & Nydell, 1993). Erickson and Timimi (2004) summarized many other characteristics of Arab American families from a wide number of sources. The following paragraphs describe characteristics pertaining to marriage, family ties, and parenting. Marriage. Arranged marriages remain common among Arab cultures, but Islamic beliefs allow women to decline potential mates proposed by their families (Abraham, 1995; Abudabbeh, 1996). Family reputation and social status are important variables in proposing marriage partners, and finding a good match along religious affiliation, educational attainment, family reputation, and social status is the goal. Social interaction between males and females is often limited, so using community sources to verify potential marriage partners is common. Family Ties. As noted, family ties are strong and last a lifetime. Commitment to family supersedes all others, including personal goals such as career development. Separation from family can be very difficult and bring on severe loneliness (Jackson, 1997). After children marry, they often continue to rely on their family for emotional support, sometimes more so than they depend on their spouse (Abudabbeh & Nydell, 1993). Parenting. Arab parents tend to use authoritarian methods of child-rearing and maintain high expectations for their children, which include adherence to traditional practices and customs followed by the family. Parental influence over every aspect of a child’s development from childhood friendships through dating and career choices is the norm and parents will voice strong opposition and disapproval about choices contrary to family wishes and values. Among Arab Americans who follow the teachings of Islam, not only is family a fundamental unit of society, but also women hold an essential role (Roald, 2001). As such, in Arab American families men, women, and children work together for the common good and protection of all family members. Roald (2001) explained, “The importance for men and women of staying together is rooted in my conviction that in much research and thought about ‘male’ versus ‘female’, there is a tendency to forget the third party which is the child. In order to build a sound family and sound society all parts have to fulfill their duties and thereby obtain their rights” (p. xi). At the same time, Islamic law and other sources emphasize the prominent position of family life, and “the Muslim woman has been regarded as the most essential member of the family, the protection of women’s traditional role has been one of the main topics of Islamist literature, particularly from the early nineteenth century” (Roald, 2001, p. xi). Among followers of Islam and researchers of this religion, an understanding of the roles of family and various family members is a challenge. In large part, this challenge comes from the various interpretations of the hadiths, narratives that relate the deeds and utterances of the Prophet, Mohammed. Due to different interpretations of these narratives, various meaning is often derived about a wife’s obedience to husband, men as caretakers of women, physical punishment of women, and division of labor (Roald, 2001). “The greatest challenge Muslims face in a changing world is, in my view, to find ways of dealing with the vast hadith literature. How should hadiths be understood? … The new age of Muslims, I predict, promises a new vision with regard to many aspects of its creed—especially with respect to women” (Roald, 2001, p. 302). Asian American Families As noted in an earlier chapter of this text, grouping Asian cultures under one heading is unfair at best. So many variations exist among Asian groups, including Pacific Islanders, revealing wide differences in language, heritage, and economic power. Despite the range of nationalities and cultures, literature and research provide consistent (and perhaps stereotypical) views of shared cultural and family values for Asian Americans. These values include general respect for elders, family loyalty and extended support, and high value on education (Olson, 2000). In addition, Asian American families tend to emphasize hierarchical relationships, self-discipline, family over individual needs, connectedness of relationships, social etiquette, modesty, patience, emotional restraint, spirituality, and harmonious living (DeLucia-Waack & Donigian, 2004; Gladding, 2002; Wilson, Kohn, & Lee, 2000). Traditional Asian families typically show extended groups with fathers usually assuming leadership roles. Sometimes sons are more honored and valued than daughters (Ho, 1987). Respect and honor to the family is paramount such that deviant behavior, academic failure, poor work habits, and other misdeeds bring shame on the entire family. Three dominant relationships stressed within traditional Asian families are father–son, husband–wife, and elder–younger sibling relationships. Strong feelings of authority and obligation define all these relationships. As Daya Sandhu, an Asian Indian and counselor educator, wrote of his family, “My father’s authority is absolute even now when he is 83 years old … Communication patterns have always been vertical from top to bottom … Even at age 58, I have not dared to confront my father” (DeLucia-Waack & Donigian, 2004, p. 77). Some research suggests differences in how Asian American families process difficult problems and challenging situations. Emotional restraint and pragmatic problem-solving strategies are more often the norm than are confrontation and exploration of feelings. Individual family members suppress their emotions to gain harmony and mediate or negotiate solutions, which Asian Americans consider more important to family functioning than open expression of feelings (Wilson, Kohn, & Lee, 2000). For Asian families who migrate to the United States, some changes in traditional views and values take place. As subsequent generations of Asian Americans move into mainstream society, there may be a shift in family function and values. The mobility of American society has meant that many families have moved apart, including Asian American families (Gladding, 2002). Such changes have had an impact on the traditional values of obedience and family loyalty with corresponding and increasing focus on individual needs and development. At the same time, Asian families have had to deal with a rise in deviant behaviors including drug and alcohol abuse as well as relationship issues such as interracial marriages (Mercado, 2000; Wang, 1994). Changes in traditional family beliefs have implications for counseling issues and concerns of self-concept development and cultural identity for many Asian Americans. The former choices of finding a satisfactory place in American society by either retaining one’s ethnic culture, family, and community or shunning one’s ethnicity by adopting the culture, values, and viewpoints of the dominant Anglo-American group are no longer the only options. Spickard (2000) highlighted the increasing trend of people with mixed heritage of Asian, American, or other ancestry choosing to process and embrace multiple identities. The research suggests that “the choice of a biracial identity is, for most mixed people, a healthier one than being forced to make an artificial choice” (Spickard, 2000, p. 265). Family support in this process is essential. European American Families People identified in the literature as having European background claim heritage from several countries spanning the British Isles through Central and Eastern Europe. Some of the countries include Albania, Armenia, Belarus, Czech Republic, Denmark, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Russia, Scotland, Spain, and Turkey to name a few. Reflected in these many nationalities is a wide span of language, customs, cultural beliefs, religions, and family structures and functions. Therefore, when we use the term European American, it encompasses a large group of people and numerous cultures. Such diversity, as with the other groups presented in this section, makes generalizing about European American families a risky process. In a period of U.S. history from the early 1800s to the early to mid 1900s, millions of people migrated to America. At the start of this migration, most immigrants to the United States came from western and northern Europe, but later, Italian families and other southern European groups arrived. After World War II, German and Polish immigration increased significantly. Since the end of the twentieth century, the fall of communism in the former Soviet Union, and the rebellion and conflict in parts of eastern Europe, increased migration from Russia and other republics that were once part of the Soviet Union as well as from war-torn regions of eastern Europe has occurred (Baruth & Manning, 1999; Richmond, 2003). Richmond (2003) stated that each European group that came to the United States during all the years of immigration up to the present day “sought to integrate within the American culture … but it was not easy” (p. 135). New immigrants faced the wrath of settlers who came before them. People who arrived in search of a better life in what they thought was a land of plenty often found themselves without suitable housing, impoverished, and shunned by mainstream society. “Prejudice against each new nationality ran rampant” (Richmond, 2003, p. 136). While difficult to give uniform descriptions of European American families, some traditional beliefs cross an array of cultures and nationalities. For example, Baruth and Manning (1999) noted common beliefs such as “preference being shown to boys, expectations for girls to perform household duties, and expectations of both genders to show strong support and concern for the family” (p. 221). At the same time the authors observed, “the success or welfare of the family is more important than the welfare of the individual” and children follow commands of authority figures (p. 221). Other values often attributed to European Americans include independence, exploration, and self-control. However, variance among families of European ancestry precludes any clear description of common family values, particularly ones that are maintained after families settle in the United States and begin adapting and adjusting to American culture. Because the diversity of European American families is broad, counselors and other professional helpers consider several factors when working with individuals or families. Some factors might include the following (Baruth & Manning, 1999; Richmond, 2003): • How recently the family or individual immigrated to the United States • Number of generations the family has lived in the United States • How closely the individual or family identifies with and practices cultural/ethnic traditions • Language spoken at home • Attitudes about self-development, minority groups, cultural heritage, religious beliefs, and other values that influence gender roles and family living Jewish American Families In a critique of the counseling profession’s relationship with Jewish counselors, Weinrach (2002) wrote, “Jews, especially in America, by all outward appearances, have thrived and been exempt from many of the stressors associated with minority status. As with other minorities, their problems are rooted, in part, in oppression, although Jews in twenty-first century America typically do not encounter oppression in ways similar to some other minority groups” (p. 300). However, Jews were one of the earliest groups to experience religious discrimination in the new colonies due to an English law passed in 1250 that banned them from British land (Richmond, 2003). In the mid-1600s, a persuasive Dutch rabbi convinced the British government to allow Jews to settle in the New World, in part for religious reasons but also to capitalize on the knowledge of Jewish merchants to build commerce with the emerging colonies. As Richmond (2003) recounted, Jewish families settled in Boston, Massachusetts; Newport, Rhode Island; and New Amsterdam, which became New York City after the British takeover from the Dutch. Early Jewish American families had historical roots in Spain and Portugal, starting congregations from New England to Charleston, South Carolina. During this period and through the revolutionary war, many prominent Jewish families established themselves in America (Richmond, 2003). In the 1800s, with anti-Semitism escalating in Europe, particularly in Germany, many Jewish families migrated to the United States. The newly arrived German Jews did not have the economic status of colonial Jewish settlers, and neither did the other Jews of the larger society accept them. Nevertheless, by establishing themselves as dealers and sellers of clothing, jewelry, and household wares, these merchants began to build a culture for themselves in America. Richmond (2003) reported that although these peddlers did not make much money, they started businesses that later “would emerge as department stores such as Macy’s, Bloomingdale’s, and the Hecht Company” (p. 137). Still, there was friction between their form of Judaism and the Orthodox Jews. In the mid-1800s and through the early 1900s, another wave of Jewish immigrants came from Eastern Europe, particularly from war-torn countries such as Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Russia. These immigrants were poorer than the earlier two waves of Jewish settlers, spoke Yiddish, a different language, and came to the U.S. in greater number than either the Spanish or German Jews migration. During the later 1900s and into this twenty-first century, Jewish families migrated from the former Soviet Union. This migration resulted from a poor economic situation after the fall of communism and increasing anti-Semitism in Russia (Baruth & Manning, 1999). Today, Jewish American families represent these various eras of immigration to the United States. Although many differences exist among these groups, their common bond is a flight from anti-Semitism and religious persecution. Tragically, what united the ancestors of the first three groups of immigrant Jews in the 1900s was the horrific Holocaust against all Jewish people by Adolf Hitler and the German Nazis. As Weinrach (2002) noted, however, this attempt at extermination “was only one recent chapter in a long history of malice, or worse, toward Jews” (p. 302). He recounted numerous events throughout the ages that “have marked the world’s hatred of Jews” (p. 302), including enslavement, destruction of temples, expulsion from various countries, and countless executions and massacres throughout Europe and the Middle East. It is this history of exclusion, expulsion, and execution that influences Jewish family life today. The combined legacy of anti-Semitism and common stereotypic behavior and attitudes of people toward Jews has an impact on family function as well as individual development. At the same time, Jewish American traditions and practices have been affected by generational differences, interfaith marriage, and family mobility among other factors (Hartman & Hartman, 1999). Although the range of Jewish American beliefs and customs is broad, some characteristics of typical Jewish identity include the following: • A sense of belonging and attachment to Jewish people and a differentiation from non-Jews. • Informal and formal association and interaction among Jewish friends, associates, and other social networks. These networks and associations share characteristics common to extended families of other cultural groups. • A shared history of rejection, exclusion, oppression, and extermination. • Use of distinctive languages in religious ceremonies and social interactions (e.g., Yiddish or revived Hebrew). • Attention to the importance of kosher food in family traditions and religious beliefs. • Emphasis on education in personal development. • Use of humor in understanding and dealing with life’s events. Jewish American families reflect the diversity of differences found across various forms of Jewish faith. Marriage as an institution is highly regarded, and parental roles of both father and mother are important. Orthodox traditions place the father as the head of the family, but in both popular literature and media, the Jewish mother is often portrayed as a dominant family figure. In daily functions, however, gender roles appear to be equitable in typical Jewish families and communities. Cynthia Kolader, a professor of counseling psychology, recalled, “As I grew up, both of my parents were involved in my life. We had family dinners almost nightly; my mom cooked, and my dad cleaned up” (DeLucia-Waack & Donigian, 2004, p. 66). Latino/Hispanic Families As a rapidly rising population and culture within the United States, the Latino/Hispanic population could reach over 80 million people within the next half century (Flores, 2000a). People of Latino heritage who trace their roots to Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas, including Puerto Rico, or who have origins among Hispanic people of the United States whose ancestors were either Spanish or Mexican, are establishing families and joining communities throughout the country. As with other cultural groups considered in this chapter, people of Latino/Hispanic backgrounds express wide diversity of beliefs and values about family structure and function. Some generalizations, nevertheless, are reported in the literature (Gladding, 2002; Robinson, 2005; Wilson, Kohn, & Lee, 2000). Extended families are typical in Latino/Hispanic culture, including relatives beyond the immediate family. These extended family members usually live nearby each other, but not necessarily in the same household (Wilson, Kohn, & Lee, 2000). Gonzalez (1997) and others have pointed to a rise in mother-only households. Often, traditional views of self-development maintain that self-interests are subjugated to the needs and welfare of the family (Robinson, 2005). Family members willingly sacrifice for the good of the family. However, Latino/Hispanic people and families with nontraditional perspectives, or who have acculturated into the mainstream, dominant culture, might not follow this collective philosophy. Personal identity within Latino/Hispanic families is influenced by immediate and extended members who teach traditional values related to dignity, pride, self-reliance, trust, intimacy, and respect (Gladding, 2002). At the same time, positive individual identity is associated with inner strength, determination, and will power to have and maintain self-control. People without these values are perceived as weak and unable to muster the strength to withstand stressful events or take control of their lives (Robinson, 2005). Personalism (personalismo) is an important concept in Latino/Hispanic culture that is fundamental to understanding interaction among family members and the community. Created in response to a social and cultural caste system in Latin America, personalism means a “sense of uniqueness and personal goodness” established as a “group norm that emphasizes that relationship information must be established before a task can be accomplished” (Flores, 2000b, p. 7). As such, the concept of personalismo includes the attributes of respect and dignity, which when apparent within the person, allows the family or community to assign appropriate tasks. Therefore, personalismo is the establishment of trustful relationships, which in turn determines the nature of tasks assigned to individuals (Flores, 2000b). Application of this concept differs from Western perspectives that value tasks first followed by relationships. The work ethic of dominant U.S. culture, for example, values “the accomplishment of a task, not the person’s goodness” (Flores, 2000b, p. 7). In contrast, Latino/Hispanic families and communities first accept the person as a trustworthy and respectful member before assigning appropriate tasks and responsibilities. For Latin American immigrants to the United States, therefore, learning that relationships are not essential or required for assignment of tasks and responsibilities is an important acculturation process (Flores, 2000b). Of course, not all Latinos/Hispanics value relationships more than or before accomplishments. Other social factors such as discrimination, unemployment, poverty, and higher birth rates have an impact on family function and dysfunction among Latino/Hispanic communities. Although the overall socioeconomic wealth and status of Latino/Hispanic families might be improving, a high percentage continues to live in poverty compared to other groups (Flores, 2000b). In addition, they have a higher unemployment rate and lower educational achievement, which contribute to higher family stress and dysfunction. Native American Families With over 2 million Native Americans, including Alaskan Eskimos and Aleuts, in the United States, there are more than 500 government-recognized tribes (Herring, 1991). Though diverse in their beliefs and values, these tribes typically follow traditions that embrace a philosophy of cooperation, harmony with nature, sharing, and respect for family (Gladding, 2002). As with other cultures mentioned in this section, Native American groups often value an extended family structure. This belief relates to extreme hardships and difficult experiences by Native Americans caused by U.S. government action that fragmented families and placed children and other family members in foster homes, boarding houses, and other locations. The impact of these experiences on personal identity development and extended family relationships for many Native Americans has been devastating (Gladding, 2002; Herring 1991). Tribal identity and respect for their culture remain strong aspects of Native American families. In addition, respect for elders, adherence to collective and democratic processes, and regard for land and nature are important values. Similarly, children are valued members of the family and community, which highlights again the devastation of past government action that took children from their families and placed them in federal boarding schools (Wilson, Kohn, & Lee, 2000). Native American families face many contemporary challenges, including physical and mental heath problems, suicide, alcoholism, juvenile delinquency, violence, and child abuse/neglect. Regrettably, mental health and other community services have not responded adequately to the needs of Native American families, often because mental health practitioners and other providers minimize or ignore important cultural traditions and beliefs in the process (LaFromboise, 1988; LaFromboise, Trimble, & Mohatt, 1990). Many Native American beliefs, such as shared responsibility, expand across the extended family and include the larger community. This has significant importance for individual self-development. For example, Robinson (2005) observed “shared responsibility includes food, shelter, automobiles, and all available services, including child care … [and as] a result of an extended concept of self, the community is enabled to enforce values and to serve as a source of standards” (p. 238). Consequently, individual personal identity and self-concept development relate closely to family, community, and tribal customs and beliefs. The preceding sections offer thumbnail sketches of various family groups. For counselors and other professional helpers who work with diverse client groups representing different ethnic and family backgrounds, it might be valuable to assess and understand their own family heritage. Such understanding provides a foundation from which to empathize with clients experiencing internal or external cultural conflict. In addition, it avoids overgeneralization about particular nationalities, cultures, and family traditions, structures, and functions. Exercise 6.3 offers an opportunity to evaluate your family background from a cultural/ethnic perspective. The factors mentioned thus far in this chapter emphasize common aspects of family structure and functioning found within and sometimes across various cultural and ethnic groups. The previous sections devoted attention to the influence of family and culture in a person’s development and in the collective beliefs promulgated by and within particular groups. General aspects of family functioning across diverse groups and cultures were examined. Next, this chapter briefly considers the closeness of family and community ties, and how such perceptions might influence different clients, regardless of their cultural background. Exercise 6.3 Assessing My Family Background and Experience 1. What cultural/ethnic factors make my family different from others I know? 2. What are important differences between my family and other families within my cultural/ethnic group? 3. What role does skin color/tone play in my family heritage and functioning? 4. What role do religious beliefs or spirituality have in my family? 5. When did my ancestors come to America, and what bearing does that event have on my family today? 6. What historical events have influenced my family life and heritage? 7. What important family beliefs do I hold? 8. What important family beliefs do I no longer follow? 9. What experiences have influenced my decisions to follow or not follow particular family beliefs? 10. What influences have social status and economic class had on my family and my identity? Family and Community Ties Clients who seek assistance from counselors and other professional helpers often express conflicting views with those of other family members. With clients from cultures that place great emphasis on family cohesiveness and loyalty, these conflicts can be most stressful and overwhelming. In working with such clients, counselors are particularly diligent to monitor their personal beliefs about family, connectedness, and related values, and refrain from injecting their biases about family ties or family interference in the counseling relationship. The ultimate goal is to help clients process their beliefs and goals within an appropriate cultural context and make decisions that can bring resolution to the conflict while maintaining respect for family and culture. Often, inclusion of families in the process can help to retain beneficial families ties while assisting the client with important life decisions. Refugees and immigrants are two groups that face many challenges to traditional family functions and relationships. Bemak and Chung (2002) noted that family relocation often affects child-rearing practices, decreases adherence to traditional family values by youth who are acculturating to a new society, accelerates parental loss of authority, and introduces new cultural mores and behaviors related to dating, marriage, and other phenomena that threaten parental roles and family functioning. At the same time, young people of diverse cultures whose families have immigrated or relocated “may witness the transformation of their parents from previously autonomous and culturally competent caretakers to depressed, overwhelmed, and dependent individuals” (Bemak & Chung, 2002, p. 219). Such observations might damage children’s confidence in and respect for their parents’ judgment. Counselors and human service providers who work with clients from cultures that historically have held high regard for close family ties and cohesiveness among extended family members are careful about understanding and managing the family dynamics that might change as a result of clients’ decisions. It is often impossible to undo changes in these dynamics once clients make life-altering decisions, particularly those contrary to family wishes. Helping clients understand the serious impact that their decisions might have on future family relationships and how that might conflict with values they still hold close is an essential part of the helping process. Beyond family ties, culturally diverse clients might also need to consider how their decisions will affect relationships within their ethnic community and communities of the dominant culture. As people develop, they interact with their family and a larger society. They also form associations and relationships within a given community. Sometimes, these communities are small, rural towns, while other times they are neighborhoods within larger urban cities or suburbs of cities. Communities also take forms designated by particular cultures. For example, among Native Americans, communities are known as nations, societies, and tribes. In addition, communities exist through places of worship, such as mosques, synagogues and churches, or within institutions such as schools, universities, and manufacturing plants where people study, work, belong to professional associations, hold membership in fraternities or sororities, and join labor unions among other communal activities. These different forms of community provide venues for people to observe behaviors, listen to opinions, and learn about customs and traditions that they filter through a unique perceptual framework drawing conclusions that contribute to their personal development. People of diverse cultures tend to live, work, and congregate in communities that share similar beliefs, values, and customs. This phenomenon is commonplace in U.S. society. In towns and cities across the country, we find people living in particular communities where their culture dominates the lifestyle. Areas in large cities, such as those known as “Chinatown” or “Little Italy,” illustrate this bond among people from diverse cultures, but smaller towns as well consist of neighborhoods that take on distinct cultural appearances. Communities have an important influence on human development. Sometimes this influence is positive and sometimes it is not. In communities that protect people, teach cultural history, customs, and traditions, and nurture their members to acculturate into the larger society in appropriate ways, healthy development is likely. These communities are highly regarded by the larger society that respects and celebrates their diversity while including them in decision-making processes for society as a whole. Unfortunately, some communities and neighborhoods do not receive equal treatment within the larger society. Neglected in terms of protection, resources, and equal participation in governing processes, they often show severe signs of physical and human deterioration, have high crime rates, and are fearful places for both the residents and people from outside the area. These types of communities also have an impact on the development of their residents and depending on the level of deterioration and crime, can have devastating effects on families and individual development. Exercise 6.4 asks about the communities where you grew up and where you live today. In addition, it asks that you reflect on aspects of the community (past and present) that have had an impact on your self-development and worldview. Exercise 6.4 Instructions: Describe the community where you grew up (e.g., the neighborhood, housing development, apartment complex, etc.). List cultural aspects of the community that had a positive influence on your development and then list any negative aspects of the community that you recall. Repeat this exercise for the community in which you live today and make comparisons. Childhood Community Cultural Factors Negative Factors ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ Present Community Cultural Factors Negative Factors ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ Counseling Inferences Understanding family background and cultural heritage is a first step in developing empathic understanding for others, particularly for clients whose families are different from yours. This chapter explored the influence of family in terms of structure, traditions, socioeconomic status, and other factors on the emerging self. When working with individual clients or families from diverse cultures, many of the principles noted in earlier chapters pertain. Certainly, counselors and therapists who work with diverse families want to understand how their worldviews, particularly as related to family structure and function, language, religious traditions and beliefs, gender roles, and social class, might affect helping relationships and the ability to be effective practitioners. A next step is to learn from the client’s perspective how family influence has affected his or her self-development. An adaptation of Exercise 6.3 might be a helpful assessment to use in learning about a client’s family background and heritage. Learning about the client’s perspective and how she or he has retained or rejected certain family values is essential in understanding the client’s worldview. As seen in this chapter, many different values interact within families and across cultures in various ways. For example, religious and spiritual beliefs and traditions of African American, Arab American, Hispanic/Latino, Native American, and Jewish American families, to list just a few, play a significant role in family life and individual development. Frequently, the inner conflict people have in their self-development results from consternation and disagreement with family members about beliefs, customs, and traditions that the individual no longer embraces. In the United States, every cultural group experiences these conflicts as new generations acculturate into the larger society. Counselors and other professionals who help diverse individuals and their families reconcile these conflicts by establishing safe, comfortable, and trusting relationships without imposing their views and values in the process have a chance at being successful. Family factors are important cultural influences that play a role in the self-concept development of the individual. As noted in this chapter, such influences are tempered and altered, depending on adherence by the individual to particular beliefs and values. Generational differences, family mobility, and the influence of the dominant culture through education, media, and other forces have an impact on the degree to which each person follows family traditions. Another factor related to identity formation is a person’s physical self, which interacts with sex, gender, and orientation as discussed in Chapter 5. At the same time, physical ability, disability, appearance, and image are culturally and socially influenced. The next chapter considers how physical attributes merge with social and cultural constructs to influence self-concept development across groups and genders.